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9144001143000A CRITICAL LITERATURE SYNTHESIS OF THE INFLUENCE THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT HAS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORTbyMichelle Lyn BasqueB.S., Saginaw Valley State University, 2012Submitted to the Graduate Faculty ofGraduate School of Public Health in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMaster of Public HealthUniversity of Pittsburgh201400A CRITICAL LITERATURE SYNTHESIS OF THE INFLUENCE THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT HAS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORTbyMichelle Lyn BasqueB.S., Saginaw Valley State University, 2012Submitted to the Graduate Faculty ofGraduate School of Public Health in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMaster of Public HealthUniversity of Pittsburgh2014center301625UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGHGRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTHThis essay is submittedbyMichelle Lyn BasqueonMay 2nd, 2014and approved byEssay Advisor:Martha Ann Terry, PhD______________________________________Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Behavioral and Community Health SciencesGraduate School of Public HealthUniversity of PittsburghEssay Reader:Melissa Bilec, PhD______________________________________Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringSwanson School of EngineeringUniversity of Pittsburgh00UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGHGRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTHThis essay is submittedbyMichelle Lyn BasqueonMay 2nd, 2014and approved byEssay Advisor:Martha Ann Terry, PhD______________________________________Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Behavioral and Community Health SciencesGraduate School of Public HealthUniversity of PittsburghEssay Reader:Melissa Bilec, PhD______________________________________Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringSwanson School of EngineeringUniversity of Pittsburghcenter4648200Copyright ? by Michelle Lyn Basque201400Copyright ? by Michelle Lyn Basque2014righttopMartha Ann Terry, PhDA CRITICAL LITERATURE SYNTHESIS OF THE INFLUENCE THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT HAS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORTMichelle Lyn Basque, MPHUniversity of Pittsburgh, 2014ABSTRACT00Martha Ann Terry, PhDA CRITICAL LITERATURE SYNTHESIS OF THE INFLUENCE THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT HAS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORTMichelle Lyn Basque, MPHUniversity of Pittsburgh, 2014ABSTRACTIn 2001, the United States Surgeon General released a call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. The report urged individuals and groups to build physical activity into regular routines. Current rates of obesity and inactivity remain high, despite this call for action. The majority of trips taken in the United States today are by automobile; replacing this travel method with active transport will increase physical activity and healthy lifestyles. Active transport is when an individual walks, bikes, or utilizes other non-motorized transportation to get from one destination to another out of utility. This paper examines environmental factors related to active transport in the forms of walking and cycling such as, street connectivity, land use, safety, urbanity, design, and others. Methods used to study these factors are discussed, such as the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) to track active transport and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map environmental factors. Case studies in Nashville, Orlando, Portland, Seattle, and Somerville illustrate that community change, based on these factors is possible. Evidence from the literature suggests that increasing street connectivity, mixed use, and safety increases active transport in the community. Urbanity is also positively related to active transport behavior. Design and other factors can be difficult to measure, but studies have shown a relationship between these factors and increased levels of active transport. Changes to local budgets and zoning laws should be considered to improve the health of communities. This topic is significant to the field of public health because implementing evidence based environmental factors to increase active transport has the potential to reduce morbidity and mortality. Finding ways to increase these environmental factors in United States communities should be a priority in order to increase active transport and improve health.TABLE OF CONTENTS TOC \o "2-4" \h \z \t "Heading 1,1,Appendix,1,Heading,1" 1.0Introduction PAGEREF _Toc387052370 \h 12.0BACKGROUND PAGEREF _Toc387052371 \h 32.1Urban SPRAWL PAGEREF _Toc387052372 \h 42.2Travel & Commuting PAGEREF _Toc387052373 \h 62.3URBAN PLANNING PAGEREF _Toc387052374 \h 72.3.1Urban Movements PAGEREF _Toc387052375 \h 92.4ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION PAGEREF _Toc387052376 \h 103.0METHODS PAGEREF _Toc387052377 \h 124.0RESULTS PAGEREF _Toc387052378 \h 134.1MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES PAGEREF _Toc387052379 \h 134.1.1Audit Tools vs. Existing GIS Data PAGEREF _Toc387052380 \h 134.1.2Tracking Nonmotorized Transport PAGEREF _Toc387052381 \h 154.1.2.1Technology Based Tracking PAGEREF _Toc387052382 \h 154.1.2.2Tracking Through Self Report PAGEREF _Toc387052383 \h 164.2ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING WALKING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT PAGEREF _Toc387052384 \h 174.2.1Street Connectivity PAGEREF _Toc387052385 \h 174.2.2Land Use PAGEREF _Toc387052386 \h 184.2.3Safety PAGEREF _Toc387052387 \h 194.2.4Urbanity PAGEREF _Toc387052388 \h 204.2.5Other PAGEREF _Toc387052389 \h 224.3ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING CYCLING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORT PAGEREF _Toc387052390 \h 224.3.1Physical Factors PAGEREF _Toc387052391 \h 234.3.2Perceived Factors PAGEREF _Toc387052392 \h 234.4CASE STUDIES: IMPLEMENTING CHANGE PAGEREF _Toc387052393 \h 244.4.1Music City Moves: Nashville, TN PAGEREF _Toc387052394 \h 254.4.2Get Active Orlando: Orlando, FL PAGEREF _Toc387052395 \h 264.4.3Portland’s Active Living by Design: Portland, OR PAGEREF _Toc387052396 \h 274.4.4Active Seattle: Seattle, WA PAGEREF _Toc387052397 \h 284.4.5Physical Activity Through Community Design: Somerville, MA PAGEREF _Toc387052398 \h 295.0DISCUSSION PAGEREF _Toc387052399 \h 305.1IMPLICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORT PAGEREF _Toc387052400 \h 305.1.1Street Connectivity PAGEREF _Toc387052401 \h 305.1.2Land Use PAGEREF _Toc387052402 \h 315.1.3Safety PAGEREF _Toc387052403 \h 325.1.4Urbanity PAGEREF _Toc387052404 \h 335.1.5Design PAGEREF _Toc387052405 \h 345.1.6Other Factors PAGEREF _Toc387052406 \h 345.2Lessons From Case Studies PAGEREF _Toc387052407 \h 355.3LIMITATIONS PAGEREF _Toc387052408 \h 376.0CONCLUSION PAGEREF _Toc387052409 \h 39bibliography PAGEREF _Toc387052410 \h 41 List of tables TOC \h \z \c "Table" Table 1. Urban clusters used for urbanity analysis in Portland, OR PAGEREF _Toc387052411 \h 21List of figures TOC \h \z \c "Figure" Figure 1. Person trips by mode and walking trips by residential location, 2001 PAGEREF _Toc387052412 \h 7Figure 2. Components of a Sense of Place PAGEREF _Toc387052413 \h 8Figure 3. Active Living by Design Community Action Model PAGEREF _Toc387052414 \h 24 IntroductionAs of 2012, 34.9% of Americans over the age of 20 and 16.9% of those ages two to 19 were obese ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ogden</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>41</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ogden, Carrol, Kit, & Flegal, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>41</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397405807">41</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Cynthia Ogden</author><author>Carrol, Margaret</author><author>Kit, Brian</author><author>Flegal, Katherine</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United States, 2011-2012</title><secondary-title>The Journal of the American Medical Association</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Journal of the American Medical Association</full-title></periodical><pages>806-814</pages><volume>311</volume><number>8</number><section>806</section><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1001/jama.2014.732</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ogden, Carrol, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). In 2001, the United States Surgeon General released a call to action to prevent and decrease overweight and obesity. The report urged individuals and groups to build physical activity into regular routines, recommending adults get a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate physical activity per day ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>71</RecNum><DisplayText>(<style face="italic">The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001</style>, 2001)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>71</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1399027780">71</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Government Document">46</ref-type><contributors><secondary-authors><author>Office of the Surgeon General</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001</title></titles><dates><year>2001</year></dates><pub-location>Rockville, MD</pub-location><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001, 2001). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005). By increasing walking and cycling trips we can increase activity and create healthier communities.The main research question is: What factors of the built environment impact active transport in communities? Additional research questions to further explore this relationship are as follows: What factors exist for walking versus cycling? What has been done in existing communities to increase active transport and have they been successful? What future studies or innovations could lead to healthier communities?This literature synthesis presents an overview of the environmental factors present in the built environment that influence active transport. Measurement tools, case studies, and factors related to walking and cycling for utility will be analyzed. Recommendations for continued research and community change in the United States are made based on the findings of this literature synthesis. Urban sprawl, automobile use, urban planning, and urban planning movements all speak to the need for improved built environments that foster active transport behavior.BACKGROUNDRegular and consistent physical activity in adults can reduce the risk of disability and premature death caused by multiple conditions PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm93bnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005). In addition, psychological and sociological benefits of regular physical activity are widely recognized PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Db2xsaW5zPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Collins, Al-Nakeeb, Nevill, & Lyons, 2012; The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity 2001, 2001). Physical inactivity has been found to be an independent risk factor for chronic disease; those who are inactive are at a two to three times greater risk of premature mortality than those who are physically active ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003). The result of these risks can be seen globally, with the rise of obesity and lifestyle related diseases PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Db2xsaW5zPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Collins et al., 2012). In the United States between 2011 and 2012, 34.9% of adults age 20 and older were obese and 16.9% of those age two to 19 years were obese ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ogden</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>41</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ogden et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>41</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397405807">41</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Cynthia Ogden</author><author>Carrol, Margaret</author><author>Kit, Brian</author><author>Flegal, Katherine</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United States, 2011-2012</title><secondary-title>The Journal of the American Medical Association</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Journal of the American Medical Association</full-title></periodical><pages>806-814</pages><volume>311</volume><number>8</number><section>806</section><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1001/jama.2014.732</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ogden et al., 2014). These percentages have continued to rise, and in 2008 more than 10% of the world’s population was obese according to the World Health Organization (WHO) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>69</RecNum><DisplayText>(<style face="italic">Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010</style>, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>69</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1398954473">69</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Government Document">46</ref-type><contributors><secondary-authors><author>World Health Organization</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010</title></titles><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>WHO Library</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010, 2011). In some studies, the percentage of adults in the United States getting the recommended amount of physical activity (a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate or greater intensity, five times per week) has been as low as 5% PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CZXJyaWdhbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Berrigan et al., 2010). Physical inactivity is fostered by the availability and convenience of automobiles as well as environments that are not conducive to walking or cycling, an example of this is an urban sprawl environment.Urban SPRAWLMany urban residents are choosing to live further away from city centers, in areas that are considered urban sprawl. The term “sprawl” was first used by city planner Earle Draper in 1937 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). An urban sprawl environment is characterized by scattered development, commercial strip development, uniform low-density development, or single use development PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm93bnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005). In addition, areas of urban sprawl have separated homes, shops, and workplaces, large blocks, and a lack of town centers or community gathering spaces ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003). This type of environment is known to correlate with automobile dependency and sedentary lifestyles PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). Urban sprawl is associated with increased air pollution, pedestrian injuries, and decrease in social capital ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002).Ozone and particulate matter are associated with higher incidence and severity of respiratory symptoms resulting in increased hospitalization and absenteeism ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). The elderly, the very young, and those with cardiopulmonary diseases, such as asthma, are especially susceptible to the negative effects of air pollution ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). Asthma affects approximately 17 million adults and more than four million children in the United States, leaving these individuals at a greater risk ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003).Pedestrian injuries and fatalities are more likely in urban sprawl areas with multiple lanes of traffic, high speeds, no sidewalks, and long distances between intersections ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). In the United States one in eight automobile related fatalities is accounted for by pedestrians ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). A loss of social capital has been felt in areas of urban sprawl. Social capital is the network of relationships within a society that shape the number and quality of social interactions ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). Increased commuting times result in less time to spend with family and friends or on community activities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). Housing developments tend to contain similar sized houses of similar prices and low heterogeneity ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). This adds to the problem of income inequality and forces individuals to change neighborhoods if they want to increase or decrease the size of their homes. The inability to remain in a neighborhood through multiple life stages decreases community cohesiveness and detracts from social capital. Lack of social capital has been associated with higher mortality from all causes, independent of income, in the United States and Great Britain ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002).Even in 1937, when the term “sprawl” was coined, it was recognized to be economically wasteful and socially disadvantageous. Urban sprawl resulted from multiple factors including car purchases, large public investment in road infrastructure, limited public investment in central cities, and low cultural barriers to household mobility ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). A low cultural barrier to household mobility refers to a cultural tendency to leave an area rather than attempt to fix community problems. This weak cultural bond between an individual and their neighborhood or community is capitalized on in the notion of suburbia and urban sprawl. The advent of the automobile and lower transportation costs made moving out of central cities, and into suburban areas possible. The percent of Americans living in urban areas has skyrocketed since 1790 when less than 5% were urban inhabitants ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). This number had increased to over 50% in 1920. By 2000, 79% of Americans lived in urban areas, and this number is expected to increase with a global trend toward urban living ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). Central cities are heavily populated and are located in the middle of metropolitan areas. Those living in central cities, in addition to those in suburban areas count toward the population of urban areas. Despite an increase in urban population overall, the population within central cities has decreased from 65% of urban inhabitants in 1950 to only 35% in 1990 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). Meanwhile Western Europe invested in public transportation within cities, central city amenities, and fostered a culture less willing to consider residential mobility ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Nechyba</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397422337">43</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Thomas Nechyba</author><author>Walsh, Randall</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl</title><secondary-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Economic Perspectives</full-title></periodical><pages>177-200</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><section>177</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Nechyba & Walsh, 2004). As a result, Europe has urban areas that continue to be centralized. Development decisions in the United States have resulted a landscape characterized by urban sprawl, with one in two Americans living in the suburbs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002).Travel & CommutingAdults in the United States spend an average of 55 minutes per day in a personal vehicle for travel (approximately 29 miles) PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm93bnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005). With more people commuting, it is important to realize the health risks associated with so much time in a car. Commuting has been linked to back pain, cardiovascular disease, and stress ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). High traffic volume and traffic distance are associated with road rage, an event where an angry driver tries to injure another