Revision Group 3 – Reichsgründung von oben – Deutschland ...
Revision Group 3 – Reichsgründung von oben – Deutschland 1870/71
- Innen- und Außenpolitik im Deutschen Reich unter Bismarck –
- 1871: an incomplete nation-state –
KEY QUESTION: How and to what extent did Prussia grow in strength?
• Erfurt Union (Prussia, Saxony, Hannover) led by Prussia
( purpose: unification
( fails
• economy of German Confederation flourishes
• free trade system of Zollverein (Customs Union) + trade outside Confederation ( Prussian government available of more money to invest in industrial projects
• expansion of railway system ( ease of transporting materials
• industrial growth supported by Prussia: offers money to struggling industries
• 3-class- voting system (1851):
- populace (men over 24) divided by their direct tax revenue into three classes
- calculated according to how much tax one paid, by dividing the entire range of taxes into thirds ( unfair for those who don’t have much money ( gave rural elites disproportionate power
- first class = paid highest taxes
- second class = lower income
- third class = few or no taxes
- public and indirect voting ( unfair because there was no secret ballot
- every municipality applies different standards: people who in one community belong to the first class would in a neighboring one be thrown into the third class
• comparison to Austria:
- economy backwards (opposition to Erfurt Union)
- taxation system outdated
- involvement in military disputes with Italy ( high expenditure on army
- loses Russia as ally ( isolated
Constitutional crisis
• new King (Wilhelm I., 1860) = devout Protestant ( believes that his power comes from God
• wants stronger army for Prussia ( to defend itself against war between France and Austria over Italy
• army bill prepared to send to Parliament ( Parliament refuses because costs are too high
• bill = to increase length of service in the army from 2 to 3 years + to abolish Landwehr
• King can’t decide: either abdicate or accept that Prussia’s military affairs are beyond his control = constitutional crisis ( constitution doesn’t prevent any solution
• because Parliament doesn’t want to pass bill ( chief minister appointed = Otto von Bismarck (1862)
Bismarck
• has always provoked extreme responses from historians
• described as “hero”, “a brilliant statesman and politician”, “a ruthless opportunist”, “the man who made Hitler possible”
• nicknamed “the Iron Chancellor”
• shows that individuals can shape history
• his aim:
- to maintain peace in Europe
- preservation of Prussian monarchy
- realization of “Smaller German Solution” (without Austria) under Prussian dominance
• no lover of democracy
• excellent diplomat
• manipulated alliances and played powers off against one another
• first task: to solve the constitutional crisis
German unification
• 1864: Danish War (Schleswig-Holstein)
• Danish King (Christian of Gluxburg) wants control over both Schleswig (Germans + Danes) and Holstein (mainly Germans)
• new Danish constitution: provinces of Schleswig and Holstein become part of Denmark
( cause of war: Prussia and Austria against King
• Bismarck wants to keep Austria satisfied ( suggests joint invasion
• Denmark defeated ( Treaty of Vienna (1864) ends war
• Gastein Treaty (1865): provinces split between Austria and Prussia ( Prussia: Schleswig; Austria: Holstein
← first step towards unification !
• further tensions expected ( both countries want control over both provinces; Germany in the middle of the conflict
• 1866: Austro-Prussian War
( cause of war: disagreement of sharing Schleswig-Holstein
• majority of smaller German states on Austria’s side
• Bismarck proposes constitution which he knows will be rejected by Austria
( tensions
• Austria breaks Gastein Treaty by placing question about Schl.-Holstein under control of Federal Diet
• Prussia: secret alliance with Italy; annexation of both Schl. and Holst. + land along the Rhine
( tensions increase
• Austria drops out of German Confederation ( Prussian = sole supreme power!
