Name
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Exam review packet
Exam:
Section I MC (90 mins.)
A. 63 MC questions
B. 6 grid-in questions
Section II Essay (90 mins.)
2 long answers
6 short answers
Outline
Big Idea 1: Evolutionary biology
a. Change in the genetic makeup of a population over time is evolution.
b. Organisms are linked by lines of descent from common ancestry.
c. Life continues to evolve within a changing environment.
d. The origin of living systems is explained by natural processes.
Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
a. Growth, reproduction and maintenance of the organization of living systems require free energy and matter.
b. Growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis require that cells create and maintain internal environments that are different from their external environments.
c. Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
d. Growth and dynamic homeostasis of a biological system are influenced by changes in the system’s environment.
e. Many biological processes involved in growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis include temporal regulation and coordination.
Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit, and respond to information essential to life processes.
a. Heritable information provides for continuity of life.
b. Expression of genetic information involves cellular and molecular mechanisms.
c. The processing of genetic information is imperfect and is a source of genetic variation.
d. Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals.
e. Transmission of information results in changes within and between biological systems.
Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties
a. Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties.
b. Competition and cooperation are important aspects of biological systems.
c. Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects interactions with the environment.
I. Molecules and cells
a. Chemistry of life (chapters 2-5)
Ionic bonds:
Metal/nonmetal: transfer electrons
Covalent bonds:
2 non-metals: share electrons (polar vs nonpolar)
Hydrogen bonds:
Attraction between water molecules: not a bond
Water properties:
2/3’s of organism is made up of water, polar, solvent, adhesion: (Attraction of water to other surfaces: capillary action) cohesion: (Attraction between water molecules: surface tension), High specific heat: maintain temperature easier
Heat of vaporization, water floats
Hydrophobic:
Water insoluble: lipids
Hydrophilic:
Water soluble: sugars, ions
Buffer:
Maintains the pH, bicarbonate ion
Ionization:
Dissociation or separation into ions H+1 and OH-1
Molecular shape: angular, tetrahedral-receptor recognition
Organic molecules in organisms:
Organic chemistry:
Study of carbon
Functional groups:
Alcohols, acids, amines, esters, ketones, aldehydes
Polymer:
Large molecule: combines monomers: dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)
Monomer:
Single unit
Hydrolysis add water separates
Hydrocarbon:
Molecule with only hydrogen and carbon
Elements in the body:
C, H, N, O ,P (Na, K, Ca, Mg)
Carbohydrates:
C:H2:O; polysaccharides, monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)
Glycosidic linkage
Cellulose: Chitin (nitrogen): starch: glycogen
Energy
Lipids:
Oils, fats, steroids, waxes
Glycerol + fatty acids=fats
Saturated and unsaturated: phospholipids (membrane)
Steroids contain rings: prostaglandins
Nucleic acids:
DNA: purines: adenine, guanine, pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine
RNA: A:G:C:Uracil (pyrimidine)
Nucleotide: 5-carbon sugar; nitrogenous base: phosphate group
Phosphodiester bonds
Proteins:
aa denature (enzymes, defense, transport, motion,
peptide bonds regulation; storage)
primary structure: aa sequencs
secondary structure: fold due to hydrogen bonding (alpha helix): pleated sheet
tertiary structure: attraction with side chain (disulfur bonds, ionic bonds)
quaternary structure: two or more peptide chains attached (hgb, collagen)
Enzymes:
Proteins: catalysts lower Ea
pH, temperature, concentration, salt
Substrate:
Specific reactant that enzyme binds
Active site:
Site where enzyme binds: E-S complex
Competitive inhibitors:
Inhibitor binds to block affect of substrate
Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Bind at another site to block effect:
allosteric site: alternative site to stimulate or inhibit
Metabolism:
Organisms chemical reactions
Anabolism: to build up
Catabolism: to take apart
First law of thermodynamics:
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed
Second law of thermodynamics:
Every energy transfer increases the entropy
Gibbs free energy:
ΔG= ΔH-TΔS
Exergonic (negative: release energy) Endergonic (positive: gains energy)
b. Cells (chapters 6-7, 11-12)
Prokaryotes
Nucleoid (chromosomes), no internal membrane, no membrane bound organelles, no nucleus; contain ribosomes; smaller
Plasma membrane, cell wall (peptiglycan) gram (+) thick layer gram(-) thin layer
Bacteria, archaea
Eukaryotes
Nucleus; organelles with membranes; larger
Plasma membrane
Protista, fungi, plant and animals
Cell organelles:
Nucleus, nucleolus, golgi bodies, mitochondria, peroxisomes, ER, lysosomes, centrioles, ribosomes, cytoskeleton
Chloroplasts
Cell wall
Membranes:
Phospholipids
Proteins: transport, enzymes, surface receptors, cell identity markers, intercellular junctions, attaches to cytoskeleton
Carbohydrates:
Cell-cell recognition
Endosymbiosis:
Engulfing of single cell into another for organelles
Transport:
Active (ATP) – Na/K pump; passive(Osmosis, diffusion); Bulk transport (exocytosis, endocytosis)
Water balance:
Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic
Cell communication:
Direct contact, paracrine (short lived), endocrine (blood stream), synaptic (neurotransmitters)
Reception-transduction-response
Second messengers –cAMP or Ca2+
Tyrosine kinase
Gap junctions
Communication in the cardiac muscle
Plasmodesmata
Tight junctions in plants
Cell cycle and its regulation
Chromosomes
46 diploid, 23 haploid
Mitosis
Two identical cells
Interphase (chromosomes multiply)
Prophase (chromosomes condense)
Metaphase (line up in middle)
Anaphase (go to poles)
Telophase (chromosomes at poles)
Cytokinesis (cell divides)
c. Cellular energetics (8-10)
Coupled reactions:
ATP⇨ADP + P (energy) (hydrolysis) helps drive endergonic reactions
Redox reactions
Cellular respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇨ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
Glycolysis:
Glucose to 2 pyruvate
2 ATP used
4 ATP generated
2 NADH
cytoplasm
Pyruvate oxidation:
Pyruvate to acetyl CoA
NADH
CO2
mitochodria
Kreb cycle:
4CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Goes through 2 cycles
Acetyl CoA
Citrate
Oxaloacetate Isocitrate
Malate αKetoglutarate
Furmerate
Succinate Succinyl CoA
Electron transport chain:
Inner mitochondria membrane
Electron moves down membrane
Oxygen accepts electron- forms water
Chemiosmosis (H+ ) concentration gradient
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Fermentation:
Ethanol
Lactate
Photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light ⇨ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chloroplasts
Stroma
Fluid that surrounds the thylakoids
Thylakoids
Internal membranes of chloroplasts
Grana
Stacks of thylakoids
Photosystem I
700 nm
NADPH
Photosystem II
680 nm
Splits water releases O2
ATP
Calvin Cycle
Carbon fixation
3 CO2 produce one glucose
CO2
Rubisco
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-phosphopglycerate (PGA)
1, 3 Bisphosphoglycerate
aldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
glucose
Photorespiration:
Use O2 and not CO2
II. Heredity and Evolution
a. Heredity (Chapters 13-15)
Karyotype:
Picture of chromosomes
Chromatids:
Two identical halves joined by a centromere
Homologous chromosomes:
Matched pair of chromosomes (one from mom and one from dad)
Meiosis
Two rounds of cell division
Meiosis I half the number of chromosomes-homologous chromosomes part
Meiosis II 4 haploid cells (gametes)
Synapsis:
Homologous chromosomes pair
Crossing-over:
Homologous chromosomes exchange chromosomal information
Nondisjunction:
When homologous chromosomes fail to separate (down’s syndrome, turners)
Eukaryote chromosome:
Euchromatin: “true” loosely packed
Heterochromatin: tightly packed-proteins
Histones-nucleosomes-30nm-looped domain-metaphase chromosome
60% DNA-40% proteins
Mendel
Genotype
Genetic make-up
Phenotype
Physical appearance
Alleles:
Two alternate forms of trait
Homozygous:
Two of the same alleles
Heterozygous:
Two different alleles
F1 generation:
First generation
F2 generation:
Second generation when F1 is crossed
Testcross:
Use homozygous recessive to cross to determine genotype
Law of segregation
Alternate alleles of a character segregate
Law of independent assortment:
Genes on different chromosomes assort independently
Incomplete dominance:
Neither gene is dominant (pink flowers)
Multiple alleles:
Many genes exist for the phenotype (blood groups) codominance
Pleiotropy:
Allele has more than one effect (sickle cell)
Epistasis:
One allele affects the expression of another
Polygenes:
Additive affect of two or more genes
Sex-linked:
Defect on X-chromosome (X from mom)
Hemophilia, DMD, color blindness
Punnett squares:
Pedigree:
b. Molecular genetics (chapters 16-20, 27)
DNA
Adenine-thymine (2 hydrogen bonds)
Guanine-cytosine (3 hydrogen bonds)
Replication:
Initiation to elongation to termination
RNA primer
nucleus
Semiconservative replication
5’ to 3’ replication (phosphate is on the 5’ C and the –OH is on the 3’ C of ribose
Leading strand:
Continuous strand of dupilcation
Lagging strand:
Duplicated in short segments
Okazaki fragments:
Short DNA fragments
Enzymes:
DNA polymerase:
Adds new nucleotides (III adds new) (I removes primer)
DNA primase:
Forms primer
DNA helicase:
Opens helix
Topoisomerase:
Releases strain
DNA ligase:
Combines Okazaki fragments
Single-strand binding proteins:
Binds-stabilizes DNA
Replication fork:
Opening of the DNA
Protein Synthesis
Transcription Translation
DNA RNA Protein
(nucleus) (cytoplasm) (cytoplasm)
RNA
mRNA
transcribes information from DNA, codon (3 nucleotides long)
tRNA
carries aa anti-codon (3 nucleotides long) shape-hydrogen bonds
rRNA
ribosomal units where protein is assembled
Ribosomes:
A site:
Initial site where t-RNA comes in with aa
P site:
mid section where tRNA moves to
E site:
Exit site
Transcription:
Initiation
Promoter
RNA polymerase
Elongation
Termination
Translation
Initiation: ribosomal unit, mRNA attaches and tRNA attaches to p-site
Elongation: more tRNA come in and combine aa
Termination: stop codon (UUU)
Differences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Modify RNA
Introns (spliced out)
Exons (spliced together)
5’cap (GTP on 5’phosphate, methyl group on GTP)
3’poly (several A’s on end of mRNA)
Ribosomes
Smaller in prokaryotes
Nucleus
Prokaryotes lack a nucleus so transcription and translation can occur at same time
Gene regulation
Transcriptional control
Prokaryotes
Operon: DNA segment responsible for protein synthesis (codes for many enzymes)
Repression (trp operon)-trytophan or Induction (lac operon)-lactose
Eukaryotes
DNA-binding motifs
Chromatin (tightly wound), histone acetylation;
DNA methylation
Posttranscriptional control
Small RNA
Splicing
mRNA passage through membranes
mRNA degradation
Translation control
Proteins not produced
Alter proteins by Phosphorylation
Mutations
Change in genetic message
Change in nucleotide sequence
Nucleotide sequence:
Point mutation: One or a few base pair alter
Deletion, addition, substitution
Chromosome changes
Nondisjunction: homologous chromosomes do not separate properly
Translocation: segment of one chromosome becomes part of another
Inversion: part of chromosome breaks off and reattaches backwards
Mutagen:
Something that causes mutations
X-Rays, chemicals
Must occur in gametes to be inherited
Viral structure
DNA or RNA surrounded by capsid or protein coat
Lack ribosomes to duplicate on own
Must duplicate in host
Bacterophage
Virus that attacks a bacteria
Viral diseases
HIV, Hepatitis, CP, Epstein Barr, Ebola virus, SARS
Bacteria
Diseases
Strep, staph, Lyme disease, TB
Nucleic acid technology:
Recombinant DNA:
Combining two different sources of DNA (Human and Bacteria)
Gene cloning:
Make more of a specific segment of DNA-human insulin
Restrictive enzymes:
Cut DNA into smaller segments at specific sites
PCR: polymerase chain reaction
Method to amplify gene of interest
RFLP’s: restriction fragment length polymorphisms
DNA fragments: DNA fingerprints
Gel electrophoresis:
Separates DNA based on size and charge
Southern Blot:
One method of electrophoresis
Applications:
Gene therapy, disease diagnosis, drugs, forensics, paternity, plants
c. Evolutionary biology (Chapters 22-25)
Evolution:
Change over time of the genetic make-up of a population
Darwin
Origin of Species
Decent with modification:
All organisms are related by descent.
