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Shifting to Attachment: A Personal Counselling TheoryJanelle D. RobinsonUniversity of CalgaryShifting to Attachment: A Personal Counselling TheoryIn constructing a personal counselling theory, it is invaluable to understand the developmental stages humans encounter throughout the lifespan. Each client is a unique individual, with unique experiences and thoughts, thus the client requires a unique approach to his/her individual situation, and developmental level (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). This paper will focus on my emerging counselling theory, within developmental levels, from infancy onward to adulthood. I will open with poignant developmental issues, continued with a discussion of counselling implications associated with these issues.Synopsis of Personal Counselling TheoryMy personal counselling theory is evolving with each course that I take in the Master of Counselling program. As I am a teacher, I lack personal experience in formally counselling individuals. However, I have consulted with parents of children with special needs, in improving behaviors at school and at home, working on academic goals, and directing families to supports within the community. In reviewing my previous counselling theory paper, I appreciate that my views have changed, and are becoming more specific and sophisticated. In the past, I selected a very eclectic approach to the counselling process, and while I still believe it is important to be flexible with counselling style and intervention, I have become more focused on attachment theory. Influences of other development theories, such as Piagetian theory, Adlerian theory, client-centered therapy, and Shaie’s theory are also noted in my personal developmental counselling philosophy. Historical BackgroundDue to the length of this paper, I will focus on the history of the attachment theory, client-centered therapy, and Adlerian theory, as I find these to be the most influential to my emerging counselling model. Attachment theory is fascinating to me, due to the fact that I have spent the last 5 years of my life raising my two children. I have observed how Bowlby’s attachment theory is playing out in my own children’s personalities and behaviors. Attachment theory offers a perspective for the way close relationships provide a secure base beginning in infancy and how this attachment has lifelong implications (Ainsworth, 1967, 1969; Bowlby, 1958, 1988). This theory originated as an alternative to Freud’s psychoanalytical theory to explain separation anxiety in infants and young children, to attempt to understand similarities between child and adult loss and mourning, and to recognize social behavior beginning in infancy, that influences healthy or unhealthy personality development (Barnett & Vondra, 1999; Bretherton, 1985; Cristobal, 2003; Waters, Crowell, Elliot, Corccoran, & Treboux., 2002). Rogerian, or client-centred theory is based upon attachment theory, and in 1940 Carl Rogers presented his person-centered approach. Roger’s hypothesis asserts that positive changes occur when a congruent counsellor utilizes the core conditions of empathy, and unconditional positive regard, within a genuine relationship with the client (Doucette, 2004; Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). Adlerian theory views the individual holistically, and it postulates that the client’s life-style and environment may be self-defeating due to feelings of inferiority. Individuals who seek counselling are regarded as being discouraged, rather than ill. Therapeutic interventions involve activating the individual’s social interests to develop a new life-style, and promote positive change (Mosak & Maniacci, 2011). Developmental IssuesNature vs. Nurture DebateIt is my notion that both genetics and the environment shape the cognitive perceptions of an individual. Specifically, I believe that early parental and sibling relationships, as well as genetic influences impact identity formation, cognition configurations, and future relationships. I understand the nature vs. nurture debate is central in abstracting the implications behind an individual’s thought patterns and outcomes, as genetic and environmental factors are critical in conceptualizing human nature and behavioral outcomes (Lichtenstein, 2012). Both the genetic and environmental factors of the client must be explored and acknowledged, in order to have a full comprehension of the client’s case, and to understand the client’s presenting problems, cognitions, and behaviors (Schneider, 2007). Albert Adler agreed that a holistic view should be utilized when conceptualizing the client’s case. He believed that biology, heredity, and environment, can indeed influence the client, but he alleged that these factors reciprocally influence each other (Adler, 1935). Adlerian theory focuses on behavior and cognitions in a social context, and this theory postulates that behavior is a response of the individual, as well as the environment (Mosak & Maniacci, 2011). I believe that the therapist should observe the client’s life in a holistic manner including social history, medical conditions, mental cognitions, as well as genetic history to have a complete understanding of the client’s presenting problem(s). Developmental Issues in InfancyAttachment is depicted as the emotional bond that is shaped through a mutual relationship between the infant and parent. The attachment style an individual forms in infancy continues in life, through all developmental stages (Bowbly, 1980; 1973). I have observed the secure attachment of my own children, and their independent exploration, and I know that I am providing a secure base. I have also observed peers who possess insecure attachment, and have observed how the parent’s attachment patterns have influenced the attachment style of their children. During infancy the child