• Prussia declares end of German Confederation
• Austria defeated at Königgratz
• war ends with Treaty of Prague (1866)
• Bismarck forces north German states into a confederation under Prussian leadership
( bounds loose states together (1867) = North German Confederation (( symbol of Prussian dominance because Austria was excluded)
← another step towards unification ! (under Prussian leadership)
• Zollverein (in 1867)
- particularism: southern German states defend their right to remain independent ( little support for Prussian-dominated Germany
- Bismarck hopes that economic unity would eventually lead to political unity
( southern states allowed to join Zollverein
- forced them to accept new Zoll Parliament (Customs Union Parliament) ( dominated by Prussia
← step towards unification because northern + southern states economically united !
• 1870: Hohenzollern candidature
• Spanish crown offered to Prince Leopold (Hohenzollern dynasty)
( unacceptable in France (concerned about Prussian-Spanish alliance)
• Wilhelm I. meets with Benedetti (French ambassador)
• Benedetti wants Wilhelm to guarantee that no member of his Hohenzollern family would ever be a candidate for Spain
( Wilhelm refuses
• Abeken (Prussian diplomat) writes report about meeting to Bismarck = Ems Telegram (1870)
( edited by Bismarck (“Wilhelm was insulting the French”)
( provocation to France
( France declares war = Franco-Prussian War (1870/71)
• shift: Germans support Prussia!
• southern + northern German states fight together
• France defeated
• France surrenders Alsace-Lorraine to Germany = Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)
( end of war
• high reparations for France
• joining together of North German Confederation + 4 southern German states = German Empire (1871)
• Prussian dominance
• Bismarck = Minister President of Prussia and Imperial Chancellor
• 1871: King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes Kaiser Wilhelm I. of a united Germany (proclamation at the Grand Palace of Versailles)
KEY QUESTION: Was the unification achieved by “blood and iron”?
PRO:
- Germany too small for both (Austria + Prussia) ( “Smaller German Solution”
- editing of Ems Telegram
- nothing can be obtained without force or war
( “Blood and Iron” speech (1862)
- a united Germany requires Franco-Prussian War
CON:
- only a country’s most vital interests justify war
- not because of personal ambition or national vanity
- opponent of preventive war ( thought French would block war
- necessary equipment of army?
KEY QUESTION: Was it a unification “from above”?
• “from above”: revolution wasn’t an initiative taken by the people, but rather by high-ranking politicians ( peoples’ will was excluded
• for example: unification “by” Bismarck:
• did not make it in public
• wanted to unify Germany on his own ( Ems Telegram; wars; carrot-and-stick policy
• only done by Bismarck and not through peoples’ will ( did everything to unite G. (the ends justify the means)
KEY QUESTION: How did the German unification affect France and other (European) powers?
- G. before unification:
➢ central position to Europe but threatened by other nations (fear of two-front war) b/c not militarily & economically stable ( loose confederation
➢ isolated ( no threat to other nations
- G. after unification:
➢ still central position in Europe but now, G. = strong, big, united country
➢ threat to other countries (also b/c of system of alliances ( not isolated anymore)
➢ isolated others (France)
KEY QUESTION: The constitution of the Second German Empire – a fig leaf for absolutism?
• federal constitution ( Länder have some responsibility for ruling own affairs; own governments, own elections for assemblies
• Emperor-King: one overall Kaiser
- at the same time King of Prussia
- appoints imperial government
- right to declare war
- right to absolute control over Prussia’s armed forces
- right to summon + dissolve Reichstag
- full control over foreign affairs
• Reichstag
- universal manhood suffrage
- responsibilities: vote on legislation + imperial budget
- Chancellor = direct authority through emperor on matters of foreign policy
• Bundestag
- gives a voice to states governments within the empire
- Prussia as largest state = greatest representation
- right to initiate legislation + declare war
• Difference to other German constitutions (1849, 1919, 1949): no religious freedom or freedom for assembly!