Natural selection:
Survival of the fittest
Organism adapts
Able to reproduce more
Gradualism:
Slowly over time see changes
Punctuated equilibrium
Species have periods of no change with bursts of change
Evidence of evolution
Anatomy
Homologous structures: (analogous: similar due to similar envir. Not related)
Structures with different appearances and function that all developed from an common ancestor
Embryology:
Gills
Vestigial organs:
Remnants of organs that no longer serve a function
Molecular biology:
aa sequence closest to monkey
Biogeography:
Organisms that live in similar environments tend to have similar structures
(convergent evolution)
Paleontology:
study of fossils
Hardy-Weinberg theory
p + q = 1 p2 + 2pq + q2 =1 p=dominant allele, q=recessive allele
Based on large population, no change, no mutations, no selection
Population genetics:
Study of how populations change genetically over time
Microevolution:
Change in genetic make-up of a population over time
Marcroevolution:
Change above the species level
Ways that cause a change in the equilibrium of a species
Genetic drift:
Change in allele frequency due to chance alone
Bottleneck:
Sudden change in environment limits the number of genes seals
Founder effect:
Few individuals become isolated from population Amish
Gene flow:
Movement of genes in and out of a population
Selection
Disruptive:
Eliminates the intermediate type
Directional:
Eliminate one extreme in the population
Stabilizing:
Eliminate both extremes in the population
Species:
Group that can interbreed
Speciation:
Formation of a new species
Sympatric speciation:
Distinct species live together in the same area
Prezygotic isolation:
Ecological isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation
Postzygotic isolation:
Zygotes are infertile, die, weak
Allopatric speciation:
Geographical separation
III. Organisms and populations
a. Diversity of organisms (chapters 26-34)
Taxonomy:
Science of classifying organisms
Binomial nomenclature:
Two names, Genus species Homo sapiens
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Phylogeny:
Evolutionary history of a species or a group of related species
Phylogenetic tree:
Branching diagrams used to show evolutionary relationships
3 domains
Archaea, Bacteria, Eukaryotes (show how Archea branches off
from common ancestor)
6 kingdoms
Archeabacteria, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals
Archeabacteria
Prokaryotes
Live in extreme environments (Methanogens, extremophiles and nonextremophiles)
Bacteria
Prokaryotes
Beneficial: decomposition, recycle nitrogen, photosynthesis
Protista
Diverse plant-like to animal-like to fungi-like
Unicellular to multicellular
Common Protista
Giardia: diarrhea, water Trichomonads: vaginitis Plasmodium: Malaria Trypanosoma: sleeping sickness Diatoms: contain silica Slime mold
Brown algae: Kelp Red algae: sushi Green algae
Amoebas Paramecium
Fungi
Most are multicellular, Heterotrophs, obtain food by absorption,
Cell walls contain chitin
Hyphae: tiny filaments
Septa: separate cells
Mycelium: mass of connected hyphae
Reproduction: spores; most are haploid
Lichens: combination of an algae and a fungi
Mycorrhizae: combines with plant roots to help absorb nutrients
Common fungi
Yeast, Bread mold, Mushrooms
Plants
Multicellular, Autotrophs
Gametophyte:
haploid
Sporophyte:
diploid
Adaptations to land
Cuticle, stomata, xylem, phloem, walled spores, seeds
Types of plants
1. Nonvascular land plants
Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
2. Seedless vascular plants
Club mosses
Ferns
3. Gymnosperms
pine trees, naked seeds
4. Angiosperms
flowering plants
Animals
1. Symmetry
Radial vs. bilateral
2. Tissues
Absent vs present
3. Body cavity
Acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, coelomates
4. Protostomas vs deuterostomas
Formation of anus vs mouth
5. Segmentation
Invertebrates
Vertebrates (Chordates)
Common characteristics
1. nerve cord
2. notochord
3. pharyngeal slits
4. postanal tail
Vertebrates
Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
Mammal common characteristics
Mammary glands, hair, endothermic, internal fertilization, born, teeth, larger brains
Primates
Hands and feet that grasp, large brains, short jaws, forward-looking eyes, well-developed parental care, complex social behavior
3 subgroups of primates
Lemus, tarisiers, anthropoids (humans, apes, monkeys)
Humans
More upright, larger brain, shortening jaw,
bipedal posture, different sex sizes,
more family structure
Australopithecus (“Lucy”)
Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens
What is the evidence of how humans evolved?