driver after a traffic dispute ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). Vehicle ownership and daily miles traveled in personal vehicles have been increasing since the 1950s PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm93bnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005). These numbers are much lower than other developed countries such as the Netherlands, where 30% of trips are on bicycles and 18% are on foot ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Frumkin</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Frumkin, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397313727">39</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Frumkin, H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Urban Sprawl and Public Health</title><secondary-title>Public Health Reports</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Public Health Reports</full-title></periodical><pages>201-217</pages><volume>117</volume><number>3</number><section>201</section><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Frumkin, 2002). Physical activity both for leisure and transport has been declining in the United States PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm93bnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brownson et al., 2005)Figure 1. Person trips by mode and walking trips by residential location, 2001URBAN PLANNINGUrban design focuses on the function and appeal of a space through the design of physical elements ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy, Boarnet, Ewig, & Killingsworth, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy, Boarnet, Ewig, & Killingsworth, 2002). Urban design and urban planning are utilized when creating or revitalizing existing spaces where people live, engage with each other, or engage with the physical space ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998). The field of urban design is concerned with the appearance, function, and arrangement of these spaces. The goal is to create a space that has a sense of place. A sense of place is created through the merging of activity, meaning, and physical setting ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998). The concept of activity is derived from vitality and diversity. Vitality is the pedestrian flow throughout the day, the uptake of facilities, the number of events throughout the year, and the general extent to which a place feels lively ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998). Diversity refers to variety in land use and ownership, business types, hours of operation, green spaces, design styles, and ownership cost ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998). Meaning is a combination of identity (what a place is actually like) and how a place is perceived. This perception will be filtered through individual and cultural values, beliefs, and ideas ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998). Good physical settings fill the needs of their inhabitants in a safe way to allow for maximum scope of activity. The space should be well defined, understandable, and accessible to all ages and backgrounds. Together these factors combine to create a sense of place, as illustrated in Figure 2. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Montgomery</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><DisplayText>(Montgomery, 1998)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397427148">44</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Montgomery, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Making a city: Urbanity, vitality and urban design</title><secondary-title>Journal of Urban Design</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Urban Design</full-title></periodical><pages>93-116</pages><volume>3</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1998</year></dates><isbn>1357-4809
1469-9664</isbn><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1080/13574809808724418</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Montgomery, 1998)Figure 2. Components of a Sense of Place The field of urban planning utilizes multiple terms to describe the built environment. Land use describes the distribution, density, and location of activities or uses of a space ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). Transportation system refers to the physical infrastructure such as roads, sidewalks and paths, as well as how they function ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). These elements combine to create what is referred to as the built environment PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). These principles focus on creating public spaces with a sense of place and reducing automobile use by designing pedestrian friendly spaces in the community ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). These efforts and existing factors of the built environment are a result of urban planning. The goals of the Smart Growth movement are to improve quality of life, promote healthy behavior, minimize hazards, and protect an restore the natural environment ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003). This movement involves people from many disciplines including planners, designers, builders, transportation officials, law enforcement, environmentalists, politicians, public health advocates, and citizens ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003). Many well known groups advocate for smart growth, including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the Urban Land Institute, and Smart Growth America ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Geller</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>40</RecNum><DisplayText>(Geller, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>40</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397401270">40</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alyson Geller</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Smart Growth: A Prescription for Livable Cities</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Public Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Public Health</full-title></periodical><pages>1410-1415</pages><volume>93</volume><number>9</number><section>1410</section><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Geller, 2003). This movement hopes to reinvest in existing communities in order to create healthier environments and citizens.The movement of New Urbanism started in 1993 with the Charter of New Urbanism (CNU). The CNU is a national organization that seeks to restore urban centers, conserve environmental assets and reconfigure suburbs through education, policy change, and networking. This organization consists of academics, economists, planners, transportation engineers, sociologists, and environmentalists ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>CNU</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>42</RecNum><DisplayText>(CNU & Talen, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>42</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397410537">42</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>CNU</author><author>Talen, Emily</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Charter of the New Urbanism</title></titles><edition>2</edition><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>McGraw-Hill Professional</publisher><isbn>0071806075</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(CNU & Talen, 2013). This movement views disinvestment in central cities, spread of urban sprawl, separation by race and income, environmental degradation and loss of natural ecology, and the erosion of society’s built heritage as problems that must be solved together and not separately ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>CNU</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>42</RecNum><DisplayText>(CNU & Talen, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>42</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1397410537">42</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>CNU</author><author>Talen, Emily</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Charter of the New Urbanism</title></titles><edition>2</edition><dates><year>2013</year></dates><publisher>McGraw-Hill Professional</publisher><isbn>0071806075</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(CNU & Talen, 2013). Both of these movements are concerned with the development and redevelopment of cities and communities in order to positively influence environmental, physical, and social health. ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONIt has been recognized that humans interact differently with the environment depending on the mode of transportation they are using ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). The relationship between an individual and the environment while walking is different than when driving, the latter being more passive ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Saarloos et al., 2009). To characterize these interactions a social ecologic perspective is widely used. This approach distinguishes the roles that organizational, institutional, and community factors play in the health of an individual and community PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TYWFybG9vczwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Saarloos et al., 2009). By recognizing the ability of an environment to positively or negatively influence health behavior, changes can be made to improve health on a wide scale. This review looked at how the built environment affects the health behaviors of a community in relation to active transport. METHODSThis paper is based on a literature review, for which a literature search was conducted. The PUBMED database was used to search for peer-reviewed articles. The main journals referenced include The American Journal of Preventive Medicine, The International Journal of Behavior Nutrition and Physical Activity, The International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, and the Journal of Urban Health. The literature search included the following terms: “health behavior” (n=35,592), “built environment” (n=1,313), and “transportation” (n=29,388). These terms were combined to ensure specific and accurate results. Articles discussing how the built environment