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Exam review packet

Exam:

Section I MC (90 mins.)

A. 63 MC questions

B. 6 grid-in questions

Section II Essay (90 mins.)

2 long answers

6 short answers

Outline

Big Idea 1: Evolutionary biology

a. Change in the genetic makeup of a population over time is evolution.

b. Organisms are linked by lines of descent from common ancestry.

c. Life continues to evolve within a changing environment.

d. The origin of living systems is explained by natural processes.

Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

a. Growth, reproduction and maintenance of the organization of living systems require free energy and matter.

b. Growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis require that cells create and maintain internal environments that are different from their external environments.

c. Organisms use feedback mechanisms to regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

d. Growth and dynamic homeostasis of a biological system are influenced by changes in the system’s environment.

e. Many biological processes involved in growth, reproduction and dynamic homeostasis include temporal regulation and coordination.

Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit, and respond to information essential to life processes.

a. Heritable information provides for continuity of life.

b. Expression of genetic information involves cellular and molecular mechanisms.

c. The processing of genetic information is imperfect and is a source of genetic variation.

d. Cells communicate by generating, transmitting and receiving chemical signals.

e. Transmission of information results in changes within and between biological systems.

Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex properties

a. Interactions within biological systems lead to complex properties.

b. Competition and cooperation are important aspects of biological systems.

c. Naturally occurring diversity among and between components within biological systems affects interactions with the environment.

I. Molecules and cells

a. Chemistry of life (chapters 2-5)

Ionic bonds:

Metal/nonmetal: transfer electrons

Covalent bonds:

2 non-metals: share electrons (polar vs nonpolar)

Hydrogen bonds:

Attraction between water molecules: not a bond

Water properties:

2/3’s of organism is made up of water, polar, solvent, adhesion: (Attraction of water to other surfaces: capillary action) cohesion: (Attraction between water molecules: surface tension), High specific heat: maintain temperature easier

Heat of vaporization, water floats

Hydrophobic:

Water insoluble: lipids

Hydrophilic:

Water soluble: sugars, ions

Buffer:

Maintains the pH, bicarbonate ion

Ionization:

Dissociation or separation into ions H+1 and OH-1

Molecular shape: angular, tetrahedral-receptor recognition

Organic molecules in organisms:

Organic chemistry:

Study of carbon

Functional groups:

Alcohols, acids, amines, esters, ketones, aldehydes

Polymer:

Large molecule: combines monomers: dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)

Monomer:

Single unit

Hydrolysis add water separates

Hydrocarbon:

Molecule with only hydrogen and carbon

Elements in the body:

C, H, N, O ,P (Na, K, Ca, Mg)

Carbohydrates:

C:H2:O; polysaccharides, monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)

Glycosidic linkage

Cellulose: Chitin (nitrogen): starch: glycogen

Energy

Lipids:

Oils, fats, steroids, waxes

Glycerol + fatty acids=fats

Saturated and unsaturated: phospholipids (membrane)

Steroids contain rings: prostaglandins

Nucleic acids:

DNA: purines: adenine, guanine, pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine

RNA: A:G:C:Uracil (pyrimidine)

Nucleotide: 5-carbon sugar; nitrogenous base: phosphate group

Phosphodiester bonds

Proteins:

aa denature (enzymes, defense, transport, motion,

peptide bonds regulation; storage)

primary structure: aa sequencs

secondary structure: fold due to hydrogen bonding (alpha helix): pleated sheet

tertiary structure: attraction with side chain (disulfur bonds, ionic bonds)

quaternary structure: two or more peptide chains attached (hgb, collagen)

Enzymes:

Proteins: catalysts lower Ea

pH, temperature, concentration, salt

Substrate:

Specific reactant that enzyme binds

Active site:

Site where enzyme binds: E-S complex

Competitive inhibitors:

Inhibitor binds to block affect of substrate

Noncompetitive inhibitors:

Bind at another site to block effect:

allosteric site: alternative site to stimulate or inhibit

Metabolism:

Organisms chemical reactions

Anabolism: to build up

Catabolism: to take apart

First law of thermodynamics:

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed

Second law of thermodynamics:

Every energy transfer increases the entropy

Gibbs free energy:

ΔG= ΔH-TΔS

Exergonic (negative: release energy) Endergonic (positive: gains energy)

b. Cells (chapters 6-7, 11-12)

Prokaryotes

Nucleoid (chromosomes), no internal membrane, no membrane bound organelles, no nucleus; contain ribosomes; smaller

Plasma membrane, cell wall (peptiglycan) gram (+) thick layer gram(-) thin layer

Bacteria, archaea

Eukaryotes

Nucleus; organelles with membranes; larger

Plasma membrane

Protista, fungi, plant and animals

Cell organelles:

Nucleus, nucleolus, golgi bodies, mitochondria, peroxisomes, ER, lysosomes, centrioles, ribosomes, cytoskeleton

Chloroplasts

Cell wall

Membranes:

Phospholipids

Proteins: transport, enzymes, surface receptors, cell identity markers, intercellular junctions, attaches to cytoskeleton

Carbohydrates:

Cell-cell recognition

Endosymbiosis:

Engulfing of single cell into another for organelles

Transport:

Active (ATP) – Na/K pump; passive(Osmosis, diffusion); Bulk transport (exocytosis, endocytosis)

Water balance:

Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic

Cell communication:

Direct contact, paracrine (short lived), endocrine (blood stream), synaptic (neurotransmitters)

Reception-transduction-response

Second messengers –cAMP or Ca2+

Tyrosine kinase

Gap junctions

Communication in the cardiac muscle

Plasmodesmata

Tight junctions in plants

Cell cycle and its regulation

Chromosomes

46 diploid, 23 haploid

Mitosis

Two identical cells

Interphase (chromosomes multiply)

Prophase (chromosomes condense)

Metaphase (line up in middle)

Anaphase (go to poles)

Telophase (chromosomes at poles)

Cytokinesis (cell divides)

c. Cellular energetics (8-10)

Coupled reactions:

ATP⇨ADP + P (energy) (hydrolysis) helps drive endergonic reactions

Redox reactions

Cellular respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇨ 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP

Glycolysis:

Glucose to 2 pyruvate

2 ATP used

4 ATP generated

2 NADH

cytoplasm

Pyruvate oxidation:

Pyruvate to acetyl CoA

NADH

CO2

mitochodria

Kreb cycle:

4CO2

2 ATP

6 NADH

2 FADH2

Goes through 2 cycles

Acetyl CoA

Citrate

Oxaloacetate Isocitrate

Malate αKetoglutarate

Furmerate

Succinate Succinyl CoA

Electron transport chain:

Inner mitochondria membrane

Electron moves down membrane

Oxygen accepts electron- forms water

Chemiosmosis (H+ ) concentration gradient

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Fermentation:

Ethanol

Lactate

Photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light ⇨ C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Chloroplasts

Stroma

Fluid that surrounds the thylakoids

Thylakoids

Internal membranes of chloroplasts

Grana

Stacks of thylakoids

Photosystem I

700 nm

NADPH

Photosystem II

680 nm

Splits water releases O2

ATP

Calvin Cycle

Carbon fixation

3 CO2 produce one glucose

CO2

Rubisco

Ribulose bisphosphate 3-phosphopglycerate (PGA)

1, 3 Bisphosphoglycerate

aldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)

glucose

Photorespiration:

Use O2 and not CO2

II. Heredity and Evolution

a. Heredity (Chapters 13-15)

Karyotype:

Picture of chromosomes

Chromatids:

Two identical halves joined by a centromere

Homologous chromosomes:

Matched pair of chromosomes (one from mom and one from dad)

Meiosis

Two rounds of cell division

Meiosis I half the number of chromosomes-homologous chromosomes part

Meiosis II 4 haploid cells (gametes)

Synapsis:

Homologous chromosomes pair

Crossing-over:

Homologous chromosomes exchange chromosomal information

Nondisjunction:

When homologous chromosomes fail to separate (down’s syndrome, turners)

Eukaryote chromosome:

Euchromatin: “true” loosely packed

Heterochromatin: tightly packed-proteins

Histones-nucleosomes-30nm-looped domain-metaphase chromosome

60% DNA-40% proteins

Mendel

Genotype

Genetic make-up

Phenotype

Physical appearance

Alleles:

Two alternate forms of trait

Homozygous:

Two of the same alleles

Heterozygous:

Two different alleles

F1 generation:

First generation

F2 generation:

Second generation when F1 is crossed

Testcross:

Use homozygous recessive to cross to determine genotype

Law of segregation

Alternate alleles of a character segregate

Law of independent assortment:

Genes on different chromosomes assort independently

Incomplete dominance:

Neither gene is dominant (pink flowers)

Multiple alleles:

Many genes exist for the phenotype (blood groups) codominance

Pleiotropy:

Allele has more than one effect (sickle cell)

Epistasis:

One allele affects the expression of another

Polygenes:

Additive affect of two or more genes

Sex-linked:

Defect on X-chromosome (X from mom)

Hemophilia, DMD, color blindness

Punnett squares:

Pedigree:

b. Molecular genetics (chapters 16-20, 27)

DNA

Adenine-thymine (2 hydrogen bonds)

Guanine-cytosine (3 hydrogen bonds)

Replication:

Initiation to elongation to termination

RNA primer

nucleus

Semiconservative replication

5’ to 3’ replication (phosphate is on the 5’ C and the –OH is on the 3’ C of ribose

Leading strand:

Continuous strand of dupilcation

Lagging strand:

Duplicated in short segments

Okazaki fragments:

Short DNA fragments

Enzymes:

DNA polymerase:

Adds new nucleotides (III adds new) (I removes primer)

DNA primase:

Forms primer

DNA helicase:

Opens helix

Topoisomerase:

Releases strain

DNA ligase:

Combines Okazaki fragments

Single-strand binding proteins:

Binds-stabilizes DNA

Replication fork:

Opening of the DNA

Protein Synthesis

Transcription Translation

DNA RNA Protein

(nucleus) (cytoplasm) (cytoplasm)

RNA

mRNA

transcribes information from DNA, codon (3 nucleotides long)

tRNA

carries aa anti-codon (3 nucleotides long) shape-hydrogen bonds

rRNA

ribosomal units where protein is assembled

Ribosomes:

A site:

Initial site where t-RNA comes in with aa

P site:

mid section where tRNA moves to

E site:

Exit site

Transcription:

Initiation

Promoter

RNA polymerase

Elongation

Termination

Translation

Initiation: ribosomal unit, mRNA attaches and tRNA attaches to p-site

Elongation: more tRNA come in and combine aa

Termination: stop codon (UUU)

Differences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Modify RNA

Introns (spliced out)

Exons (spliced together)

5’cap (GTP on 5’phosphate, methyl group on GTP)

3’poly (several A’s on end of mRNA)

Ribosomes

Smaller in prokaryotes

Nucleus

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus so transcription and translation can occur at same time

Gene regulation

Transcriptional control

Prokaryotes

Operon: DNA segment responsible for protein synthesis (codes for many enzymes)

Repression (trp operon)-trytophan or Induction (lac operon)-lactose

Eukaryotes

DNA-binding motifs

Chromatin (tightly wound), histone acetylation;

DNA methylation

Posttranscriptional control

Small RNA

Splicing

mRNA passage through membranes

mRNA degradation

Translation control

Proteins not produced

Alter proteins by Phosphorylation

Mutations

Change in genetic message

Change in nucleotide sequence

Nucleotide sequence:

Point mutation: One or a few base pair alter

Deletion, addition, substitution

Chromosome changes

Nondisjunction: homologous chromosomes do not separate properly

Translocation: segment of one chromosome becomes part of another

Inversion: part of chromosome breaks off and reattaches backwards

Mutagen:

Something that causes mutations

X-Rays, chemicals

Must occur in gametes to be inherited

Viral structure

DNA or RNA surrounded by capsid or protein coat

Lack ribosomes to duplicate on own

Must duplicate in host

Bacterophage

Virus that attacks a bacteria

Viral diseases

HIV, Hepatitis, CP, Epstein Barr, Ebola virus, SARS

Bacteria

Diseases

Strep, staph, Lyme disease, TB

Nucleic acid technology:

Recombinant DNA:

Combining two different sources of DNA (Human and Bacteria)

Gene cloning:

Make more of a specific segment of DNA-human insulin

Restrictive enzymes:

Cut DNA into smaller segments at specific sites

PCR: polymerase chain reaction

Method to amplify gene of interest

RFLP’s: restriction fragment length polymorphisms

DNA fragments: DNA fingerprints

Gel electrophoresis:

Separates DNA based on size and charge

Southern Blot:

One method of electrophoresis

Applications:

Gene therapy, disease diagnosis, drugs, forensics, paternity, plants

c. Evolutionary biology (Chapters 22-25)

Evolution:

Change over time of the genetic make-up of a population

Darwin

Origin of Species

Decent with modification:

All organisms are related by descent.

Natural selection:

Survival of the fittest

Organism adapts

Able to reproduce more

Gradualism:

Slowly over time see changes

Punctuated equilibrium

Species have periods of no change with bursts of change

Evidence of evolution

Anatomy

Homologous structures: (analogous: similar due to similar envir. Not related)

Structures with different appearances and function that all developed from an common ancestor

Embryology:

Gills

Vestigial organs:

Remnants of organs that no longer serve a function

Molecular biology:

aa sequence closest to monkey

Biogeography:

Organisms that live in similar environments tend to have similar structures

(convergent evolution)

Paleontology:

study of fossils

Hardy-Weinberg theory

p + q = 1 p2 + 2pq + q2 =1 p=dominant allele, q=recessive allele

Based on large population, no change, no mutations, no selection

Population genetics:

Study of how populations change genetically over time

Microevolution:

Change in genetic make-up of a population over time

Marcroevolution:

Change above the species level

Ways that cause a change in the equilibrium of a species

Genetic drift:

Change in allele frequency due to chance alone

Bottleneck:

Sudden change in environment limits the number of genes seals

Founder effect:

Few individuals become isolated from population Amish

Gene flow:

Movement of genes in and out of a population

Selection

Disruptive:

Eliminates the intermediate type

Directional:

Eliminate one extreme in the population

Stabilizing:

Eliminate both extremes in the population

Species:

Group that can interbreed

Speciation:

Formation of a new species

Sympatric speciation:

Distinct species live together in the same area

Prezygotic isolation:

Ecological isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation

Postzygotic isolation:

Zygotes are infertile, die, weak

Allopatric speciation:

Geographical separation

III. Organisms and populations

a. Diversity of organisms (chapters 26-34)

Taxonomy:

Science of classifying organisms

Binomial nomenclature:

Two names, Genus species Homo sapiens

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Phylogeny:

Evolutionary history of a species or a group of related species

Phylogenetic tree:

Branching diagrams used to show evolutionary relationships

3 domains

Archaea, Bacteria, Eukaryotes (show how Archea branches off

from common ancestor)

6 kingdoms

Archeabacteria, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals

Archeabacteria

Prokaryotes

Live in extreme environments (Methanogens, extremophiles and nonextremophiles)

Bacteria

Prokaryotes

Beneficial: decomposition, recycle nitrogen, photosynthesis

Protista

Diverse plant-like to animal-like to fungi-like

Unicellular to multicellular

Common Protista

Giardia: diarrhea, water Trichomonads: vaginitis Plasmodium: Malaria Trypanosoma: sleeping sickness Diatoms: contain silica Slime mold

Brown algae: Kelp Red algae: sushi Green algae

Amoebas Paramecium

Fungi

Most are multicellular, Heterotrophs, obtain food by absorption,

Cell walls contain chitin

Hyphae: tiny filaments

Septa: separate cells

Mycelium: mass of connected hyphae

Reproduction: spores; most are haploid

Lichens: combination of an algae and a fungi

Mycorrhizae: combines with plant roots to help absorb nutrients

Common fungi

Yeast, Bread mold, Mushrooms

Plants

Multicellular, Autotrophs

Gametophyte:

haploid

Sporophyte:

diploid

Adaptations to land

Cuticle, stomata, xylem, phloem, walled spores, seeds

Types of plants

1. Nonvascular land plants

Mosses, liverworts, hornworts

2. Seedless vascular plants

Club mosses

Ferns

3. Gymnosperms

pine trees, naked seeds

4. Angiosperms

flowering plants

Animals

1. Symmetry

Radial vs. bilateral

2. Tissues

Absent vs present

3. Body cavity

Acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, coelomates

4. Protostomas vs deuterostomas

Formation of anus vs mouth

5. Segmentation

Invertebrates

Vertebrates (Chordates)