Fossils, DNA (molecular clock)
b. Structure and function of Plant and Animals (chapters 35-39, 40-51)
Animals
Tissues
Epithelial (stratified, columnar, cubodial), Connective (bone, blood, cartilage, fat), Muscle (cardiac, smooth, striated), Nerve
Circulatory system:
Function:
Transport cells, gases, chemical cpds
Open (hemolymph) vs closed (blood)
Organs:
Heart (4 chambered) valves (bicuspid-mitral ,tricuspid, semilunar valves), arteries/veins, capillaries
Blood: RBC-hemoglobin, serum(plasma), WBC, platelets
BP:
Systolic/diastolic
Working/resting
SA node-AV node-bundle of his-purkinji fibers
Respiratory:
Function:
Gas exchange
Organs:
Lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, gills
Diaphragm/intercostal muscles contract air/relax air out
Immune/lymphatic:
Function:
Defense
Innate (non-specific) vs acquired immunity
Vaccines
Antigen: foreign molecule causes response
MHC: major histocompatibility complex
Organs:
Thymus, bone marrow, lymph vessels, spleen, lymph nodes
First line defense:
Skin, pH stomach, mucous, cilia, lysozymes
Second line defense:
Phagocytosis, anti-microbial proteins(interferons), inflammatory response, natural killer cells
Third line defense:
B-lymphocytes: plasma cells produce antibodies-humoral response
T-lymphocytes: t-helper, cytotoxic, memory cells-cell mediated response
Digestive:
Function:
Digest, absorption, elimination
Organs:
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (villi), large intestine, rectum, anus
Pancreas, gall bladder, liver
Enzymes:
Amylase: starch, pepsin: protein, lipase: fats, proteases: protein
Bile salts: emulsify fats,
Peristalsis: movement of food through system
Urinary system(osmoregulation)
Function:
Remove wastes (urea, uric acid, NH3), control water (filtration, absorption, secretion)
Organs:
Kidneys (nephron-glomerulus,bowmans capsule, tubules, loop of henle, collecting ducts), bladder, ureter, urethra
ADH(collecting ducts), Aldosterone(blood volume) (angiotensin-renin)
Endocrine system
Function:
Coordinates activities of body
Organs:
Hypothalamus:
Neuro control direct into post pituitary; regulatory
Pituitary gland:
Anterior (tropin): FSH, ACTH, LH, TSH, GH, MSH
Posterior: Oxytocin, ADH
Thyroid:
Thyroxine, calcitonin
Ovaries/testes;
Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
Pancreas:
Glucagon/insulin
Parathyroid:
PTH
Adrenal gland:
medulla: epinephrine cortex: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids
Pineal:
melatonin
Protein hormones
Steroid hormones
Reproduction:
Function:
Reproduction/development
Organs:
Ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, testes
Females:
3 polar bodies, one egg
Born with eggs, stimulated to release egg-menstral cycle
Male
Sperm formed in seminiferous tubules in the testes
Fertilization: sperm/egg-zona pellucida
Cleavage: rapid cell division
Gastrulation: inward turning-germ layers
Organogenesis: development of organs
Nervous system:
Function:
Regulation
Organs:
Brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, medulla oblongata, limbic system-amygdala), spinal cord, sensory organs, nerves
Nerve cell (neuron):
Dendrite: receives the information, Axon: sends signals, Cell body: contains nucleus
Neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine:
Stimulates muscles to contract
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks apart acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
Biogenic amines:
Serotonin: (from tryptophan)
Mood, sleep, attention (inhibitory)
Decreased amounts depression
Dopamine: (from tyrosine)
Excitatory controls movements, also mood -----Parkinson’s disease
Epinephrine/Norepi: (from tyrosine)