influences behavioral health, specifically transportation choices, were included. Original and literature review articles were included.Inclusion criteria are as follows: Articles published within the last 10 years, available in full text, published in English, and focused on the built environment’s influence on transportation behavior in relation to health. Articles not meeting these criteria were discarded.Articles focused on a variety of ages including childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and adulthood. The geographic focus was not limited and studies from the United States, Canada, Australia, and multiple European countries were reviewed. Publication dates of articles ranged from 2002 to 2014. Twenty-five articles met the inclusion criteria and make up the basis of this synthesis.RESULTSThe results section showcases 25 journal articles. These fall into five categories: measurement techniques, study design, environmental factors influencing walking for active transport, environmental factors influencing cycling for active transport, and case studies. The measurement techniques section includes articles (n=3) discussing the best way to measure active transport and environmental factors. Study design articles (n=2) question the best type of study design for measuring active transport in communities. The category of environmental factors influencing walking for active transport contains articles (n=12) that focus on street connectivity, land use, safety, urbanity, and other factors in relation to walking for utility in communities. Articles about environmental factors influencing cycling for active transport (n=3) focus on physical and perceived factors related to cycling. Finally, the category of case studies (n=5) highlights five cities in their attempts to become more active.MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUESAudit Tools vs. Existing GIS DataGeographic Information Systems (GIS) can be a valuable tool for evaluating environmental factors existing in a neighborhood PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Keast et al., 2010). The fields of urban planning and transportation commonly use GIS data on environmental factors, making these data readily available PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Keast et al., 2010). Many studies utilize GIS data when evaluating the environment in relation to health behavior and transportation PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Keast et al., 2010). Studies focusing on active transport can benefit from the addition of audit tools such as the Senior Walking Environmental Tool (SWEAT), the Community Health Environmental Scan Survey (CHESS), and the Walkability Index PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Freedson et al., 2008; Keast et al., 2010; Wong et al., 2011). Audit tools are particularly valuable when utilized in combination with a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5LZWFzdDwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Keast et al., 2010).GIS databases are an irreplaceable tool for mapping and evaluating environmental factors ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Freedson et al., 2008; Keast et al., 2010). These databases create increased accuracy if the data are collected by trained observers, as opposed to being crafted from self-report measures of environmental attributes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Despite the source, “perceived environmental attributes should be objectively verifiable, either by independent observation or by objective indices derived from GIS databases” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><Pages>581</Pages><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008, p. 581)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Keast et al., 2010; Wong et al., 2011). Tracking Nonmotorized TransportMotorized travel has been the center of research focused on transportation, with little focus on nonmotorized transport ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Although multiple techniques have been identified for tracking nonmotorized transport, each method has benefits and drawbacks; no single superior method has been identified ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008).Technology Based TrackingThree main technologies are commonly used to track nonmotorized transport, Smartmat Area Monitoring and Analysis System, GPS, and RFID ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). In order to be practical for recording nonmotorized transport, devices must be easy to set up and require minimal maintenance, inexpensive, easily worn (if applicable), and last the duration of the experiment. The Smartmat Area Monitoring and Analysis System is an industrial carpet that counts objects that pass across it and can differentiate between pedestrians, cyclists, and error sources ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). When pedestrians cross over the mat the system is able to collect data on the time of day, their direction, speed and stride length, and estimate their weight ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). The advantages of this system include portability, affordability, easy of use, and flexibility of location ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). However, the biggest negative is that, by design, pedestrians must cross directly over the mat, making this measurement method problematic in environments with multiple walking paths to choose from.Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are commonly recognized by the public because of utilization of similar technology for personal navigation. When using GPS for nonmotorized tracking, many problems arise. GPS tracking of individuals requires a large power source, constant satellite reception, and a tracker to be consistently carried by the individual ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Despite benefits this technology can be expensive ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Despite the drawbacks, this technology has been used to help verify self-report measures of nonmotorized transport ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008).In the future, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags could be utilized to track nonmotorized transport ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). These tags are currently used to track packages in transport and are inexpensive, small, and long-lasting, making them ideal for tracking pedestrians and cyclists ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Because they do not require satellite reception they are superior to GPS technology and can show exact placement of participants in a study ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008).Tracking Through Self ReportQuestionnaires, logs, and diaries can be used to track nonmotorized transport through self-report ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). These tools can specify the form and purpose of travel but rely on individual efforts to track or recall previous activity ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Diaries and logs contain dense amounts of information on individual travel but are not as realistic for larger studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). Questionnaires can be global, short-term recall, and long term recall/history depending on the focus and scope of the research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Freedson</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>29</RecNum><DisplayText>(Freedson et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>29</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391571417">29</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Freedson, P. S.</author><author>Brendley, K.</author><author>Ainsworth, B. E.</author><author>Kohl, H. W., 3rd</author><author>Leslie, E.</author><author>Owen, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA. psf@kin.umass.edu</auth-address><titles><title>New techniques and issues in assessing walking behavior and its contexts</title><secondary-title>Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise</secondary-title><alt-title>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</alt-title></titles><alt-periodical><full-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</full-title><abbr-1>Medicine and science in sports and exercise</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>S574-83</pages><volume>40</volume><number>7 Suppl</number><edition>2008/07/17</edition><keywords><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>*Health Behavior</keyword><keyword>Health Policy</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Locomotion/physiology</keyword><keyword>Population Surveillance</keyword><keyword>Public Health</keyword><keyword>Questionnaires</keyword><keyword>*Walking/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0195-9131 (Print)