Common characteristics

1. nerve cord

2. notochord

3. pharyngeal slits

4. postanal tail

Vertebrates

Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

Mammal common characteristics

Mammary glands, hair, endothermic, internal fertilization, born, teeth, larger brains

Primates

Hands and feet that grasp, large brains, short jaws, forward-looking eyes, well-developed parental care, complex social behavior

3 subgroups of primates

Lemus, tarisiers, anthropoids (humans, apes, monkeys)

Humans

More upright, larger brain, shortening jaw,

bipedal posture, different sex sizes,

more family structure

Australopithecus (“Lucy”)

Homo ergaster, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens

What is the evidence of how humans evolved?

Fossils, DNA (molecular clock)

b. Structure and function of Plant and Animals (chapters 35-39, 40-51)

Animals

Tissues

Epithelial (stratified, columnar, cubodial), Connective (bone, blood, cartilage, fat), Muscle (cardiac, smooth, striated), Nerve

Circulatory system:

Function:

Transport cells, gases, chemical cpds

Open (hemolymph) vs closed (blood)

Organs:

Heart (4 chambered) valves (bicuspid-mitral ,tricuspid, semilunar valves), arteries/veins, capillaries

Blood: RBC-hemoglobin, serum(plasma), WBC, platelets

BP:

Systolic/diastolic

Working/resting

SA node-AV node-bundle of his-purkinji fibers

Respiratory:

Function:

Gas exchange

Organs:

Lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, gills

Diaphragm/intercostal muscles contract air/relax air out

Immune/lymphatic:

Function:

Defense

Innate (non-specific) vs acquired immunity

Vaccines

Antigen: foreign molecule causes response

MHC: major histocompatibility complex

Organs:

Thymus, bone marrow, lymph vessels, spleen, lymph nodes

First line defense:

Skin, pH stomach, mucous, cilia, lysozymes

Second line defense:

Phagocytosis, anti-microbial proteins(interferons), inflammatory response, natural killer cells

Third line defense:

B-lymphocytes: plasma cells produce antibodies-humoral response

T-lymphocytes: t-helper, cytotoxic, memory cells-cell mediated response

Digestive:

Function:

Digest, absorption, elimination

Organs:

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (villi), large intestine, rectum, anus

Pancreas, gall bladder, liver

Enzymes:

Amylase: starch, pepsin: protein, lipase: fats, proteases: protein

Bile salts: emulsify fats,

Peristalsis: movement of food through system

Urinary system(osmoregulation)

Function:

Remove wastes (urea, uric acid, NH3), control water (filtration, absorption, secretion)

Organs:

Kidneys (nephron-glomerulus,bowmans capsule, tubules, loop of henle, collecting ducts), bladder, ureter, urethra

ADH(collecting ducts), Aldosterone(blood volume) (angiotensin-renin)

Endocrine system

Function:

Coordinates activities of body

Organs:

Hypothalamus:

Neuro control direct into post pituitary; regulatory

Pituitary gland:

Anterior (tropin): FSH, ACTH, LH, TSH, GH, MSH

Posterior: Oxytocin, ADH

Thyroid:

Thyroxine, calcitonin

Ovaries/testes;

Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone

Pancreas:

Glucagon/insulin

Parathyroid:

PTH

Adrenal gland:

medulla: epinephrine cortex: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids

Pineal:

melatonin

Protein hormones

Steroid hormones

Reproduction:

Function:

Reproduction/development

Organs:

Ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, testes

Females:

3 polar bodies, one egg

Born with eggs, stimulated to release egg-menstral cycle

Male

Sperm formed in seminiferous tubules in the testes

Fertilization: sperm/egg-zona pellucida

Cleavage: rapid cell division

Gastrulation: inward turning-germ layers

Organogenesis: development of organs

Nervous system:

Function:

Regulation

Organs:

Brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, medulla oblongata, limbic system-amygdala), spinal cord, sensory organs, nerves

Nerve cell (neuron):

Dendrite: receives the information, Axon: sends signals, Cell body: contains nucleus

Neurotransmitters:

Acetylcholine:

Stimulates muscles to contract

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks apart acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft

Biogenic amines:

Serotonin: (from tryptophan)

Mood, sleep, attention (inhibitory)

Decreased amounts depression

Dopamine: (from tyrosine)

Excitatory controls movements, also mood -----Parkinson’s disease

Epinephrine/Norepi: (from tyrosine)

Both neurotransmitter and hormone

Stimulatory or inhibitory

GABA & glycine: Inhibitory affect in brain

Glutamate: Excitatory

Endorphins: CNS inhibitory

NO: dilation of blood vessels

Resting Potential:

No impulse

Membrane potential of a resting neuron (Na/K pump)

More negative inside then outside the membrane

Action Potential:

Impulse, Rapid change in membrane potential

Change in ions

Myelin sheath:

Insulation around neuron

Nodes of Ranvier:

Gaps between the myelin sheath

Saltatory conduction:

Rapid impulse, “jumps” from node to node

Musskeletal system

Function :

Movement/support

Organs :

Muscle fibers⇨myofibrils⇨myofiliaments⇨Actin & myosin

Actin thin double helix

Myosin thick, contains a head

Sliding filament

Muscle contraction

ATP binds to the myosin head, cleaves forms ADP, Ca ion comes down SR

Binds to tropomyosin cause troponin to move off binding sites

Myosin head attaches to binding site on actin forms cross bridge

Pulls actin

Stays bound until new ATP binds myosin head

Ethology (chapter 51)

Study of pattern of animal behaviors

Innate behavior

Instinctive

Stimulus, mechanism, fixed action pattern (goose, red bottom fish, birds feeding)

Habituation

Loss of responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli (planes and birds)

Classical conditioning (Pavlov dogs)

Pairing of two different stimuli

Bell ringing when feeding

Operant conditioning (Skinner’s box)

Trial and error (paired with reward/punishment)

Imprinting

Learning in a limited time-irreversible

Cognitive behaviors

Thought process (seagulls, raven, chimps)

Taxis

Movement towards or away from stimuli

Kineses

Nonspecific movements due to stimuli

Plants Chapters 35-39

Monocots:

Single seed, leaves parallel lines, grasses, bulbs, flowers threes

Dicots:

2 seed leaves, leaves network of veins, annuals, trees, shrubs, flowers 4 or 5

Cell types

Parenchyma cells: thin walled

Most abundant, perform metabolism (photosynthesis), found throughout plant

Collenchyma cells:

Support, grouped in strands or cyliners (flexible)

Sclerenchyma cells:

Support, found where no longer growing, examples: fibers, sclereids

lignin

Tissue types:

Dermal tissues:

Single layer that covers the outside of the plant----trichomes (small hairs)

Vascular tissues:

Transports materials from roots to shoots (xylem, phloem)

Xylem: transports water and minerals

Cells types----vessel members , tracheids (dead)

Adhesion, cohesion

Phloem: transports sugars

Cell types---seive-tube members, sieve cells

Companion cell, source to sink

Ground tissues:

Parenchyma cells, metabolic processes

Pith: ground tissue internal to vascular tissues

Cortex: external to vascular tissues

Mesophyll: ground tissue in leaves

Spongy-loosely packed gas exchange palisade-tighter photosynthesis

Organs

Root, Stem, Leaves

Root cap:

Apical meristem, pushes through the soil

Root tip:

Zone of division:

New root is produced

Zone of elongation

Above and cells elongate

Zone of maturation:

No further division

Tap root

Long root

Stomata:

Openings where water leaves, oxygen leaves and carbon dioxide enters

Guard cells: (dermal tissue)

