World Cultures



World Cultures

Africa Unit

Chapter 3

Geography and Early History of Africa

Section 1 – The Shape of the Land

Africa is the world’s second-largest continent

Africa contains more independent nations on Earth – 54 nations

African straddles the Equator

The continent is bordered by

Atlantic Ocean to the west

Mediterranean Sea to the north

Indian Ocean to the east

Red Sea to the northeast

Many distinct regions

North Africa

From Morocco to Egypt

This location has always had close contact with Europe and the Middle East

West Africa

Bulges into the Atlantic Ocean

From Mauritania to Nigeria

Central Africa

East Africa

Southern Africa

Stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean

Landforms

Most of Africa is a vast plateau

These plateaus lie at different elevation

From the plateaus the land drops sharply to the coast

Escarpments – steep cliffs, divide the plateau from the coastal plain

As rivers flow from the plateau to the coast they tumble over a series of cataracts

Cataracts – large waterfalls and rapids

Great Rift Valley

Slices through the eastern part of the continent

Runs from the Red Sea to the Zambezi River

Most fertile farmland in Africa

Rivers

Provide fish, water for irrigation, transportation, and electricity

Hydroelectric power – energy produced by moving water

Nile River

Longest river in the world

Location of one of the earliest civilizations

1970 – completion of the Aswan Dam located in the upper Nile

Congo River

Located in Central Africa

Only parts are navigable

Provides hydroelectric power

Niger River

Located in West Africa

Zambezi River

Located in Southern Africa

Rushes over Victoria Falls

Provides hydroelectric power

Natural Resources

Gold, diamonds, copper, cobalt, oil, rich soil, abundant water

Resources are not evenly distributed

Poor countries can not develop their mineral resources

Have allowed foreign countries to invest in mining

Much of the profit leaves Africa

Much of Africa is not fertile

Section 2 – Climate and Diversity

The Equator runs nearly through the middle of Africa

80% of the continent is in the tropics

Tropics – the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn

Climates are generally warm throughout the year

Coolest regions found in the highlands

Rainfall

Major feature is a pattern of alternating wet and dry seasons

Generally the farther north or south of the Equator the shorter the rainy period and the

longer the dry period

The variations in rainfall cause problems for farmers and herders

Climate Zones

The northern and southern hemispheres are mirror images

Starting at the Equator

Tropical wet

Hot and humid year round

Poor soil

Leaching – constant heavy rains dissolve and wash away nutrients

Tropical wet and dry

Largest climate zone in Africa

Savanna –grassland – occupies the region

Covers almost half the continent

Home to most Africans

Unpredictable rainfall

Drought – prolonged periods of little or no rain

Population growth has created serious problems in the drier parts of the

Savanna

Natural forces and human action puts the land at risk

Desertification – the turning of semidesert land into desert

Desert

Covers about 40% of Africa

Sahara Desert

Larger than the continental US

Extends across northern Africa from the Atlantic to the Red Sea

Kalahari

Southern Africa

Not as dry as the Sahara

Namib Desert

One of the driest places on Earth

Moderate Mediterranean climates

Along the southern tip and northern coast

Mild climate and fertile soils support crops and herding

Many disease-carrying insects breed in tropical climates

Malaria, spread by mosquitoes kills up to 1 million children each year

Sleeping sickness spread by the tsetse fly

River blindness

Bilharzia, parasitic worms

Population of Africa

2009 estimate – 1 billion

Growing rapidly

Resources influence where people live

Most populated areas

Southern part of West Africa

Morocco and Algeria

Nile Valley

Region around Lake Victoria

Eastern part of Southern Africa

Africa is home to an immense variety of cultures

Have different histories, religious beliefs, values, and traditions

Developed one of five basic types of societies – most continue in Africa today

Farming

Herding

Fishing

Hunting and gathering

Urban

Today the majority of Africans live in the savanna – most are farmers

Cities have long flourished along

Mediterranean coast of North Africa

Savanna of West Africa

Coast of east Africa

Africans speak more than 1,000 different languages

Divided into several language families

Section 3 – Early Civilizations of Africa

The discoveries at Olduvai have led some scientists to suggest that Africa was home to the first

people.

