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Theory and Methods in ContextJune 2015Item C Investigating corporate crime Corporate crime covers a wide variety of offences. Corporate crimes are committed either by companies or on behalf of companies by their employees or owners. Those who commit the crimes are often powerful individuals and so may be more likely to avoid detection and prosecution. The nature of corporate crimes means they are less visible than street crimes. Corporate criminals may be skilled in covering up their crimes. Business systems such as accounts may be complex, making it difficult to uncover irregularities. Even when such crimes are discovered, companies may not want to report them to the police. Instead, companies may prefer to deal with them internally to prevent any negative publicity, because this may have a bad effect on business. The global nature of many companies may mean that a single company can commit crimes in many different countries. Using material from Item C and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of using official statistics as a means of investigating corporate crime. [15 marks]Assess the view that a sociologist’s theoretical perspective is the most important factor in their choice both of research methods and of topics to investigate. [33 marks]June 2014Item C Investigating the public’s perceptions of crime and fear of crime The public’s perceptions of crime are often very different from the reality of crime. Perceptions can be affected by the images of crime and crime rates that are highlighted in the media. The way in which crime is presented in the media may make some people more afraid of crime than others, even though they may be less likely to be victims. Moral panics about those portrayed as criminals make it difficult to determine their true nature. Over-representation by the news media of these groups and their activities will affect the public’s opinion of them. In addition, fictional crime in the media, for example in soap operas and drama series, often shows distorted views of the types of crime that occur. People’s own experiences of crime will also affect how they view crime, although often this relies on their memory of these experiences.Using material from Item C and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of using unstructured interviews as a means of investigating the public’s perceptions of crime and fear of crime. [15 marks]Assess the contribution of feminist perspectives to our understanding of society. [33 marks]June 2013Item C Investigating young offenders Young offenders are likely to have certain characteristics, such as underachievement in school. Many will use slang and street language. Young offenders may also be from a working-class background. Some may be members of an anti-school subculture and, as such, are likely to resent authority. Membership of a criminal subculture may also mean that young offenders feel pressured by the group. Young offenders may be in custody, or may live in temporary or less stable accommodation. Although offenders will be known to the criminal justice system, their age may mean that data relating to them are not freely available. Young offenders often feel socially excluded and marginalised from society, and so they may welcome the chance to talk about their experiences.Using material from Item C and elsewhere, assess the strengths and limitations of using group interviews as a means of investigating young offenders. [15 marks]Assess the contribution of Marxism to our understanding of society. [33 marks]Specimen 2015Item CMarxists see society as based on conflict between social classes. Those who own the means of production are able to exploit those who do not and are also able to impose their views on society. However, different Marxists have different views about the nature of capitalist society and about how social change occurs. Outline and explain two advantages of using official statistics in sociological research. [10 marks] Applying material from Item C and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of Marxist approaches in understanding society. [20 marks]TEXTBOOK QUESTIONSQUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODSQuickcheckSuggest two ethical problems of conducting laboratory experiments.Identify two reasons why experiments are seen as high in reliability.What are the similarities and differences between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment?Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of using the comparative method.Identify two advantages of pre-coded questions.Suggest two reasons why questionnaires have few ethical problems.Explain why questionnaires are high in reliability.Explain why positivists see ‘detachment’ as an advantage of questionnaires and why interpretivists see it as a disadvantage.Explain why structures interviews are described as standardised measuring instruments.Suggest two advantages of structured interviews over postal questionnaires.Suggest two reasons why structures interviews may lack validity.Identify three advantages of official statistics.What are the three main sources of information from which official statistics are collected?What is the difference between ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ statistics?(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item ASome sociologists favour using quantitative research methods such as structured interviews and questionnaires. These two methods are similar in many ways. Both use a fixed list of questions, often with pre-set, pre-coded answer categories, and both are relatively quick to complete. Their differences come mainly from how they deliver the questions - either face-to-face or in written form.However, interpretivists argue that quantitative research methods impose the researcher’s views on respondents and do not allow them to express themselves in the way they would like to.Outline and explain two reasons why positivists prefer to use qualitative research methods. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that quantitative research methods may have many advantages, but they tell us little about what people really think and do. [20 marks]QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODSQuickcheckSuggest two reasons why unstructured interviews may lack reliability.Why are unstructured interviews particularly useful when investigating unfamiliar subjects?What is a ‘rapport’ and why is it important?Suggest two advantages and two disadvantages of using group interviews in research.What is a structured observation schedule?Suggest two reasons why participant observation might not produce representative data and reliable data.Identify two ethical problems of using covert participant observation.Explain why participant observation is attractive to ‘action’ approaches in sociology.Identify three advantages of using overt rather than covert observation.Why doe secondary sources usually present fewer ethical problems to the sociologist than other methods of research?Explain what is meant by content analysis.What does Scott mean by the ‘credibility’ of a document?