0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562975</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(Freedson et al., 2008). All self-report methods are subject to recall bias PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MaWJyZXR0PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwNzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Librett, Yore, Schmid, & Kohl, 2007).ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING WALKING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORTStreet ConnectivityHandy and colleagues describe street connectivity as the availability and directness of alternative routes through the street network as measured by average block length, intersections per square mile of area, and/or the ratio of straight line distance ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). McCreedy and Leslie (2009) define it as the directness of links and density of connections within neighborhood street networks. Street connectivity, in multiple studies, was found to be positively related to active transport in adults PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CZXJyaWdhbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Berrigan et al., 2010; Handy et al., 2002; Witten et al., 2012).Research was done by Berrigan and colleagues and Witten and colleagues on this topic. Berrigan and colleagues looked at numerous environmental factors such as the link/node ratio, intersection density, street network density, connected node ratio, average block length, and the median block length in California neighborhoods PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CZXJyaWdhbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTA8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Witten et al., 2012). These data were compared to self-report data on active transport, which were confirmed by accelerometer watches worn by participants PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XaXR0ZW48L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Berrigan et al., 2010; Handy et al., 2002; Witten et al., 2012). McCreedy and colleagues looked specifically at children 11 to 16 years old in Canada, comparing their physical activity level to their neighborhood street connectivity (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009). Students were surveyed in class, and the environment around the schools was analyzed for link/node relationships. Increased levels of physical activity were not reported in students attending schools surrounded by environments with high street connectivity; in fact the opposite was observed (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009). Students living in highly connected neighborhoods reported less physical activity than their less connected counterparts. A follow-up study suggested that the reason for this was not safety concerns but instead a lack of outdoor spaces for safe play (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009). These studies show that physical activity could be increased for children and active transport increased for adults through the addition of safe outdoor spaces and pedestrian walking paths so person-based connectivity is increased.Land Use“Mixed use” refers to a neighborhood environment that includes buildings with lots of multiple purposes such as homes, offices, stores, and parks ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). Mixed use areas can also contain retail store fronts with offices or apartments on the second and third floors ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fenton</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fenton, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391569567">16</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fenton, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Community design and policies for free-range Children: creating environments that support routine physical activity</title><secondary-title>Childhood Obesity</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Childhood Obesity</full-title></periodical><pages>44-51</pages><volume>8</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fenton, 2012). In their review of studies in the United States, Handy and colleagues (2002) found no standard measure for land use. Examples of measures used in current literature include distance from a house to a store, dissimilarity index, ratio of total land by types of use, and qualitative reports of community opinion and intuition ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). A dissimilarity index is determined by dividing an area into a grid and counting the number of neighboring grid cells that have different land uses ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002). Although each research team analyzed land use in a different way, all studies showed an increase in active transport among adults within mixed used environments ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Handy</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(Handy et al., 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391572431">33</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Handy, S. L.,</author><author>Boarnet, M. G.,</author><author>Ewig, R.,</author><author>Killingsworth, R. E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How the built environment affects physical activity</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Preventative Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>64-73</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2S</number><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Handy et al., 2002).Lovasi and colleagues studied preschool children aged two to five years in New York City to see if the association transferred to children. The area in a two kilometer radius surrounding participating preschools and Head Start programs was studied for mixed use properties based on tax lot data PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Mb3Zhc2k8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDExPC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Lovasi et al., 2011). This result was echoed in studies reviewed by Fenton ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Fenton</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391569567">16</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fenton, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Community design and policies for free-range Children: creating environments that support routine physical activity</title><secondary-title>Childhood Obesity</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Childhood Obesity</full-title></periodical><pages>44-51</pages><volume>8</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2012). SafetyNeighborhood safety can influence physical activity in children, adolescents, and young adults PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MYWtlPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fenton, 2012; Lake & Townshend, 2013; Lovasi et al., 2011). Safety can be determined in multiple ways, and each of these studies defined safety differently. Lake and Townshend (2013) asked focus group participants to self-define safety in their study of adolescents and young adults 11 to 25 years old in England. This research was exploratory and found the biggest theme related to safety was in relation to females walking at night. This concern was expressed by both male and female participants, but was voiced more by male respondents PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MYWtlPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Lovasi et al., 2011). Multiple studies were reviewed by Fenton that also investigated children’s physical activity in relation to environmental safety. These studies looked at pedestrian signals, curb ramps, countdown pedestrian timers, median islands, high visibility cross walk treatments, speed tables, and “complete streets” to determine safety ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fenton</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fenton, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391569567">16</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fenton, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Community design and policies for free-range Children: creating environments that support routine physical activity</title><secondary-title>Childhood Obesity</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Childhood Obesity</full-title></periodical><pages>44-51</pages><volume>8</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fenton, 2012). Each study concluded that increasing these safety measures resulted in increased physical activity among children ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fenton</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Fenton, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391569567">16</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fenton, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Community design and policies for free-range Children: creating environments that support routine physical activity</title><secondary-title>Childhood Obesity</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Childhood Obesity</full-title></periodical><pages>44-51</pages><volume>8</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Fenton, 2012). UrbanityFactors such as street connectivity, land use, and safety are all elements of the built environment that influence active transport and physical activity. In contrast some studies focus on location and urbanity in relation to walkability PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). To determine urbanity Portland was divided with a grid into 80 meters2 sections PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). The urbanity of these sections was defined by accessibility to transit, land use mix, street connectivity, and residential density which resulted in six major clusters, categorized in Table 1 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). The questionnaire revealed that the women who walked not only for utility but also for leisure had a higher median of daily blocks walked. Those who lived in cluster 1, central city, ranked the highest in median daily blocks walked, while those in cluster 5 consistently ranked lowest PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Siu et al., 2012). Table 1. Urban clusters used for urbanity analysis in Portland, ORClusterDescriptionCluster 1Central cityCluster 2City peripheryCluster 3SuburbCluster 4Urban fringe with poor commercial area accessCluster 5Urban fringe with poor park area accessCluster 6Satellite city (Siu et al., 2012)Collins and colleagues studied adolescents 13-14 years old in an urban school and compared them to a rural school in England. GPS trackers, physical activity diaries, and heart rate monitors were used to track physical activity in participants PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Db2xsaW5zPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Collins et al., 2012).A more technological study, with a higher number of participants (n=350) was performed by Rainham and colleagues in Nova Scotia. Students ages 12-16 years old wore accelerometers that also had GPS functionality to track physical activity PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5SYWluaGFtPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Rainham et al., 2012). Schools were chosen in locations of varying urbanity and were classified as urban, suburban, or rural PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5SYWluaGFtPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Rainham et al., 2012). Although multiple forms of physical activity were studied, it should be noted that the largest proportion of time recorded was spent commuting through active transport methods PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5SYWluaGFtPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Rainham et al., 2012). It was found that those attending the “urban” schools had almost three times more recorded physical activity than those in the suburban and rural environments PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5SYWluaGFtPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Lovasi et al., 2011), homeownership ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hannon</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>4</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hannon, Sawyer, & Allman, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391394413">4</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hannon, L.