Both neurotransmitter and hormone
Stimulatory or inhibitory
GABA & glycine: Inhibitory affect in brain
Glutamate: Excitatory
Endorphins: CNS inhibitory
NO: dilation of blood vessels
Resting Potential:
No impulse
Membrane potential of a resting neuron (Na/K pump)
More negative inside then outside the membrane
Action Potential:
Impulse, Rapid change in membrane potential
Change in ions
Myelin sheath:
Insulation around neuron
Nodes of Ranvier:
Gaps between the myelin sheath
Saltatory conduction:
Rapid impulse, “jumps” from node to node
Musskeletal system
Function :
Movement/support
Organs :
Muscle fibers⇨myofibrils⇨myofiliaments⇨Actin & myosin
Actin thin double helix
Myosin thick, contains a head
Sliding filament
Muscle contraction
ATP binds to the myosin head, cleaves forms ADP, Ca ion comes down SR
Binds to tropomyosin cause troponin to move off binding sites
Myosin head attaches to binding site on actin forms cross bridge
Pulls actin
Stays bound until new ATP binds myosin head
Ethology (chapter 51)
Study of pattern of animal behaviors
Innate behavior
Instinctive
Stimulus, mechanism, fixed action pattern (goose, red bottom fish, birds feeding)
Habituation
Loss of responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli (planes and birds)
Classical conditioning (Pavlov dogs)
Pairing of two different stimuli
Bell ringing when feeding
Operant conditioning (Skinner’s box)
Trial and error (paired with reward/punishment)
Imprinting
Learning in a limited time-irreversible
Cognitive behaviors
Thought process (seagulls, raven, chimps)
Taxis
Movement towards or away from stimuli
Kineses
Nonspecific movements due to stimuli
Plants Chapters 35-39
Monocots:
Single seed, leaves parallel lines, grasses, bulbs, flowers threes
Dicots:
2 seed leaves, leaves network of veins, annuals, trees, shrubs, flowers 4 or 5
Cell types
Parenchyma cells: thin walled
Most abundant, perform metabolism (photosynthesis), found throughout plant
Collenchyma cells:
Support, grouped in strands or cyliners (flexible)
Sclerenchyma cells:
Support, found where no longer growing, examples: fibers, sclereids
lignin
Tissue types:
Dermal tissues:
Single layer that covers the outside of the plant----trichomes (small hairs)
Vascular tissues:
Transports materials from roots to shoots (xylem, phloem)
Xylem: transports water and minerals
Cells types----vessel members , tracheids (dead)
Adhesion, cohesion
Phloem: transports sugars
Cell types---seive-tube members, sieve cells
Companion cell, source to sink
Ground tissues:
Parenchyma cells, metabolic processes
Pith: ground tissue internal to vascular tissues
Cortex: external to vascular tissues
Mesophyll: ground tissue in leaves
Spongy-loosely packed gas exchange palisade-tighter photosynthesis
Organs
Root, Stem, Leaves
Root cap:
Apical meristem, pushes through the soil
Root tip:
Zone of division:
New root is produced
Zone of elongation
Above and cells elongate
Zone of maturation:
No further division
Tap root
Long root
Stomata:
Openings where water leaves, oxygen leaves and carbon dioxide enters
Guard cells: (dermal tissue)
Either side of stomata regulate the opening----K ions---- uneven thickness of wall
Transpiration:
Loss of water out the leaves
Adhesion, cohesion
Casparian strip
Barrier made of suberin (root) to force water into endoderm
Growth
Apical meristems: (meristems: embryonic tissues)
rapid growth, cell division, stems, root tips, buds, primary growth
Lateral meristems:
Increased width, secondary growth
Vascular cambium: (lateral meristems)
Secondary xylem (wood)
Secondary phloem
Cork cambium: (lateral meristems)
Produces cork cells, tough outside