(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AInterpretivists argue that sociology is about investigating the meanings and motives of social actors, and so the aim of researchers should be to obtain an empathetic, subjective understanding of people’s meanings. In the view of interpretivists, this can only be achieved by employing open-ended qualitative research methods such as participant observation and unstructured interviews. These methods allow people to act naturally or respond fully and freely to the sociologist’s questions, producing data that is high in validity.However, other sociologists argue that these methods produce biased data which is the result of the researcher’s subjective interpretation of events and responses.Outline and explain two ethical problems often associated with qualitative research methods. [10 marks]Applying material from item A and your knowledge, evaluate the interpretivist claim that qualitative research methods are the most appropriate ones for the study of society. [20 marks]SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCEQuickcheckWhat does Durkheim mean by ‘social facts’?Why do positivists favour ‘macro’ or structural explanations of behaviour?According to interpretivists, what is the subject matter of sociology?What is meant by verstehen and why do interpretivists favour its use?Explain the difference between verifications and falsificationism.What does Kuhn mean by a ‘paradigm’?Explain what Kuhn means when he says that in normal science, scientists engage in puzzle solving.According to realists, what is the difference between open and closed systems?(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item APositivists believe that sociology can be a science by following the logic and methods of the natural sciences. In the view of positivists, this involves gathering objective quantitative data to ‘verify’ or prove hypotheses and discover casual laws. While accepting that positivists’ view of science, interpretivists reject the claim that we can study human beings in this way.However, positivism is just one view of what constitutes science. For example, Popper argues that science involves seeking to falsify hypotheses, while Kuhn argues that a scientific subject is one that has a unified paradigm.Outline and explain two reasons why some people argue that sociology cannot be a science. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that whether sociology can be a science depends on what we mean by science in the first place. [20 marks]OBJECTIVITY AND VALUES IN SOCIOLOGYQuickcheckAccording to Weber, which is the stage of research into which values must not be allowed to enter?True of False? Relativism argues that everyone’s view of the world is equally valid.What is Gouldner’s mani criticism of modern positivist sociologists?Why do interactionists argue we should see things from the point of view of the underdog?Explain what is meant by ‘objectivity’.Why do many sociologists wish to be seen as scientific?(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item ASome sociologists argue that their research should take the side of the underdog. For example, Becker points out that traditionally, sociology has tended to take the side of powerful groups in society, often accepting their view of the world. As a result, the standpoints of less powerful groups have been largely hidden. Becker therefore argues that sociology should identify with the underdog, empathise with them and uncover their view of the world.However, others have argued that there is no place for values in sociology and that sociologists should take an objective, ‘value-neutral approach’ to research.Outline and explain two criticisms of the claim that sociologists can keeps values out of their research. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the view that sociologists should ‘take the side of the underdog’ and be committed to changing society. [20 marks]FUNCTIONALISMQuickcheckWhat is the difference between a manifest and a latent function?What does Wrong mean by ‘over-socialised’?Is functionalism a conservative or a radical ideology?According to Parsons, how do societies change?What is the organic analogy?Identify Parson’s four system needs.Identify two agencies of socialisation and social control.(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AFunctionalism is a consensus theory. It sees society as based on a set of shared values and this value consensus is the basis for social order. It is also a systems theory. It emphasises the way the social system shapes social institutions and the behaviour patterns of individuals. Society is seen as a system with its own separate existence and needs.However, some critics claim that functionalism understates the extent of conflict in society. Others argue that functionalism is too deterministic, portraying individuals as simply the puppets of the social system.Outline and explain two functionalist concepts. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that functionalism understates both the extent of conflict in society and the ability official actors to create society through interaction. [20 marks]MARXISMQuickcheckWhat is the difference between a ‘class in itself’ and a ‘class for itself’?Suggest two similarities between Marxism and functionalism.Which part of society did Marx see as dominating all other parts?What is meant by ‘alienation’?Identify two aspects of Marxist theory that may no longer apply to modern society.What is the difference between ‘determinism’ and ‘voluntarism’?According to Marxists, how may ruling-class hegemony be maintained?What is meant by the term ‘repressive state apparatus’?Identify three classes of labourers from different historical periods.According to Marx, what are the features of communist society?(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AMarxists see class as the fundamental division in society, in which the proletariat are exploited by the capitalist owners of the means of production. The capitalist class maintain their dominance partly by force and partly by ideological control through the media, the education system and so on. However, Marxists predict that ultimately, the proletariat will overthrow capitalism by means of a revolution. For Marxists, social change is not the gradual evolutionary process seen by consensus theories.However, other sociologists argue that class is not the only basis for inequality and that revolutions have failed to occur in advanced capitalist societies.Outline and explain two criticisms of Marxist views of society. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of different Marxist theories to an understanding of society. [20 marks]FEMINIST THEORIESQuickcheckWhat is meant by ‘malestream’ sociology?Which type of feminist is most likely to believe equality can be gained through reforming legislation and changing attitudes?Explain the difference between sex and gender.Which feminist perspective argues that all men oppress all women?True of False? Marxist feminists believe gender inequalities only benefit capitalism.Suggest three ways women’s subordination benefits capitalism.How might capitalism and patriarchy reinforce each other?Why do difference feminists criticise white Western feminists?What is meant by ‘essentialism’?Suggest two criticisms of poststructuralist feminism.(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AAll feminists argue that women occupy a subordinate position in society and all feminists wish to end this state of affairs. However, they differ about both the causes of the problem and its solution. For example, liberal feminists argue that traditional attitudes and cultural stereotypes about women’s abilities have kept them subordinated, but that changes in laws, policies and socialisation patterns will gradually bring about gender equality.However, both radical and Marxist feminists argue that women’s oppression has deeper roots and requires more fundamental, revolutionary changes in order to end it.Outline and explain two feminist views of the position of women in society. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of feminists to our understanding of society. [20 marks]ACTION THEORIESQuickcheckWhat are the main differences between structural and action theories?Identify the four types of action classified by Weber.Why is Mead’s interactionism ‘symbolic’?Explain what is meant by a ‘dramaturgical model’.Suggest two examples of techniques someone might use for impression management.Explain the difference between indexicality and reflexivity.According to Giddens, why does human ‘agency’ tend to reproduce rather than change existing structures?Explain what is meant by ‘ontological security’(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AAction approaches reject the idea that we are simply ‘puppets’ whose behaviour is determined by tightly scripted roles imposed on us by society. Instead, they start from the assumption that we create and shape society through our choices and actions. For example, interactionists argue that we create the social world through our interactions with one another, based on the meanings we give to situations. Similarly, ethnomethodologists argue that we use common-sense knowledge to construct a set of shared meanings.However, critics argue that action approaches ignore the influence of wider social structures.Outline and explain two concepts that symbolic interactionists use to understand social life. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of action approaches to our understanding of social behaviour. [20 marks]GLOBALISATION, MODERNITY AND POSTMODERNITYQuickcheckIdentify three features of modern society.Suggest two factors that may be giving rise to a global culture.What does Foucault mean by the term ‘discourse’?What do postmodernists mean by the term ‘meta-narrative’?What criticisms do postmodernists make of meta-narratives?What are ‘simulacra’?What does Giddens mean by ‘reflexivity’?What does Beck mean by ‘risk society’?Suggest two criticisms of postmodernism.Suggest two ways in which Marxists see flexible accumulation as promoting a postmodern culture.(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AAccording to some sociologists, recent changes such as those associated with globalisation have resulted in a major change in the nature of today’s society. For example, postmodernists argue that we no longer live in modern society but are now living in a media-saturated postmodern society in which it is impossible to distinguish image from reality or to change society for the better. As a result, postmodernists argue, we need new theories to explain this new kind of society.However, some critics argue that although there have been major changes in society, these are a continuation of modernity rather than a completely new type of society.Outline and explain two reasons for the growth of globalisation. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that we are now living in the postmodern age. [20 marks]SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL POLICYQuickcheckExplain the difference between a social problem and a sociological problem.Identify three factors affecting social policy apart from sociologists’ research findings.Which early sociologists argued that sociology should act as a guide to social policy?Identify three ways in which Marxists see social policies as helping to maintain capitalism.How might social research be affected by sources of funding?Suggest three policies that feminist research may have influenced.(answers at HYPERLINK ")Item AEarly positivist sociologists believed that sociology was a ‘science of society’ that would enable us to discover the causes of social problems and offer solutions to them. Sociologists’ research findings would then enable the state to implement appropriate social policies to deal with the problems. In the same way as medical research can discover cures for diseases, so sociological research would help solve society’s problems.However, Marxists claim that the main function of social policy is to maintain capitalism and that the role of sociologists should therefore be to criticise policy, not to serve the capitalist state.Outline and explain two views of the role of social policy in society. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate different sociological perspectives’ views of the relationship between sociology and social policy.MOCK EXAMItem AQuestionnaires are favoured by positivists as a method of research. By asking the same questions and with the same response categories, questionnaires are seen as producing reliable data because they can be repeated again and again. Questionnaires can be distributed often on large scale, by hand, via the internet or through the mail. This can increase the representativeness of the resulting data.Whichever way the questionnaire is distributed, the resulting data is easily quantifiable. This has limitations as well as benefits to the sociologist.Outline and explain two criticisms of postmodernist theory. [10 marks]Outline and explain two problems of using documents in sociological research. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of questionnaires in sociological research. [20 marks]

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