PRO:
- federal rights exist only on paper
- Prussia can always veto constitutional changes because of the huge number of Prussian deputies in the Reichstag
- Chancellor not obliged to consult anyone except King of Prussia
- Reichstag:
- elected by universal male suffrage but has no power of voting or refusing to vote taxes
- no control over ministers
- no direct control over actions of Chancellor
- political parties cannot play any direct role in formulation of government policy
- ministers only responsible to Emperor-King
CON:
- constitutional background + experience of other German states: political systems + constitutions had been developing independently
- not necessarily subsumed into Prussian system
- democratic features of the Reichstag
- elected by universal manhood suffrage
- contained wide variety of independent political parties
- Reichstags of North German Confederation + Empire able to pass series of unifying measures (national currency, unified postal system, standard weights and measures, liberal national industrial code, elimination of last internal custom’s barriers)
( support development of modern businesses
Development of political parties in Germany
• National Liberals
- educated Protestant middle class + industrial upper class
- similar aims to Bismarck
- strong nation-state
- liberal constitutional state
• Center Party
- mainly Catholics
- non-socialist lower classes
- aim: defend interests of Catholic Church
- opposed by Bismarck: Catholics not allowed to disobey Pope even if that meant disobeying King (papal infallibility)
• Social Democratic Party
- working class party
- links with trade unions
- aim: democracy; fight for social reforms
- opposed by Bismarck
• German Conservative Party
- land owners
- skeptical about unification
- prefer old separate states
- opposed by Bismarck
• Free Conservatives
- land owners, industrials
- accept unification + constitution
- supported by Bismarck
• Progressives
- liberals
- opposed to nation-state
- commit to attainment of parliamentary government
KEY QUESTION: Was Bismarck’s rule at home a “chancellor-dictatorship”?
PRO:
- does just as he pleases
- absolute power
( Wilhelm allows him to do whatever he wants
( dissolving the Reichstag
- inspiring general + individual terror
- puts parties under pressure ( “carrot and stick” policy
CON:
- works according to circumstances
- policies are intelligible
- uses contradictory methods
KEY QUESTION: What was the purpose of and how successful was Bismarck’s domestic policy?
• Bismarck’s aims:
- final separation of church and state
- restricting power of Catholic church
- political elimination of Center Party = enemies of Reich because of papal infallibility + most Catholics live in south ( still potential ally of Austria
- stronger support from liberals ( liberals loathed Center Party
• liberals provide Bismarck with majority ( support because: want unification
• where liberals’ and Bismarck’s aims don’t coincide, liberals give in ( relationship = compromise
Kulturkampf:
• 1872 – 1887
• trigger: papal infallibility
• attack on Catholics = Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization) ( attempt to discriminate against this religious group
• measures:
- stately supervision of schools
- civil marriage/divorce is possible
- secession from church is possible
- Pulpit Law (1871): forbidding state criticism for clergy
- clergy put under state supervision, bishops forced to leave Germany = Falk/May Laws (1873)
- arresting of bishops
• outcome:
- Kulturkampf = failure ( achieves opposite effect
- strengthening of Center Party
( biggest party in Reichstag by 1884!
- break with Catholics
( could never rely on its support
- diplomatic agreement with Pope
- further alienation of Catholics from Smaller German Reich
- abandoning anti-Catholic laws
- dismissal of Falk (1879)
- separation of state and church
The break with the liberals
• 1878: Bismarck announces bill in Reichstag to end free trade ( rejected by liberals
• Bismarck dissolves Reichstag
• assassination attempts on Kaiser = incorrect blame on socialists ( attack on socialism
• Anti-Socialist Law (1878): banning all socialist meetings + publications
( aim: weaken enemies of the state
( failure: socialists grow in strength
• “carrot and stick”: approach of simultaneous repression and an overt effort to acquire popular support
- to repress (the stick), Bismarck passed the Anti- Socialist Law
- to gain support (the carrot), Bismarck pushed extensive social welfare legislation through the Reichstag
• bill ending free trade passed by conservatives + Center Party ( break with liberals
Welfare state
• provides sickness + accident insurance for lowest paid workers + permanently disabled people
• intent to win support from working classes + discourage demands for greater political power
• 1883: Health Insurance Law
• 1884: Accident Insurance Law
← success of Bismarck’s policy !
