Revision Group 3 – Reichsgründung von oben – Deutschland ...



Revision Group 3 – Reichsgründung von oben – Deutschland 1870/71

- Innen- und Außenpolitik im Deutschen Reich unter Bismarck –

- 1871: an incomplete nation-state –

KEY QUESTION: How and to what extent did Prussia grow in strength?

• Erfurt Union (Prussia, Saxony, Hannover) led by Prussia

( purpose: unification

( fails

• economy of German Confederation flourishes

• free trade system of Zollverein (Customs Union) + trade outside Confederation ( Prussian government available of more money to invest in industrial projects

• expansion of railway system ( ease of transporting materials

• industrial growth supported by Prussia: offers money to struggling industries

• 3-class- voting system (1851):

- populace (men over 24) divided by their direct tax revenue into three classes

- calculated according to how much tax one paid, by dividing the entire range of taxes into thirds ( unfair for those who don’t have much money ( gave rural elites disproportionate power

- first class = paid highest taxes

- second class = lower income

- third class = few or no taxes

- public and indirect voting ( unfair because there was no secret ballot

- every municipality applies different standards: people who in one community belong to the first class would in a neighboring one be thrown into the third class

• comparison to Austria:

- economy backwards (opposition to Erfurt Union)

- taxation system outdated

- involvement in military disputes with Italy ( high expenditure on army

- loses Russia as ally ( isolated

Constitutional crisis

• new King (Wilhelm I., 1860) = devout Protestant ( believes that his power comes from God

• wants stronger army for Prussia ( to defend itself against war between France and Austria over Italy

• army bill prepared to send to Parliament ( Parliament refuses because costs are too high

• bill = to increase length of service in the army from 2 to 3 years + to abolish Landwehr

• King can’t decide: either abdicate or accept that Prussia’s military affairs are beyond his control = constitutional crisis ( constitution doesn’t prevent any solution

• because Parliament doesn’t want to pass bill ( chief minister appointed = Otto von Bismarck (1862)

Bismarck

• has always provoked extreme responses from historians

• described as “hero”, “a brilliant statesman and politician”, “a ruthless opportunist”, “the man who made Hitler possible”

• nicknamed “the Iron Chancellor”

• shows that individuals can shape history

• his aim:

- to maintain peace in Europe

- preservation of Prussian monarchy

- realization of “Smaller German Solution” (without Austria) under Prussian dominance

• no lover of democracy

• excellent diplomat

• manipulated alliances and played powers off against one another

• first task: to solve the constitutional crisis

German unification

• 1864: Danish War (Schleswig-Holstein)

• Danish King (Christian of Gluxburg) wants control over both Schleswig (Germans + Danes) and Holstein (mainly Germans)

• new Danish constitution: provinces of Schleswig and Holstein become part of Denmark

( cause of war: Prussia and Austria against King

• Bismarck wants to keep Austria satisfied ( suggests joint invasion

• Denmark defeated ( Treaty of Vienna (1864) ends war

• Gastein Treaty (1865): provinces split between Austria and Prussia ( Prussia: Schleswig; Austria: Holstein

← first step towards unification !

• further tensions expected ( both countries want control over both provinces; Germany in the middle of the conflict

• 1866: Austro-Prussian War

( cause of war: disagreement of sharing Schleswig-Holstein

• majority of smaller German states on Austria’s side

• Bismarck proposes constitution which he knows will be rejected by Austria

( tensions

• Austria breaks Gastein Treaty by placing question about Schl.-Holstein under control of Federal Diet

• Prussia: secret alliance with Italy; annexation of both Schl. and Holst. + land along the Rhine

( tensions increase

• Austria drops out of German Confederation ( Prussian = sole supreme power!

• Prussia declares end of German Confederation

• Austria defeated at Königgratz

• war ends with Treaty of Prague (1866)

• Bismarck forces north German states into a confederation under Prussian leadership

( bounds loose states together (1867) = North German Confederation (( symbol of Prussian dominance because Austria was excluded)

← another step towards unification ! (under Prussian leadership)

• Zollverein (in 1867)

- particularism: southern German states defend their right to remain independent ( little support for Prussian-dominated Germany

- Bismarck hopes that economic unity would eventually lead to political unity

( southern states allowed to join Zollverein

- forced them to accept new Zoll Parliament (Customs Union Parliament) ( dominated by Prussia

← step towards unification because northern + southern states economically united !

• 1870: Hohenzollern candidature

• Spanish crown offered to Prince Leopold (Hohenzollern dynasty)

( unacceptable in France (concerned about Prussian-Spanish alliance)

• Wilhelm I. meets with Benedetti (French ambassador)

• Benedetti wants Wilhelm to guarantee that no member of his Hohenzollern family would ever be a candidate for Spain

( Wilhelm refuses

• Abeken (Prussian diplomat) writes report about meeting to Bismarck = Ems Telegram (1870)

( edited by Bismarck (“Wilhelm was insulting the French”)

( provocation to France

( France declares war = Franco-Prussian War (1870/71)

• shift: Germans support Prussia!