seeks proximity to the primary caregiver, and the responsiveness, or lack thereof develops a secure or insecure working model of the world (Chaffin et al., 2006). Working models influence the infant’s social information processing, and acts as a guide in conceptualizing and reacting to environmental stimuli (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). As the infant moves in to toddlerhood, attachment style is utilized in exploratory activities. If a child views the parent as a secure base, he/she will be motivated to explore the environment, distinguishing that the parent is accessible if necessary (Fonagy & Target, 2002). Infants who are insecurely attached may not be as motivated to risk exploration, as they understand that if they become distressed by the situation the parent may not be available to assist (Vetere & Dallas, 2008). Infants who are exposed to adverse home environments, or who are abused or neglected are predisposed to developing insecure attachment (Gervai, 2009). Individuals who have formed an insecure attachment style in infancy, often do not hold the necessary emotional tools to manage challenges later in life (Vetere & Dallas, 2008). Interestingly, attachment style can be passed from generation to generation. Often parents with insecure attachment style will produce children with insecure attachment patterns as well (Byng-Hall, 1995). Infant attachment theory has many convincing components, but there are some limitations, as well. It must be noted that even if a parent provides all the social, comforting, and nurturing aspects of forming a secure attachment, not every infant will present as secure. Home environment, sibling relationships, as well as the infant’s temperament must be considered (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Bowlby discouraged parents in seeking short-term absences from infants and children. He alleged that there is a potential risk associated with forming insecure attachment to the parents, if the child is exposed to other caregivers. Recently, studies have proven that non-parented care, does not, in fact affect the security of most infants, although parents should be diligent to seek out high quality care for their children to avoid changes in security patterns (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Developmental Issues within ChildhoodI am particularly interested in childhood development, due to my background as a kindergarten teacher. My thoughts are similar to Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762/1948), as I believe that children should be provided with developmentally appropriate activities, and the freedom to explore the environment. When considering childhood developmental issues, I think it is important to reflect upon Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory. Children in the preoperational stage are beginning to act intentionally, and are able to form mental images, both skills that infants are unable to perform. At this developmental stage, children struggle to think logically, and lack awareness of the world and others. The preschooler typically focuses his attention on his own goals or concerns, and is unable to comprehend that others may be striving to complete goals of their own (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). As the child reaches middle childhood, and the concrete operational stage, his/her cognitions become more complex. Within this stage, the child has the ability to understand logical cognitive processes, but continues to toil with more abstract ways of thinking. By age eleven or twelve, the individual enters the formal operational stage, in which the child is more successful in logical thinking, as well as formulating abstract ideas (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Piaget’s theory provides a framework for typically developing children; however I believe professionals should be aware that every child develops at a different pace, especially children with disabilities. Counsellors must be aware of the developmental skills the child possesses, in order to provide effective therapeutic processes. Developmental Issues within AdolescentsI have not worked directly with adolescents in a formal setting, but through observation of family and friends, I understand that adolescence is a time of identity formation, distinguishing which peer group they belong to, and seeking autonomy from parents (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Adolescence is considered to be a critical period for psychological adjustment and development (Scott Brown & Wright, 2001). Many studies have indicated that attachment is associated with understanding the interpersonal functioning of youth, and the development of an adolescent’s personality traits can be associated with attachment style (Scott Brown & Wright, 2003). Adolescents with secure attachment style are optimistic about the world, and believe the self is worthy of care and love. Anxious-ambivalent adolescents were described by peers as being very anxious, and often overly concerned about personal adequacy (Scott Brown & Wright, 2003). These adolescents are reported to have increased difficulties in social settings, and have higher levels of symptomology including anxiety, depression, internalized symptoms, and cognition disorders. Anxious-ambivalent adolescents utilize a hyeractivating strategy to initiate the caregiving response of peers, though embellishment and amplification of narratives and other social situations (Scott Brown & Wright, 2003). Adolescents with anxious-avoidant attachment patterns were described as being hostile and condescending to peers, while describing themselves as having little to no difficulties in peer relationships. These adolescents may utilize a deactivating strategy with peers, and dismiss or ignore adversities to avoid distress (Cole-Detke & Kobak, 1995). Adolescence is a time for