Education/schooling
• great recognition: high standards, relative accessibility, contribution to outstanding scientific achievement
• growth in number of students studying in Germany + in number of educators ( not as many students had to be kept away anymore to work on fields
• increase of “state supporting” values in students’ minds
• central role of curricula: combat “revolutionary threat” of Social Democracy + defend freedom, family, rights of individual; improve physical + spiritual welfare
Anti-Semitism
• Jews = enemies of state
• policy of “Germanization”
- Settlement Law (1886): encourages German peasants to settle in Eastern Prussian provinces from which Poles + Jews had been forced to leave ( more than 32000 leave
• reasons of Anti-Semitism
- perception that Jews benefit more than others
- claim that Germany would never be truly unified until Jews were expelled
• Anti-Semitic propaganda by Bismarck ( to spread Anti-Semitic ideas
KEY QUESTION: What was the purpose of and how successful was Bismarck’s foreign policy?
• aim:
- to avoid war at all costs + achieve balance of power
- Bismarck wants to portray his nation as a peacemaker
- stabilizing German economy + functioning as a united state
- to isolate France + prevent alliance between France and Russia because of threat of two-front war
- to conclude alliances with Austria and Russia ( problem: hostility between Austria and Russia
• Three Emperors League (Dreikaiserbund, 1873): Germany, Austria, Russia
- agreement to consult each other in case of war
- renewal of League (1881)
- emphasizes desire for peace
• Crisis in the Balkans (1875 – 1878):
- both Austria + Russia interested in Balkans
- Russia = defender of Slav people
- axis for ships to potentially hostile powers (=Austria) denied in Mediterranean area
- uprisings in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1875):
- if Ottomans had been forced to withdraw, Russia + Austria would have battled for power over the region ( Germany = position of having to choose sides
- Berlin Congress (1878): settlement where Russia gains land which it had lost earlier
( Bismarck as “honest broker”: neutral mediator between Russia + Austria; to solve problems diplomatically even though not involved in actual crisis
( Austria gains control over Bos.-Herzeg.
( Russia feels robbed
( Russo-German relations deteriorate
( Bismarck looks for alliance with Austria
• Dual Alliance (Zweibund, 1879): Germany, Austria:
- pledge to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia
- each state promised neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (especially France)
- to prevent/limit war
• Triple Alliance (Dreibund, 1882): Italy, Germany, Austria
- promise mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power
- Italy’s main motif: seek support in event of war with France
- Austria profits because southern borders are secure ( strength for Austria in case of war with Russia
Bulgarian Crisis (1885):
• war between Bulgaria and Serbia
• Russia supports Bulgaria
• Austria supports Serbia
• possibility of alliance between Russia + France
( Three Emperors League collapses
• Secret Reinsurance Treaty (Rückversicherungsvertrag, 1887): Russia, Germany
- Bismarck anxious to keep alliance with Russia
- promise neutrality unless Germany attacks France or Russia attacks Austria
- removes threat of joint French-Russian attack on Germany
- secret protocol: Russia’s rights in Bulgaria ( contrast to Germany’s friendship with Austria
- Mediterranean Agreement (Mittelmeerabkommen, 1887): Britain, Austria, Italy
( to prevent further Russian expansion into Balkans
- prevents German loans from reaching Russia
( Russia looks to France for money ( nightmare: actual aim: isolating France!
[pic]
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Germany
Russia
Austria
Italy
Britain
Serbia
Bulgaria
Three Emperors League (1873)
Triple Alliance (1882)
Ottoman Empire
Mediterranean Agreement (1887)
Dual Alliance (1879)
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