Chapter 7 Adrian kuykendall Pd 5 /12/10



Chapter 7: The Jeffersonian Era

I. The Rise of Culture Nationalism

- Opportunities for education increased; the nation’s literacy and artistic life began to free itself from European influence

- American religion confronted the spread of Enlightenment rationalism

A. Patterns of Education

- Republican vision of America was a virtuous and enlightened citizenry

- Jefferson called for “crusade against ignorance”

- Believed in creation of nationwide public schools to create an educated electorate

- All male citizens should receive free public education

- Unable to realize that dream, but later years produced more substantial results

- Some states endorsed the principle of public education for early years of the republic, but none actually created a working system of free schools

- By 1815, there were 30 private secondary schools in MA, 37 in NY, and several dozen more scattered throughout the country

- Aristocratic in outlook; trained members to become part of the nation’s elite

- Private secondary schools only accepted males

- In 18th century, women received little education and female illiteracy was at least 50%

- “Republican Motherhood” - ignorant mothers couldn’t raise children to be enlightened

- Led to creation of female academies throughout the nation

- In 1789, MA required that its public schools serve females as well as males

- Men assumed female education should serve to make women better wives & mothers

- Reformers believed education would redeem ignorant and backward people

- Spurred growing interest in Indian education

- Hoped schooling the Indians in white culture would tame and uplift the tribes

- Whites believed there was no need to educate African Americans

- Slaveowners feared knowledge would make them unhappy with their condition

- Number of colleges/universities grew from nine at the start of the revolution to 22 by 1800

- William & Mary, Penn and Columbia all created law schools before 1800

B. Medicine and Science

- University of PA created first American medical school in 18th century

- Benjamin Rush advocated bleeding and purging, and many of his patients died

- Washington’s death was probably a result of bleeding and purging

- In early 19th century, physicians began to handle deliveries and restricted midwife roles

- Ideal of equal education opportunity would become vital force behind universal public education

C. Cultural Aspiration in the New Nation

- Americans believed they were destined to become the “seat of the empire” and the “final stage” of civilization with “glorious works of high invention and of wond’rous art”

- Noah Webster > students should be educated as patriots filled w/ nationalistic thoughts

- Created American Spelling Book in 1783 which sold over 100 million copies & became best selling

book (except the Bible) in history

- “An American Dictionary of the English Language” est. standard of words and usages

- Washington Irving was leader of American literary life

- Mercy Otis Warren was influential playwright and agitator during the 1770’s

- Wrote a three-volume History of the Revolution published in 1805

D. Religious Skepticism

- American Revolution weakened traditional forms of religious practice

- Detached churches from govt. by elevating ideas of individual liberty and reason

- By 1790’s, only 10% were members of formal churches

- Ministers complained about the decay of vital piety

- Some Americans including Jefferson and Franklin embraced deism

- Originated among enlightenment philosophers in France

- Deists accepted God, but believed he’d withdrawn from direct involvement w/ human race

- Thomas Paine wrote, The Age of Reason

- Unitarians rejected belief in predestination, arguing salvation was available to all

- Some Americans believed rationalism marked the end of traditional evangelistic religion

- In 1801, traditional religion staged a comeback in form of revivalism

E. The Second Great Awakening

- Conservative theologians of 1790s fought the spread of religious rationalism to revitalize their organizations

- Conservatives in the church became militant in response to so called New Light dissenters

- Methodism became the fastest growing denomination in America

- Baptists found fervent following in the South

- Cane Ridge, KY held nation’s first camp meeting > revival lasted several days for 25,000

- Message was clear >Individuals must readmit to God & Christ into their daily lives, embrace a fervent, active piety and reject the skeptical rationalism that threatened traditional beliefs

- Second Awakening accelerated growth of different denominations

- Created a popular acceptance that men and women could belong to different Protestant churches and still be

committed to same Christian faith

- Women flocked to revivals in response to their changing economic roles

- Played important roles in charitable societies, ministering to orphans and the poor, and missionary orgs

- In some areas, revivals were open to all races & many blacks embraced new religious fervor

- Black preachers became important figures w/in the slave community

- Gabriel Prosser planned slave rebellion and an attack on Richmond, VA

- Plan discovered and rebellion forestalled by whites, but revivalism stirred racial unrest

- Neolin sparked revival in Old NW combining Christian and Indian imagery w/ vision of a personal God