• southern + northern German states fight together

• France defeated

• France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany = Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)

( end of war

• high reparations for France

• joining together of North German Confederation + 4 southern German states = German Empire (1871)

• Prussian dominance

• Bismarck = Minister President of Prussia and Imperial Chancellor

• 1871: King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes Kaiser Wilhelm I. of a united Germany (proclamation at the Grand Palace of Versailles)

KEY QUESTION: Was the unification achieved by “blood and iron”?

PRO:

- Germany too small for both (Austria + Prussia) ( “Smaller German Solution”

- editing of Ems Telegram

- nothing can be obtained without force or war

( “Blood and Iron” speech (1862)

- a united Germany requires Franco-Prussian War

CON:

- only a country’s most vital interests justify war

- not because of personal ambition or national vanity

- opponent of preventive war ( thought French would block war

- necessary equipment of army?

KEY QUESTION: Was it a unification “from above”?

• “from above”: revolution wasn’t an initiative taken by the people, but rather by high-ranking politicians ( peoples’ will was excluded

• for example: unification “by” Bismarck:

• did not make it in public

• wanted to unify Germany on his own ( Ems Telegram; wars; carrot-and-stick policy

• only done by Bismarck and not through peoples’ will ( did everything to unite G. (the ends justify the means)

KEY QUESTION: How did the German unification affect France and other (European) powers?

- G. before unification:

➢ central position to Europe but threatened by other nations (fear of two-front war) b/c not militarily & economically stable ( loose confederation

➢ isolated ( no threat to other nations

- G. after unification:

➢ still central position in Europe but now, G. = strong, big, united country

➢ threat to other countries (also b/c of system of alliances ( not isolated anymore)

➢ isolated others (France)

KEY QUESTION: The constitution of the Second German Empire – a fig leaf for absolutism?

• federal constitution ( Länder have some responsibility for ruling own affairs; own governments, own elections for assemblies

• Emperor-King: one overall Kaiser

- at the same time King of Prussia

- appoints imperial government

- right to declare war

- right to absolute control over Prussia’s armed forces

- right to summon + dissolve Reichstag

- full control over foreign affairs

• Reichstag

- universal manhood suffrage

- responsibilities: vote on legislation + imperial budget

- Chancellor = direct authority through emperor on matters of foreign policy

• Bundestag

- gives a voice to states governments within the empire

- Prussia as largest state = greatest representation

- right to initiate legislation + declare war

• Difference to other German constitutions (1849, 1919, 1949): no religious freedom or freedom for assembly!

PRO:

- federal rights exist only on paper

- Prussia can always veto constitutional changes because of the huge number of Prussian deputies in the Reichstag

- Chancellor not obliged to consult anyone except King of Prussia

- Reichstag:

- elected by universal male suffrage but has no power of voting or refusing to vote taxes

- no control over ministers

- no direct control over actions of Chancellor

- political parties cannot play any direct role in formulation of government policy

- ministers only responsible to Emperor-King

CON:

- constitutional background + experience of other German states: political systems + constitutions had been developing independently

- not necessarily subsumed into Prussian system

- democratic features of the Reichstag

- elected by universal manhood suffrage

- contained wide variety of independent political parties

- Reichstags of North German Confederation + Empire able to pass series of unifying measures (national currency, unified postal system, standard weights and measures, liberal national industrial code, elimination of last internal custom’s barriers)

( support development of modern businesses

Development of political parties in Germany

• National Liberals

- educated Protestant middle class + industrial upper class

- similar aims to Bismarck

- strong nation-state

- liberal constitutional state

• Center Party

- mainly Catholics

- non-socialist lower classes

- aim: defend interests of Catholic Church

- opposed by Bismarck: Catholics not allowed to disobey Pope even if that meant disobeying King (papal infallibility)

• Social Democratic Party

- working class party

- links with trade unions

- aim: democracy; fight for social reforms

- opposed by Bismarck

• German Conservative Party

- land owners

- skeptical about unification

- prefer old separate states

- opposed by Bismarck

• Free Conservatives

- land owners, industrials

- accept unification + constitution

- supported by Bismarck

• Progressives

- liberals

- opposed to nation-state

- commit to attainment of parliamentary government

KEY QUESTION: Was Bismarck’s rule at home a “chancellor-dictatorship”?

PRO:

- does just as he pleases

- absolute power

( Wilhelm allows him to do whatever he wants

( dissolving the Reichstag

- inspiring general + individual terror

- puts parties under pressure ( “carrot and stick” policy

CON:

- works according to circumstances

- policies are intelligible

- uses contradictory methods

KEY QUESTION: What was the purpose of and how successful was Bismarck’s domestic policy?

• Bismarck’s aims:

- final separation of church and state

- restricting power of Catholic church

- political elimination of Center Party = enemies of Reich because of papal infallibility + most Catholics live in south ( still potential ally of Austria

- stronger support from liberals ( liberals loathed Center Party

• liberals provide Bismarck with majority ( support because: want unification

• where liberals’ and Bismarck’s aims don’t coincide, liberals give in ( relationship = compromise

Kulturkampf:

• 1872 – 1887

• trigger: papal infallibility

• attack on Catholics = Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization) ( attempt to discriminate against this religious group

• measures:

- stately supervision of schools

- civil marriage/divorce is possible

- secession from church is possible

- Pulpit Law (1871): forbidding state criticism for clergy

- clergy put under state supervision, bishops forced to leave Germany = Falk/May Laws (1873)

- arresting of bishops

• outcome:

- Kulturkampf = failure ( achieves opposite effect

- strengthening of Center Party

( biggest party in Reichstag by 1884!