the individual to revise attachment strategies, as he/she becomes more capable of processing inner cognitions, emotions and recollections, and begins reflecting on the attributes of self, others, and the world (Scott Brown & Wright, 2001). This maturation in cognition has an important implication in the clinical counselling of adolescents, as developmentally, the youth is able to revise and consolidate attachment related information that typically takes place during this period (Scott Brown & Wright, 2003). Although attachment style in adolescents gives the counsellor a useful framework for understanding the youth’s interpersonal relationships, problems may arise from this theory. Specific attachment patterns such as secure, anxious-ambivalent, and anxious-avoidant should be viewed by the clinician as tendencies to react to social situations in a certain way, but not a guarantee that the individual will function according to that type (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). There may be an inclination for the counsellor to typecast the adolescent according to attachment style, and it is important that the therapist does not alter clinical judgement by stereotyping the youth according to attachment style (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Developmental Issues within AdulthoodI can recall a sense of frameworklessness when I left my parent’s home, and enrolled in university. I was unsure about how to manage my time, my finances, how to cope with conflict with my roommate, and I even had difficulties with completing housework. Schaie’s view of adult adjustment indicates that the individual is challenged with the realization that he/she needs to take responsibility for his/her own decisions. As the adult matures, the individual becomes more flexible in cognitions, and is willing to expand his/her knowledge more widely than ever before. Adults also begin to master reflective practice, which includes conceptualizing that there may be a number of truths, but one truth system may be more valid than another, depending on the individual’s circumstances and ultimate goals (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Attachment theory offers a valuable framework for understanding adult intimacy and romantic relationships, and it is the most empirically proven theory available for conceptualizing the interpersonal relationships of adulthood (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Longitudinal studies state that an individual’s infant attachment status predicts adult attachment style, but it must be noted that life events can shift the style from secure to insecure, or vice versa (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Working models of adults are composed of schemata of childhood experiences, eventually, these experiences become condensed in to broader beliefs and expectations about the responsiveness of others, and concerning self-worth (Collins, 1996). Once the working model is developed, it is utilized to predict and understand the safety of the environment, the behavior of others, and acts as a guide, in which the individual reacts to new situations. Although representations of the self and others evolve with each new relationship, cognitive models from early experiences remain influential (Collins, 1996). Each attachment style produces differences in the quality of romantic relationships. Studies have consistently verified that adults with secure working models of the world have stronger and more positive relationships than those with anxious or avoidant working models (Brennan & Shaver, 1992, 1995; Collins & Read, 1990; Hazon & Shaver, 1987). Empirical evidence demonstrates that social perception is greatly influenced by cognitive processes involving goals, schemas, and expectations that shape the way individuals’ perceive social information. This suggests that romantic partners are not passive receivers of the environment, but are active in the construction of reality (Collins, 1996). The working models of adults are important structures in understanding social situations and information. Further, individuals with different working models will interpret social events in ways that are consistent with their existing expectations and beliefs. This in itself may cause conflict within a romantic relationship (Collins, 1996). Many studies have documented that securely attached individuals have advantages in interpersonal communication, as they tend to be more flexible in communication, possess greater self-disclosure, and display more reciprocity than that of anxious and avoidant groups (Kellan, Dion & Dion, 1998; Mikulincer & Arad, 1999). Intriguingly, romantic partner selection can be predicted utilizing attachment style. Secure individuals tend to pair with a secure partner; anxious and avoidant individuals are inclined to become involved with each other; however anxious-anxious or avoidant-avoidant pairings are rare (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Although attachment theory provides a clear and useful framework for understanding adult interpersonal relationships, there are a number of problems within this framework. The specific processes in which working models of the world operate remain poorly understood, and questions remain about what resilience factors allow some individuals to conquer early hardships, while others toil with these adversities over a lifetime (Collins, 1996; Slater, 2007). More research is necessary in understanding if an individual enters a relationship with a particular attachment style, or if that style evolves within the duration of the relationship. Further, the counsellor must reflect on the fact that there is an extensive variability in the behavior manifestations of an anxious or avoidant adults in romantic and interpersonal relationships (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Implications of Developmental Issues