- Called for Indians to rise up in defense of their lands and denounced trade w/ whites

- Most important revivalism came from great prophet, Handsome Lake

- Seneca whose miraculous “rebirth” after years of alcoholism gave him special stature

- Called for a revival of traditional Indian ways

- Inspired many to give up whiskey, gambling & destructive customs derived from whites

- “Freethinkers” skeptical philosophies were victims of new religious fervor

II. Stirrings of Industrialism

A. Technology in America

- Immigrants arrived in US w/ advanced knowledge of English technologies

- Samuel Slater used knowledge from England to build a spinning mill for Moses Brown

- Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790 was the first modern factory in America

-Eli Whitney revolutionized both cotton production and weapons manufacturing

- Growth of textile industry in England created enormous demand for cotton

- Whitney invented cotton gin and it transformed life in the South

- Slavery regained importance, expanded and became firmly fixed in the South

- Not only changed economy of the South, it also helped transform the North

- Provided large supply of domestically produced fiber which was a strong incentive to entrepreneurs in

NE and elsewhere to develop an American textile industry

- Drove a wedge between the industrial North and agricultural South

- Ultimately contributed to the coming of the Civil War and helped ensure Union victory

- Whitney contributed to development of modern warfare by inventing interchangeable parts

- Crucial in making eventual transformation to a true manufacturing economy possible

B. Transportation Innovations

- Prereq for industrialization was eff. system of transporting raw materials to factories & goods to market

- Several ways to solve the problem of the small American market

- Look for customers overseas

- Congress passed tariff bills giving preference to American ships in American ports

- War in Europe allowed Yankee merchant vessels to control trade between Europe and WH

- US had merchant marine and foreign trade larger than any country except England

- Looked to develop new markets at home

- River transportation began w/ development of steamboat

-Oliver Evans developed higher pressure engine, which was lighter and more efficient

- Robert Fulton perfected the steamboat, Clermont, and sailed up the Hudson River in 1807

- “Turnpike Era” began in 1792 w/ construction of toll road running 60 miles from Philadelphia to Lancaster, with a hard packed surface of crushed rocks.

C. The Rising Cities

- Philadelphia (70,000) and NY (60,000) became major centers of commerce & learning

- Urban life produced affluent people who sought increasing elegance in their homes and dress

- People looked for diversions > music, theater, dancing and the most popular, horse racing

III. Jefferson the President

- Assumed office attempting to reduce the differences between the two parties

- “We are all republicans, we are all federalists,” he said in his inaugural address

A. The Federal City and the “People’s President”

- Pierre L’Enfant designed the capital in Washington to become the Paris of the US

- Jefferson was a brilliant conversationalist, gifted writer & one of nation’s most intelligent and creative men

- Active architect, educator, inventor, scientific farmer and philosopher-scientist

- Jefferson was above all a shrewd and practical politician

- Used power of appointments to ensure Republicans were in control of govt. jobs

- He was re-elected in 1804, overwhelmingly defeated Charles Pinckney

- Republican majorities in both houses of congress increased

B. Dollars and Ships

- In 1802 Jefferson persuaded Congress to abolish all internal taxes

- Customs duties & sale of western lands only source of revenue for the govt.

- Sec. of Treasury Gallatin drastically reduced govt. spending

- Jefferson cut the national debt in half during his presidency

- Jefferson scaled down armed forces > army from 4,000 to 2,500 & navy from 25 ships to 7

- Wanted to protect civil liberties and civilian control of govt.

- Helped establish US Military Academy at West Point, founded in 1802

- Jefferson said, “Tribute or war is the usual alternative of these Barbary pirates…why not build a navy and decide on war?”

- Ransom of $60,000 paid for release of American prisoners seized by Barbary pirates

C. Conflicts with the Courts

- Republican Congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 > eliminated Adams “midnight appts.”