</author><author>Sawyer, P.</author><author>Allman, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Housing, the neighborhood environment, and physical activity among older African Americans</title><secondary-title>Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>27-41</pages><volume>5</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hannon, Sawyer, & Allman, 2012), and occupancy ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hannon</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>4</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hannon et al., 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1391394413">4</key><key app="ENWeb" db-id="">0</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hannon, L.</author><author>Sawyer, P.</author><author>Allman, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Housing, the neighborhood environment, and physical activity among older African Americans</title><secondary-title>Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>27-41</pages><volume>5</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hannon et al., 2012) were all found to positively affect active transport in adults.ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCING CYCLING FOR ACTIVE TRANSPORTFactors that are influential in walking for active transport are common in cycling. These factors include land use, bike lane connectivity, intersection density, and population density PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XaW50ZXJzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Titze, Stronegger, Janschitz, & Oja, 2008; Winters, Brauer, Setton, & Teschke, 2010). However, there are multiple factors that are specific to cycling including hilliness, bike signage, bike traffic lights, social support, discomfort, and belief of impracticality PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XaW50ZXJzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Winters et al., 2010). Perceived FactorsA study conducted in Austria interviewed adults (n=1,442) about social-environmental and personal factors in relation to biking for utility PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5UaXR6ZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDg8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5UaXR6ZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDg8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Titze et al., 2008). This study found that social support, perceived discomfort, perceived impracticality, and perceived “rapidity” were all related to cycling behaviors. Perceived “rapidity” represents the belief that cycling is a rapid mode of transport and can be faster than traveling in a car within a city. Those who had support from family and friends, and/or witnessed others biking were more likely to bike for utility. However, beliefs of discomfort and impracticality were negatively associated with cycling. These beliefs were voiced through comments such as, “everyday clothes are not appropriate,” “one cannot transport large objects,” “sweating is unpleasant,” and “rain is a barrier to cycling” PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5UaXR6ZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDg8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Titze et al., 2008).CASE STUDIES: IMPLEMENTING CHANGEActive Living by Design is a national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. This program supports community-led change toward active living in the United States. Active living incorporates physical activity into daily routines, including active transportation. In addition, they attempt to foster other healthy behaviors such as healthy eating and policy change. Five articles out of the 25 results were case study reports on Active Living by Design projects.The projects located in Nashville, TN, Orlando, FL, Portland, OR, Seattle, WA, and Somerville, MA; each lasted five years. The 5P strategy was used, which includes preparation, programs, promotions, physical projects, and policies, to create a comprehensive approach. They also used the Active Living by Design Community Action Model, as seen in Figure 3, to guide the projects. The Community Action Model was based on the socio-ecologic approach and a logic model concept.Figure 3. Active Living by Design Community Action ModelMusic City Moves: Nashville, TNMusic City Moves is an Active Living project located in Nashville, Tennessee. In this project, Active Living by Design partnered with the county health department (Metro Health), Metro Planning, Walk/Bike Nashville (bicycle advocacy organization), and the Community Health and Wellness Team (health advocacy group). Active living was promoted through radio, TV, and print media along with a new high-end website. Five active living intervention programs were implemented including Wise Moves to promote stair use in African American and Hispanics working in multi level buildings; Sisters Together a weight management program targeting ethnic minority women; Music City Moves Kids to teach pedestrian and bicycle safety to elementary school youth; Walk to Shop to encourage physical activity among seniors in adult living centers; and STEPS, which targeted neighborhood residents at local community centers PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5PbWlzaGFraW48L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Omishakin et al., 2009).Turnover in partner organizations and trouble gaining buy-in were the biggest challenges faced by Metro City Moves. The leadership and support of the Mayor strongly influenced the success of this program.Get Active Orlando: Orlando, FLGet Active Orlando is comprised of a partnership with Parramore Kidz Zone, Orange County Health Department, University of Central Florida, Florida Hospital, Orlando Health Hospital, Florida Nurses Association, Metroplan Orlando, Arlington/Concord Neighborhood Association, Florida Freewheelers bicycling club, Florida Bicycling Association, local bike shops, and the City of Orlando Planning Division, Transportation Department, and Families, Parks and Recreation Department (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009).A social marketing campaign was created based on focus group results on reasons to get active. Multiple programs were implemented including a senior walking program, bicycle giveaways geared toward low-income minority adults, community bicycle riding events, and two community garden projects. Data were presented across the community documenting existing problems and show how policy and physical changes could support physical activity in the community. These presentations were the catalyst for policy change including change to the Growth Management Polices to include active living principles regarding land use, recreation, and transportation. Streetscape changes were made including widening pedestrian corridors, incorporating awnings into building design, and the addition of trees, lighting, and bike parking throughout Orlando (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009).By partnering with the City Planning Division, policy changes and project implementation were smoothly carried out. A challenge this program faced was to create community responsibility around the project, specifically community garden efforts. Community gardens became much more successful when a leader in the community was assigned to take responsibility for the project. Additional grants were received in order to work towards long-term project sustainability. In order to do so, Get Active Orlando will transfer responsibility for projects to local partner agencies. A key to sustainability will be efforts for organizational continuity and fund development (McCreedy & Leslie, 2009). Portland’s Active Living by Design: Portland, ORPortland’s Active Living by Design project was made possible through main partnerships with The American Heart Association and Community Health Partnership, a health advocacy group. Programs and projects included repairing and improving the Lents’ Springwater Corridor Trail and Lents WALKS, a themed guided walking program PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Eb2Jzb248L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Dobson & Gilroy, 2009).A Damascus/Boring Concept Plan was approved that showcased the importance of active community environments. The new plan included goals, objectives, and implementation strategies for walkable, bikeable, and transit-oriented communities. Partners learned the process of land-use, transportation, and urban planning resulting in increased confidence and new cross-disciplinary efforts. In addition, planning and policymaking partners learned how to use public health expertise to inform their work. As a result of policy and planning changes projects to install sidewalks, bike lanes, curb/drainage, lighting, and improve pedestrian connectivity were started PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Eb2Jzb248L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Dobson & Gilroy, 2009).Public health professionals, whom were unfamiliar with the city planning processes for land use or transportation, were put in the role of advocating for environmental change. These knowledge gaps can be overcome by strong multi-disciplinary partnerships. Similarly, public health and community data should be