Either side of stomata regulate the opening----K ions---- uneven thickness of wall

Transpiration:

Loss of water out the leaves

Adhesion, cohesion

Casparian strip

Barrier made of suberin (root) to force water into endoderm

Growth

Apical meristems: (meristems: embryonic tissues)

rapid growth, cell division, stems, root tips, buds, primary growth

Lateral meristems:

Increased width, secondary growth

Vascular cambium: (lateral meristems)

Secondary xylem (wood)

Secondary phloem

Cork cambium: (lateral meristems)

Produces cork cells, tough outside

Periderm:

Cork and cork cambium (replaces epidermis)

Plant hormones:

Auxin:

Elongation, lateral roots---found in meristems,

Cytokinins:

Regulates cell division. lateral growth and root growth, move sugars---found in roots

Gibberellins:

Stem elongation, pollen development, seed development----found in meristems

Brassinosteroids:

Cell division/expansion in shoots, seed generation, pollen tube elongation-all tissues

Abscisic acid: (ABA)

Inhibits growth/early germination, promotes leaf senescence, guard cells-all cells

Ethylene:

Fruit ripening, leaf death, triple response-all plant parts

Phototropism

Movement of plant due to light

Gravitropism:

Movement of plant due to gravity

Thigmotropism:

Movement of plant due to touch

Double fertilization

Anther-sperm production ovule: egg

Pollen sticks to stigma-goes down style-divides into 2 sperm

2 sperm, one forms zygote, forms endosperm (nutrients)

Ovules-seeds ovary-fruit

Ecology (chapters 52-55)

Study of how organisms relate to one another and their environment

Forging, territorial and courtship behaviors

Organism (behavioral ecology)

Population (several individuals of same species)

Community (different species that live in a particular area)

Ecosystem (abiotic factors and all the species that live in that area)

Biosphere (all the living communities on earth-global ecosystem)

Population

Characteristics of a population

Range, spacing, size

Demographics: survivorship curves, cohorts

Carrying capacity(K)

Environmental factors (light, water, space)

Density dependent effects

Too many causes decrease birth rates or increased mortality

K-selection

Density independent effects

Fire, volcano, cold etc.

r-selection

Community

Niche

How an organism uses its environment (fundamental vs realized)

1. Competition

Two species fight over resources (exclusion/sympatric species)

2. Predation

Consuming another organism (deer bush)

Defenses

Plants: thorns, chemicals etc

Animals: run, hide, chemicals, coloration (asposematic-warning, cryptic-blending), mimic (Batesian-same as bad animal, Mullerian-several)

3. Symbiosis

Commensalism

One benefits another no effect

Mutualism

Both benefit

Parasitism

One harms another

Succession

Change in communities from simple to complex

Primary and secondary

Ecosystems

Nutrient cycles

Water cycle (evaporation/precipitation-physical change)

Carbon cycle (photosynthesis/cellular respiration)

Humans increased amounts due to fossil fuels

Nitrogen cycle (bacteria fix nitrogen from atmosphere to a more usable form)

Phosphorus cycle (minerals in the rock and soils)

Energy flow

Sun is source of energy

Primary producers (autotrophs)

Primary consumers (herbivores)

Secondary consumers (carnivores)

Biospheres

Primary productivity: amount of energy produced by photosynthesis

Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy

Secondary productivity: rate of biomass in heterotrophs

How much chemical energy is converted to consumer’s biomass

GPP(gross primary production)-NPP(net primary production) GPP-R=NPP

Biospheres

Biomes

Based on climate

Aquatic biomes

Lakes

Wetlands

Streams and rivers

Estuaries-salt water meets fresh water

Intertidal +/- water

Ocean

Coral reefs

Benthic zone: at the bottom of ocean floor

Terrestrial biomes

Tropical rain forest: greatest diversity

Savanna (Africa)

Desert

Chaparral: coastal regions

Temperate grass lands (large mammals)

Temperate deciduous forest (loose leaves q year)

Temperate evergreen forest (long dry seasons, western US)

Tundra (permafrost)

Problems

Acid rain

Chemicals Farming, logging

Ozone layer

Global warming greenhouse gases

Increased CO2

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