- Debate over the courts led to one of the most important judicial decisions in nation’s history

- Judicial Review > Supreme Court had authority to nullify acts of Congress (checks & balances)

- Court exercised this power in 1796 when it upheld validity of law passed by legislature

- Court’s authority wouldn’t be secure until it declared a congressional act unconstitutional

- In 1803, in the case of Marbury V. Madison the Court exercised judicial review

- William Marbury, a “midnight appointment,” named a justice of the peace in DC

- New Sec. of State James Madison refused to hand over the commission

- Greatest importance was the Court’s reasoning in the decision

- Court ruled that Congress had exceeded its authority in creating statute

- Constitution defined powers of judiciary and the legislature had no right to expand them

- Seeming to deny its own authority, the Court was in fact radically enlarging it

- Justices repudiated a minor power by asserting a vastly greater one (power to nullify an act of Congress)

- Chief justice was John Marshall, towering figure in the history of the American law

- He established judiciary as branch of govt. coequal with executive and legislature

- Jefferson urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges, the last Federalist stronghold

- Republicans targeted Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase for being injudicious

- The House impeached Justice Chase and sent him to trial before the Senate

- Unable to get necessary 2/3 vote for conviction in the Senate

- Established that impeachment would not become routine political weapon

- Marshall remained secure in his position as chief justice

- Judiciary survived as a powerful force w/in the govt.

- Ruled on behalf of centralizing, expansionary policies that Republicans tried to reserve

IV. Doubling the National Domain

A. Jefferson and Napoleon

- After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted to restore power in New World

- Napoleon wanted to regain land west of Mississippi, which now belonged to Spain

- Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800 > France gained title to Louisiana

- French empire held sugar-rich WI islands Guadeloupe, Martinique and Santo Domingo (SD)

- Africans in SD revolted & created their own republic led by Toussaint L’Ouverture

- Napoleon’s army crushed insurrection & restored French authority

- Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy

- Apptd. pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800

- Jefferson assured French that Americans disapproved of black revolutionary > set bad example 

- Reconsidered position toward France when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana

- Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean vessels

- Guaranteed in Pinckney Treaty of 1795 > this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

- Westerners demanded govt. reopen river

- Jefferson instructed Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans

- Expanded army and constructed river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

- Napoleon accepted proposal and offered the US the entire Louisiana Territory

- Plans for American empire went awry

- Army decimated by yellow fever and reinforcements frozen in Dutch harbor in 1802-03

B. The Louisiana Purchase

- Livingston and Monroe sent to Paris & decided to proceed w/ purchase of entire territory

- Not authorized by govt. to do so > treaty signed April 30, 1803

- US paid $15 million to France and had to incorporate New Orleans residents into Union

- Jefferson uncertain US had authority to accept offer

- Power not specifically granted in Constitution

- Ultimately agreed his treaty-making power under the Constitution would justify purchase

- In late 1803, territory handed over from Spain to France, then to US

- Govt. organized Louisiana Territory like NW Territory

- Territories would eventually become states w/ Louisiana first, admitted in 1812

C. Lewis and Clark Explore the West

- Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical facts and investigate trade w/ Indians

- Lewis and Clark set out in 1804 from Missouri River in St Louis w/ Sacajawea as guide

- Reached Pacific Ocean in autumn of 1805, returned in 1806 w/ elaborate records & diary

- Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory

- Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions > Mississippi Valley & Rocky Mts. in CO

D. The Burr Conspiracy

- Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions

- Some NE Federalists realized expansion weakened power of Federalists and their region

- Essex Junto concluded only recourse for NE was to secede and form “Northern Confederacy”

- Plan required support of NY and NJ as well

- Leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused to support seccession

- Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

- Hamilton accused Burr of treason and made negative remarks about his “despicable” character

- When Burr lost election, he blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

- Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel; Hamilton mortally wounded and died the next day

- Burr was now a political outcast and fled NY for new outlets in the West

- Burr planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and desired to make a western empire

- In 1806 he was tried for treason and acquitted

- “Conspiracy” was symbol of perils w/ a central govt. that remained deliberately weak, w/ vast tracts of land nominally controlled by US; legitimacy of federal govt. not fully established

V. Expansion and War

A. Conflict on the Seas

- US shipping expanded and controlled large portion of trade between Europe and W. Indies 

- Napoleon’s Continental System designed to close European continent to British trade

- Barred British ships from landing at any European port controlled by France or their allies

- British govt. replied w/ “orders in council,” a blockade of the European coast

- Required shipped goods be carried in British vessels or neutral ships stop at British ports

- American ships caught between two countries

- Americans considered British, w/ greater sea power, the worse offender

- British vessels stopped US ships and seized sailors, making them victims of impressment

B. Impressment

- British Navy had terrible conditions, most had to be impressed (forced) into the service

- Many deserted when possible and joined Americans

- To stop loss British claimed right to stop and search American ships & reimpress deserters

- 1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: British fired on US ship that refused search

- US Minister James Monroe protested, but British refused to renounce impressments