Periderm:
Cork and cork cambium (replaces epidermis)
Plant hormones:
Auxin:
Elongation, lateral roots---found in meristems,
Cytokinins:
Regulates cell division. lateral growth and root growth, move sugars---found in roots
Gibberellins:
Stem elongation, pollen development, seed development----found in meristems
Brassinosteroids:
Cell division/expansion in shoots, seed generation, pollen tube elongation-all tissues
Abscisic acid: (ABA)
Inhibits growth/early germination, promotes leaf senescence, guard cells-all cells
Ethylene:
Fruit ripening, leaf death, triple response-all plant parts
Phototropism
Movement of plant due to light
Gravitropism:
Movement of plant due to gravity
Thigmotropism:
Movement of plant due to touch
Double fertilization
Anther-sperm production ovule: egg
Pollen sticks to stigma-goes down style-divides into 2 sperm
2 sperm, one forms zygote, forms endosperm (nutrients)
Ovules-seeds ovary-fruit
Ecology (chapters 52-55)
Study of how organisms relate to one another and their environment
Forging, territorial and courtship behaviors
Organism (behavioral ecology)
Population (several individuals of same species)
Community (different species that live in a particular area)
Ecosystem (abiotic factors and all the species that live in that area)
Biosphere (all the living communities on earth-global ecosystem)
Population
Characteristics of a population
Range, spacing, size
Demographics: survivorship curves, cohorts
Carrying capacity(K)
Environmental factors (light, water, space)
Density dependent effects
Too many causes decrease birth rates or increased mortality
K-selection
Density independent effects
Fire, volcano, cold etc.
r-selection
Community
Niche
How an organism uses its environment (fundamental vs realized)
1. Competition
Two species fight over resources (exclusion/sympatric species)
2. Predation
Consuming another organism (deer bush)
Defenses
Plants: thorns, chemicals etc
Animals: run, hide, chemicals, coloration (asposematic-warning, cryptic-blending), mimic (Batesian-same as bad animal, Mullerian-several)
3. Symbiosis
Commensalism
One benefits another no effect
Mutualism
Both benefit
Parasitism
One harms another
Succession
Change in communities from simple to complex
Primary and secondary
Ecosystems
Nutrient cycles
Water cycle (evaporation/precipitation-physical change)
Carbon cycle (photosynthesis/cellular respiration)
Humans increased amounts due to fossil fuels
Nitrogen cycle (bacteria fix nitrogen from atmosphere to a more usable form)
Phosphorus cycle (minerals in the rock and soils)
Energy flow
Sun is source of energy
Primary producers (autotrophs)
Primary consumers (herbivores)
Secondary consumers (carnivores)
Biospheres
Primary productivity: amount of energy produced by photosynthesis
Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy
Secondary productivity: rate of biomass in heterotrophs
How much chemical energy is converted to consumer’s biomass
GPP(gross primary production)-NPP(net primary production) GPP-R=NPP
Biospheres
Biomes
Based on climate
Aquatic biomes
Lakes
Wetlands
Streams and rivers
Estuaries-salt water meets fresh water
Intertidal +/- water
Ocean
Coral reefs
Benthic zone: at the bottom of ocean floor
Terrestrial biomes
Tropical rain forest: greatest diversity
Savanna (Africa)
Desert
Chaparral: coastal regions
Temperate grass lands (large mammals)
Temperate deciduous forest (loose leaves q year)
Temperate evergreen forest (long dry seasons, western US)
Tundra (permafrost)
Problems
Acid rain
Chemicals Farming, logging
Ozone layer
Global warming greenhouse gases
Increased CO2
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