on Professional PracticeDevelopmental and Counselling Implications for Infants and Young ChildrenIn working with infants and young children, I believe the use of attachment theory, as well as attachment therapy to be beneficial. When a child’s early interactions with caregivers is one of abuse or neglect, the child may bring expectations of abuse or neglect into new relationships, including a therapeutic relationship (Pearce & Pezzot-Pearce, 1994). A child with a history of avoidant attachment may withdraw from the therapist, and attempt to avoid the predicted rejection or abuse experienced in the past. Anxious, insecurely attached children may react to the counsellor with anger or aggression mixed with clinginess (Pearce & Pezzot-Pearce, 1994). To aid in positive change, the therapist strives to provide a secure base, and positive relationship with the child. The counsellor attempts to create a sense of safety for the chid, particularly within the therapeutic relationship, to counteract the insecure working models of the child. As the child begins to feel a sense of safety and predictability within the therapeutic setting, the therapist begins to function as a secure base for the child to explore new and positive emotions and experiences (Pearce & Pezzot-Pearce, 1994). Developmental and Counselling Implications for ChildhoodIn my opinion, the therapist must consider the Piagetian developmental stage of the child, before deciding on the therapeutic modality and interventions that will be utilized. If the child is very young he/she may be focused on his/her own successes and goals, but may not comprehend that his/her actions may be distressing or harmful to others. When the child becomes older counselling strategies that include some abstract ideas may be utilized, and perhaps narrative therapy may be integrated in to the therapeutic session at the formal operational developmental stage (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). It is natural for children to utilize play as a form of expression, and to explore relationships, themselves, as well as the environment. With this in mind, play therapy is a plausible medium to correspond with children who are experiences adverse circumstances (Barlow, Strother, & Landreth, 1985; Nelson, 1968). Often young children lack the communication skills necessary to express their thoughts and feelings. I believe that Adlerian play therapy, which incorporates the developmental issues that surround the genetic and environmental contexts of the child, is a useful form of therapy. This modality explores the relationships of family members, peers, and other significant individual’s in the child’s life, and through different forms of play the therapist determines the environment the child is exposed to (Kottman & Warlik, 1989). Family environment and constellation, as well as genetic influences can be gathered by the therapist during parental consultation. Indicators of family environment can also be observed through activities including doll houses or kitchen areas, and the therapist watches for subtle cues about the home environment though the child’s play. The therapist then helps the child and parents gain insight into the presenting problem behaviors. The family is provided with strategies for alternative positive behaviors, such as simple problem-solving skills (Kottman & Warlik, 1989). I believe that developmentally, play is the most effective medium for providing therapy for children. I appreciate the fact that is form of therapy incorporates both the environmental and genetic factors that are influencing the child’s presenting behaviors and problems. Involving the core elements of client-centered therapy, which includes unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy, provides a secure base for the child, and creates a comfortable and safe environment to play (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). Developmental and Counselling Implications for AdolescentsAdolescence is a developmental period, in which the youth is seeking autonomy from parents, developing identity, and pursuing support from peers instead of authority figures (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). When working with this age group, I may not be as inclined to utilize client-centered therapy due to its non-direct therapeutic style. Rogerian theory focuses on giving the client the responsibility to create their own goals, and to direct the counselling session independently (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). This age group may benefit from some of the elements of client-centered therapy, but I believe that some adolescents do not have the ability to develop reasonable goals without the guidance of a therapist. Of course, the core elements of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence should be used to develop a strong working alliance (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011).Adolescent’s working models of the world influence how they utilize attachment style outside of the family unit, into other relationships (Liddle & Swartz, 2002). Individuals experiencing an insecure working model, may seek counselling to repair attachment, in order to improve internal representations of self, others, and the world. During the therapeutic session focus may be directed to providing strategies to improve academic performance, involvement in extracurricular activities, developing healthy peer relationships, and pursuing employment. All the above factors promote the adolescent’s autonomy (Diamond, Siqueland, & Diamond, 2003). When the working model is improved, the adolescent may be successful in developing healthy identity, engaging in positive peer relationships and romantic relationships, as well as successfully seeking autonomy from parents (Diamond, Siqueland, & Diamond, 2003). As the youth works towards independence, the parents are encouraged