C. “Peaceable Coercion”

- To prevent war Jefferson enacted drastic measure known as the Embargo (1807)

- Prohibited US ships from leaving for any foreign port anywhere in the world

- Congress passed a “force act” to give govt. power to enforce the Embargo

- Created depression throughout nation, ship-owners & NE merchants (Federalists) hardest hit

- James Madison won election of 1808 but fierce opposition

- Led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act

- Reopened trade w/ all nations except Great Britain and France

- In 1810, Macon’s Bill No. 2 re-opened trade w/ Great Britain & France

- President could prohibit commerce w/ belligerent nation if one violated neutral shipping

- Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere w/ American shipping

- Madison announced embargo against GB unless it renounced restrictions of US shipping

- Embargo hurt economy of England enough that govt. repealed blockade of Europe

- Naval policies were only part of the tensions between Britain and the US

D. The Indian Problem and the British

- After dislodgement by Americans, Native Americans looked to England for protection

- William Henry Harrison had been an advocate of Western expansion

- Harrison Land Law of 1800 – enabled farmers to acquire farms from public domain

- In 1801, Jefferson appt. Harrison governor of Indiana Territory to solve “Indian problem”

- Offered natives a choice: become farmers & assimilate or migrate west of the Mississippi 

- By 1807 the US had extracted treaty rights to E. Michigan, S. Indiana & most of Illinois

- After Chesapeake incident, Brits renewed friendships w/ Indians & provided supplies

E. Tecumseh and the Prophet

- Prophet inspired religious revival and mobilized Indians behind political & military objectives

- Attracted thousands of Indians from throughout the Midwest

- Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

- Starting in 1809, set out to unite tribes of Mississippi Valley

- In 1811, traveled down the Mississippi to add tribes of the South to alliance

- Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy

- Warriors attacked white settlers, British agents in Canada encouraged & supplied uprising

- To make the West safe for Americans, they must drive British out of Canada & annex to US

F. Florida and War Fever

- “Frontiersman” in North wanted Canada & those in South wanted to acquire Spanish Florida

- Stop Indian attacks and gain access to rivers w/ port access

- In 1810, setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge

- President Madison agreed to annex territory > desire for Florida motivated war w/ Britain

- “War Hawks” elected during congressional elections of 1810 were eager for war

- Ardent nationalists sought territorial expansion, others defended Republican values

- Speaker Henry Clay (KY) & John Calhoun (SC) agitated for conquest of Canada

- Madison approved declaration of war against Britain on June 18, 1812

VI. The War of 1812

A. Battles with the Tribes

- Americans surrendered fort at Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months

- On seas American frigates and privateers were successful

- By 1813, British navy counterattacked effectively and imposed a blockade on the US

- US achieved early military success on the Great Lakes

- Americans took command of Lake Ontario, then raided & burned capital at York

- William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames

- Notable for the death of Tecumseh

- Weakened & disheartened Natives of NW & diminished ability to defend their claims

- Andrew Jackson defeated Creeks at Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814

- Slaughtered women, children and warriors & broke resistance of Creeks

- Creeks ceded most of its land to the US and retreated westward

- Continued farther south to Florida and captured Pensacola in Nov. 1814

B. Battles with the British

- After Napoleon surrendered in 1814, England prepared to invade US

- Landed armada in Chesapeake region

- In August 1814, British captured and burned Washington, including the White House

- Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled British attack in Sept. 1814

- Francis Scott Key witnessed the battle and wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

- US forces repelled British at Battle of Plattsburgh > secured northern border of the US

- In January 1815, Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans

- After treaty was signed

C. The Revolt of New England

- US failures from 1812-1815 led to increased govt. opposition.

- In NE, opposition to war and Republican govt. was extreme

- Daniel Webster, congressman from NH, led the Federalists opposition

- Federalists in NE wanted separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders & backwoodsmen

- Hartford Convention and Federalists seemed futile after Jackson’s victory at NO

- Failure of secession effort was a death blow to Federalist Party

- Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

D. The Peace Settlement

- John Q. Adams, Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ British diplomats

- Final treaty did little but end the fighting

- US dropped call to end impressments, Britain dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

- Britain accepted because exhausted & indebted after Napoleonic conflict

- US believed w/ end of European conflict less commercial interference would occur

- Treaty of Ghent signed Dec. 1814

- Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

- War disastrous to Natives resisting white expansion

- Lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

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