shared with other disciplines in order to help aid in decision-making PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Eb2Jzb248L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Dobson & Gilroy, 2009). Active Seattle: Seattle, WAActive Seattle is a partnership of Feet First, Public Health Seattle & King County (PHSKC) and the Seattle Department of Transportation (SDOT). Interventions to increase physical activity and walkability included the Neighborhoods on Foot Map Series, the West Seattle Trails project, the Northeast Trails Project, and the Cart Project PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EZWVocjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Deehr & Shumann, 2009).Bridging the Gap, a transportation funding initiative was passed, dedicating $98 million to pedestrian and bicycle improvements. Seattle’s Pedestrian Master Plan was created and approved with the hopes of making Seattle the “most walkable city in the nation.” This plan includes short- and long-term actions and focuses on safety, equity, vibrancy, and health PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EZWVocjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Deehr & Shumann, 2009). In addition a complete streets policy was passed and other policy work, such as school zone revision, was completed.Partner organizations with limited resources had previously been overwhelmed with requests for different types of community change. Community members frequently submit requests to local organizations for sidewalk repair and additional walk signs. These requests were mostly overlooked because of limited resources. A way to combat this problem is a systematic request program that gets needed changes directly to transportation officials. Funding to promote walkability can also be a challenge. Small partner organizations need to create a sustainability plan to help ensure continual community service PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5EZWVocjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Deehr & Shumann, 2009).Physical Activity Through Community Design: Somerville, MAActive Living by Design partnered with Groundwork Somerville (environmental focus), Alliance (community health focus), and the local health department in addition to other small community partnerships PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CdXJrZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Burke et al., 2009). Multiple programs were implemented including Healthy Mind, Healthy Body (geared toward Portuguese speaking adults), Walk to School activities, and addition of bike racks in the community. Officials approved bike and pedestrian corridors, and money was set aside for cross walk improvements. The original goal of extending the Community Path was not achieved; however, this project turned into a partnership with a light-rail subway. Money has been set aside for the ambitious project and it is hoped to improve active living in Somerville PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CdXJrZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Burke et al., 2009).The biggest challenge to this project was high turnover of partners and frequent plan changes. Although the addition of the light-rail subway will be beneficial to the community it prevented the Community Path from getting completed during the project. It is hoped that this project will be completed in the future PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CdXJrZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Burke et al., 2009).DISCUSSIONIMPLICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON ACTIVE TRANSPORTThe factors identified in this literature synthesis have the potential to shape communities and improve health. Case studies illustrate the opportunity for success and the challenges to be expected. Despite limitations, valuable lessons can be learned from the results of this synthesis. Street ConnectivityStreet connectivity, or the availability and directness of alternate routes in a street network, was found to be positively associated with active transport in the form of walking and biking in adults PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5UaXR6ZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDg8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Berrigan et al., 2010; Fenton, 2012; Handy et al., 2002; McCreedy, Pickett, & Janssen, 2011; Titze et al., 2008; Winters et al., 2010; Witten et al., 2012). However, McCreedy and colleagues found a negative association in children age 11 to 16 years PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5NY0NyZWVkeTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTE8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (McCreedy et al., 2011). This suggests a further need to re-evaluate the relationship between children, street connectivity, and active transport.Although street connectivity can be difficult to increase in areas previously developed, the use of walking paths can be considered as a way to increase connectivity for the purpose of active transport. Walking paths can be incorporated into urban or suburban areas to connect streets for pedestrians and cyclists without a large footprint. Paved paths specifically for walking and cycling should consistently connect with existing sidewalks and bike paths for increased link/node connectivity. An option for a large scale walking and cycling path is to pave unused railroad tracks; however a plan for connectivity to existing active transport infrastructure must be considered to make this a viable option for active transport. If connectivity is not established the route will become impractical for active transport and will be used primarily for leisure activities.To aid in the creation of new routes planners should study desire lines. Observation of travel routes will reveal short cuts and unofficial paths that are taken. These paths represent a desire travelers feel for increased connectivity. Common lines of desire should be considered to increase connectivity and improve the active transport experience.Land UseAreas with high rates of “mixed use” land, containing building of multiple purposes and high heterogeneity, are positively associated with both walking and cycling active transport methods PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5IYW5keTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDI8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fenton, 2012; Handy et al., 2002; Lovasi et al., 2011; Winters et al., 2010). There currently is no standardized measure for characterizing mixed use.Although multiple studies showed a benefit of mixed use land, there isn’t a standard measure or threshold of the amount of mixed use that causes a significant increase in active transport. Without a tested threshold it is hard to make recommendations to improve communities. Work needs to be done to create a standardized score for determining the level of mixed use within a community in order to foster a better understanding of the effects of land use on active transport.Individuals in areas with high levels of land use homogeneity can improve their communities through changes to local zoning laws. Zoning laws or ordinances can help to create a mix of residential, commercial, industrial, cultural, and institutional uses in a community. These ordinances can also create a barrier if they are outdated or inappropriate for the area. By frequently updating and creating zoning ordnances that are friendly to mixed uses, communities can begin to see more compact and targeted development, resulting in increase levels of active transport. SafetyThe perception of safety was associated with walking and cycling for active transport in multiple studies PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MYWtlPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fenton, 2012; Lake & Townshend, 2013; Lovasi et al., 2011; Titze et al., 2008). In each of these studies safety was measured differently; however, many focused on aspects that, when combined, create complete streets. Complete streets are designed for safety and ease of use for all including pedestrians and cyclists. Streets that are incomplete focus mainly on cars and lack needed aspects such as sidewalks, pedestrian signals, cross walks, bike lanes, and bike signage.When the proper infrastructure does not exist for cyclists and pedestrians, individuals have to improvise and make their own decisions on how to navigate streets. Motorists dislike this type of behavior because it creates uncertainty and makes crashes more likely. By creating infrastructure such as bike and pedestrian signals behavior can be improved and will become more predictable. Complete streets focus on all aspects of travel and can help to reduce pedestrian fatalities resulting from automobile accidents. A simple system of signage and signals can help to create a safer environment for motorists and non-motorists alike. A plan to create a community full of complete streets can easily be made by adding on to typical road maintenance plans. This would allow communities to slowly phase in these changes without a large financial burden. UrbanityUrbanity and population density are related to walking and cycling for active transport PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaXU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxSZWNO
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Collins et al., 2012; Rainham et al., 2012; Siu et al., 2012; Winters et al., 2010). This should not be surprising because urbanity is directly related to the factors of street connectivity, land use, and safety. In an area with high urbanity and population density high levels of street connectivity, mixed land use, and complete streets are found. The fact that increased urbanity is positively associated with active transport confirms previous results.In areas of urban sprawl there is a lower level of urbanity and population density. Urban sprawl began in the 1920s and as such cities and surrounding areas formed after this time are much more likely to lack factors positively associated with active transport. Urban planners began focusing on communities revolving around automobiles. Communities that have kept their historic main streets and residential areas tend to have more factors positively associated with active transport, as they were built and designed before the rise of the automobile and urban sprawl. For this reason, new areas should be built in a way that is person focused instead of automobile focused. Suburban and rural areas should attempt to increase population density and reduce sprawl in order to receive the active transport benefits that areas of high urbanity have.DesignActivity, meaning, and physical setting come together to create a sense of place, seen previously in Figure 2 (page 8). The quality of a sense of place or design is mostly subjective because the meaning is determined by values, beliefs, and ideas. It is likely for this reason that out of the studies reviewed, only three discussed design PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5GZW50b248L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEyPC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Winters et al., 2010). Changes in elevation, or hilliness, are also likely to be negatively associated with walking because it increases difficulty. Those who are cycling or walking for leisure are likely to seek out these physical challenges while those partaking in active transport will be focused on rapidity and minimal barriers PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XaW50ZXJzPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Winters et al., 2010).Restoring green spaces and the natural ecological landscape can help to reduce water run-off and refill groundwater aquifers. Restoring the natural ecology can help to reduce water drainage problems that are often found in urban areas. Drainage problems can create difficulty for non-motorists. Green space has also been associated with increased active transport patterns PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Mb3Zhc2k8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDExPC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Titze et al., 2008). This is likely a factor in walking behaviors as well, despite it not being studied specifically. Social support, specifically in the form of witnessing others partaking in the behavior is similar to the concept of vitality in design. Vitality is measured, in part, by the number of active pedestrians, which helps create interest and breathes life into a space. It is likely possible to increase active transport in the overall community by securing early adopters, who have previously contemplated the behavior ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rogers</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>70</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rogers, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>70</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="v5av0fsvkp9peieesfqpdr9bwtvzp5aavep2" timestamp="1398956257">70</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rogers, Everett M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Diffusion of Innovations</title></titles><edition>5th</edition><dates><year>2003</year></dates><pub-location>New York</pub-location><publisher>Free Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Rogers, 2003). These early adopters would help to entice other community members to change their behaviors toward a healthier lifestyle.Lessons From Case StudiesCase studies can help show the benefits and challenges of applying environmental factors to increase active transport. The case studies presented, attempt to increase active transport but also aim to improve eating habits and change policy. These case studies hoped to incorporate physical activity into daily routines, through active transportation. The projects located in Nashville, TN, Orlando, FL, Portland, OR, Seattle, WA, and Somerville, MA; can help us understand what to expect when implementing change in the community.Partnership and leadership was an important thread to all of the case studies but seen as essential in TN, FL, and MA PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5NY0NyZWVkeTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDk8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Burke et al., 2009; M. McCreedy & Leslie, 2009; Omishakin et al., 2009). Turnover of partner organization was a problem in TN and MA. Retraining partners and trying to receive buy in from key positions is time consuming. When partnership decisions are made turnover of employees should be considered. Abbreviated training programs or information packets could help relieve the stress that turnover causes in a partnership. Partnership should be avoided if organizations aren’t stable because this could hinder program efforts.Leadership helped to combat problems resulting from turnover in TN and FL PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5PbWlzaGFraW48L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA5PC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Deehr & Shumann, 2009; M. McCreedy & Leslie, 2009). Community garden programs that were set up in FL originally struggled. It was intended that volunteers in the community would care for the community gardens. It became evident that once the gardens were established, volunteers lost interest. By careful monitoring of this program, this decline in interest was recognized. Volunteers were then appointed as leaders of the gardens. By creating ownership of the project the gardens became very successful. This illustrates the importance of careful monitoring of programs once they are implemented to ensure success. In WA, plans for stability after the end of the program were discussed. Community members play an important role in identifying community need for repair to or the addition of active transport infrastructure. In order to capture these requests long term, a webpage was created that allowed comments, concerns, and questions to be sent to the appropriate place. It is important to consider sustainability of environmental improvements and make every effort to ensure that they will be maintained and updated over time. Involving the community in the identification of needs and improvements helps to ensure continuation of active transport efforts. LIMITATIONSStudies focusing on children lacked differentiation between walking for utility and walking for physical activity or play. This could mask factors related to active transport in children. Also studies of children’s walking habits did not analyze the habits of their legal guardians. This could give further insight to the relationship between guardian and child transport habits.All the cycling data represented in this literature synthesis came from countries outside the United States. It is questionable if these results would be generalizable to American cyclists. The majority of the studies focused on walking with only a few (n=3) focused solely on cycling habits. More studies on cycling should be analyzed to see if these findings hold true on a wider scale and within the United States. This synthesis is limited to studies that have previously been conducted and reported on. In 2013 the United States Surgeon General created an initiative for walkable cities. It is likely that studies are currently being conducted on this topic that might provide more insight.CONCLUSIONObesity levels continue to rise, despite warnings from the United States Surgeon General. Increasing walkability was added to the list of Surgeon General initiatives in 2013 in hopes to increase the most commonly reported physical activity in the US, walking. The majority of people living in urban areas are in areas classified as urban sprawl. These environments encourage the use of cars and create a big challenge to increasing walkability in communities. Areas further from city centers tend to have the lowest rates of active transport. These areas need extra attention to create an environment that fosters active transport. Increasing street connectivity, mixed land use, safety, and design all contribute to walking and biking. This literature review has showcased the environmental factors influencing active transport in the form of walking and cycling. Retrofitting existing communities and incorporating these factors into new communities is an important step to improving health. Communities that enable active transport are extremely important to increasing physical activity and reducing obesity in America.There are several limitations to this review. This paper reported on studies and interventions already conducted and reported on. More studies are likely in progress as a result of the Surgeon General’s walkability initiative. In addition, case studies are not always submitted to journals because of budget and time constraints. Studies were included that were conducted in communities outside the United States, it is possible that they are not generalizable to American communities.Changing communities to be more conducive to active transport is a slow process. Programing, such as the examples seen in the Active Living by Design case studies, can help create awareness and generate excitement around changes. This helps to encourage political and community change. Increasing physical activity is not a simple process, but by altering the built environment a community can foster active transport and reduce inactivity. Understanding the factors that encourage active transport is the first step toward fueling community change. Public health, city planners, urban designers, transportation planners, politicians, community organizations, and others need to come together and prioritize the health of the community through steps to increase active transport for a healthier future. bibliography ADDIN EN.REFLIST Berrigan, D., Pickle, L. W., & Dill, J. (2010). Associations between street connectivity and active transportation. Int J Health Geogr, 9, 20. doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-9-20Brownson, R. C., Boehmer, T. K., & Luke, D. A. (2005). Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors? Annu Rev Public Health, 26, 421-443. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437Burke, N. M., Chomitz, V. R., Rioles, N. A., Winslow, S. P., Brukilacchio, L. B., & Baker, J. C. (2009). The path to active living: physical activity through community design in Somerville, Massachusetts. 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