to provide a secure base by offering support, encouragement, and clear expectations when necessary (Baumrind, 1991). With these new skills the adolescent and parents possess the tools to communicate effectively, and create new exceptions for behaviors within the home and beyond (Diamond, Siqueland, & Diamond, 2003). Developmental and Counselling Implications for AdulthoodIn working with adults, I would most likely lean towards utilizing attachment therapy, as well as client-centered therapy. One of the main notions of client-centered therapy is to create a strong therapeutic relationship, and counsellors who adapt an attachment perspective views the bond between the helper and client to be the key source for change (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011; Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). I agree with Cheri Lynn Schwartz when she stated in week 11 (March 30, 2013), of the discussion forums “A secure base in a counselling situation, may take on the characteristics of a strong working alliance… In a counselling context, a strong working alliance would simulate a secure base that encourages self-exploration”. In utilizing attachment therapy with adults, issues such as loss, separation, stress, and a sense of isolation from others may be addressed and improved. These issues are viewed by the therapist as recapitulation of early childhood experiences (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The counsellor guides the client in conceptualizing their notions of self and others, and helps the client to recognize that these ideas may not conform to his/her current presenting issues. The counsellor assists the client in conveying emotions in current interpersonal struggles, explores how to cope with these situations, and derives correlations between prior experiences in relationships, and present configurations of interacting with others. Through this process the client understands how past events have influenced present conceptualization of self and others, and promotes healthy change (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Developmental and Counselling Implications for FamiliesThere are a number of goals associated with family attachment therapy. The first is to form a strong alliance among family members, and it is the therapist’s task to ensure a safe haven is available to all family members, to encourage emotional expression, and to provide the empathy needed to confirm all family members are heard. Next, reattribution involves aiding family members in conceptualizing common conflicts in a clearer, more positive manner, and in making connections between negative emotions and problematic behavior (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The counsellor may also choose to focus on issues that have impaired the attachment of the family members (Diamond, Siqueland, & Diamond, 2003). The last task of reattachment is achieved through supportive communication and conflict resolution (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). The therapist may also guide the group through family history, and examine thoughts and emotions this history elicits (Akister, 1998). Families often share working models that offer information about how the family unit functions. By examining the relationships of extended and immediate family, the therapist can provide a framework of how the family interacts presently, and how past generations have influenced attachment styles within the family unit. This process encourages important discourse related to past traumas, attachment patterns, and aids in the family’s conceptualization of the changes necessary to improve the attachment patterns of each family member. The end goal is to enable all family members to securely explore interfamilial relationships, as well as relationships outside of the family (Byng-Hall, 1995).Reflections of Personal Counselling Theory’s Strengths and LimitationsAt this point in time, I believe my understanding is clear in attachment theory, Adlerian theory, as well as client-centered theory. My attraction to these forms of humanist therapies will aid me in developing strong working alliances with clients, and help in conceptualizing past events that are effecting the client’s present cognitions and behaviors. However, I do recognize that I am limiting myself in utilizing only the above therapies, and I appreciate that need to improve my comprehension in therapies such as, rational emotive behavior therapy or cognitive behavior therapy, to work with individuals that may be in need of these modalities. I also realize my interest is in working primarily with the early developmental age groups, which may be limiting my counselling experiences, as well as potentially reducing my knowledge base in counselling adults and the elderly.SummaryEach client that a counsellor encounters is at different cognitive and developmental levels, and requires different therapeutic styles and interventions associated with these levels. Presently, attachment theory and therapy has aided me in conceptualizing explanations for interpersonal behaviors, and cognitions of the self, others, and the world. I realize that attachment theory does not provide a complete framework to understand all behavior, but it provides a system for me to understand cognitive patterns and behaviors that may be presented by clients during the counselling session (Slater, 2007). I am now motivated to observe and utilize attachment therapy in future practice, and to develop an understanding of combining attachment therapy with other counselling modalities.ReferencesAdler, A. (1935). Prevention of neurosis. International Journal of Individual Psychology,4, 3-12. Retrieved from , M.D.S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1969). Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40(4), 969-1025. 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