- break with Catholics

( could never rely on its support

- diplomatic agreement with Pope

- further alienation of Catholics from Smaller German Reich

- abandoning anti-Catholic laws

- dismissal of Falk (1879)

- separation of state and church

The break with the liberals

• 1878: Bismarck announces bill in Reichstag to end free trade ( rejected by liberals

• Bismarck dissolves Reichstag

• assassination attempts on Kaiser = incorrect blame on socialists ( attack on socialism

• Anti-Socialist Law (1878): banning all socialist meetings + publications

( aim: weaken enemies of the state

( failure: socialists grow in strength

• “carrot and stick”: approach of simultaneous repression and an overt effort to acquire popular support

- to repress (the stick), Bismarck passed the Anti- Socialist Law

- to gain support (the carrot), Bismarck pushed extensive social welfare legislation through the Reichstag

• bill ending free trade passed by conservatives + Center Party ( break with liberals

Welfare state

• provides sickness + accident insurance for lowest paid workers + permanently disabled people

• intent to win support from working classes + discourage demands for greater political power

• 1883: Health Insurance Law

• 1884: Accident Insurance Law

← success of Bismarck’s policy !

Education/schooling

• great recognition: high standards, relative accessibility, contribution to outstanding scientific achievement

• growth in number of students studying in Germany + in number of educators ( not as many students had to be kept away anymore to work on fields

• increase of “state supporting” values in students’ minds

• central role of curricula: combat “revolutionary threat” of Social Democracy + defend freedom, family, rights of individual; improve physical + spiritual welfare

Anti-Semitism

• Jews = enemies of state

• policy of “Germanization”

- Settlement Law (1886): encourages German peasants to settle in Eastern Prussian provinces from which Poles + Jews had been forced to leave ( more than 32000 leave

• reasons of Anti-Semitism

- perception that Jews benefit more than others

- claim that Germany would never be truly unified until Jews were expelled

• Anti-Semitic propaganda by Bismarck ( to spread Anti-Semitic ideas

KEY QUESTION: What was the purpose of and how successful was Bismarck’s foreign policy?

• aim:

- to avoid war at all costs + achieve balance of power

- Bismarck wants to portray his nation as a peacemaker

- stabilizing German economy + functioning as a united state

- to isolate France + prevent alliance between France and Russia because of threat of two-front war

- to conclude alliances with Austria and Russia ( problem: hostility between Austria and Russia

• Three Emperors League (Dreikaiserbund, 1873): Germany, Austria, Russia

- agreement to consult each other in case of war

- renewal of League (1881)

- emphasizes desire for peace

• Crisis in the Balkans (1875 – 1878):

- both Austria + Russia interested in Balkans

- Russia = defender of Slav people

- axis for ships to potentially hostile powers (=Austria) denied in Mediterranean area

- uprisings in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1875):

- if Ottomans had been forced to withdraw, Russia + Austria would have battled for power over the region ( Germany = position of having to choose sides

- Berlin Congress (1878): settlement where Russia gains land which it had lost earlier

( Bismarck as “honest broker”: neutral mediator between Russia + Austria; to solve problems diplomatically even though not involved in actual crisis

( Austria gains control over Bos.-Herzeg.

( Russia feels robbed

( Russo-German relations deteriorate

( Bismarck looks for alliance with Austria

• Dual Alliance (Zweibund, 1879): Germany, Austria:

- pledge to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia

- each state promised neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (especially France)

- to prevent/limit war

• Triple Alliance (Dreibund, 1882): Italy, Germany, Austria

- promise mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power

- Italy’s main motif: seek support in event of war with France

- Austria profits because southern borders are secure ( strength for Austria in case of war with Russia

Bulgarian Crisis (1885):

• war between Bulgaria and Serbia

• Russia supports Bulgaria

• Austria supports Serbia

• possibility of alliance between Russia + France

( Three Emperors League collapses

• Secret Reinsurance Treaty (Rückversicherungsvertrag, 1887): Russia, Germany

- Bismarck anxious to keep alliance with Russia

- promise neutrality unless Germany attacks France or Russia attacks Austria

- removes threat of joint French-Russian attack on Germany

- secret protocol: Russia’s rights in Bulgaria ( contrast to Germany’s friendship with Austria

- Mediterranean Agreement (Mittelmeerabkommen, 1887): Britain, Austria, Italy

( to prevent further Russian expansion into Balkans

- prevents German loans from reaching Russia

( Russia looks to France for money ( nightmare: actual aim: isolating France!

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Germany

Russia

Austria

Italy

Britain

Serbia

Bulgaria

Three Emperors League (1873)

Triple Alliance (1882)

Ottoman Empire

Mediterranean Agreement (1887)

Dual Alliance (1879)

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