Painting on rock cliffs and cave walls show tools, weapons, hunting, and food-gathering

Nile Valley Civilization

Earliest civilization in Africa

Nile Valley of Egypt about 7,000 years ago

3,000 BC powerful rulers emerged and united villages along the Nile

pharaohs – rulers of ancient Egypt

Pharaoh was a god, descended from Amon-Re

Pharaoh had total power over the lives of the people

Through trade and conquest, Egyptians exchanged knowledge and ideas with distant cultures

Egyptians were polytheistic – believed that different gods controlled the forces of nature

Belief in life after death was central to Egyptian religion

Egyptians developed a form of writing

Hieroglyphics – used pictures and symbols

Used knowledge of stars and planets to produce a calendar with a 365-day year

Egyptian doctors studied the human body

Kingdom of Kush

Trade flowed along the Nile between Egypt and neighboring peoples in Nubia and Kush

King Kastha of Kush conquered the Nile Valley

Short lived – ended when Assyrians invaded from the Middle East

Kush profited by trade

Kingdom of Axum

Emerged in present day Ethiopia

Important center of trade

King converted to Christianity

Chapter 4

Heritage of Africa

Section 1 – Trading States and Kingdoms

From early times, people in Africa traded across routes from the Middle East and North Africa to the

savanna lands of West Africa

West Africa lands traded gold for salt

Empire of Ghana

First powerful West African kingdom

Extended their control over a large area

As Ghana grew, its rulers created a lavish court

Traded with the Berbers, traders from the northern edge of the desert

Berbers traded salt, cloth, and horses for gold, woods, kola nuts

Each caravan that entered or left Ghana had to pay taxes

Empire of Mali

After break-up of Ghana

Seized some gold-producing areas – set up the empire of Mali

Mansa Musa - ruler of Mali

Adopted Islam

Based his system of justice on the Koran

Built mosque – Muslim houses of worship

By the early 1400s power struggles had weakened the empire

Empire of Songhai

As Mali declined new empire arose in West Africa

From the trading city of Gao, powerful rulers extended their control over other lands

Followed the teaching of Islam

Timbuktu became a center of learning

Defeated by Moroccan soldiers

Forest Kingdom of Benin

Thickly forested areas near the Equator

Near the delta of the Niger River

Controlled trade over a large area

Cities of East African

Since ancient times, trade had linked the coastal peoples of East Africa to other parts of

the world

Many grew into city-states

City-states – large town that has its own government and usually controls the

surrounding countryside

Arab traders brought their culture to the region

Islam took root in parts of East Africa

Zimbabwe

By 1300, the rulers of Zimbabwe had organized a large kingdom

Control of gold mines gave the rulers their power

Most of the people were farmers and herders

Section 2 – Patterns of Life

Cultures varied it is necessary to careful when making generalizations

Did share similar basic values

Found strength in family structure, communities, religious beliefs

Family ties

Hunting/gathering societies were usually small – scarce resources

Farming and herding societies

More likely to live in extended families

Parents, children, spouses of children, other relatives

In villages several families pooled their labor

Ties of kinship united people beyond the extended family

Sharing a common lineage created bonds of loyalty and responsibility

Lineage – group of distant kin who trace their descent back to a common ancestor

Important general feature of these groupings was the sense of linkage they created

Patterns of Government

Variety of government patterns

In many areas, decisions at the village level required full public discussion

Goal was to reach a consensus

Consensus – common agreement

Leader stressed the good of the community over that of individuals

Economic Organization

Most villagers were subsistence farmers

Subsistence farmers – produce enough for their own needs with little or no surplus

Most farming societies saw the land as community property

Lives of Women

Contributed to the economic well-being of the family

Women were central to family life

Attitudes toward women varied widely

In some areas women held positions of power

In other areas women had little power or prestige

In some societies men married more than one woman

Polygamy – having more than one spouse

Men were expected to offer a valuable gift to the bride’s family – bride wealth

Recognized the importance of the woman

Compensated the brides family for the loss of bride’s labor

Inheritance and Descent

Variety of traditions

Members of a matrilineal society traces lineage through the female line

Patrilineal societies trace lineage through the male line

Age-Grade System

Some societies develop ties of loyalty through a system of age grades

Age grade – include all boys or girls born in the same year

Learned the values of their societies

In Islamic societies boys attended Koranic schools

Learned to read and write Arabic

Memorized parts of the Koran

Religions

Variety of religions

Most religions were monotheistic

Supreme Being seen as distant

Turned to lesser gods for daily life

Believed that their ancestors could help or harm them

Diviners and healers held places of honor

Diviners served as interpreters between people and the divine world

Healers would seek the cause of illnesses

Both were expert in herbal medicines

Christianity and Judaism reached Africa in ancient times

African Christians formed their own churches

Blended African beliefs, music, dance with western Christian beliefs

Muslim traders spread Islam

Fit certain features of Islamic culture into their own cultures

Section 3 – The Slave Trade

From the 1500s to the 1800s, slave traders sent an estimated 10 to 15 million Africans to the Americas

Exploring the Coast of Africa

First direct contact between Europeans and the people of West Africa was in the early 1400s

Portuguese explores had been looking for a sea route to India

Portuguese and others Europeans built small trading stations on the coast

Trade in Human Beings

During the 1400s Europeans bought a few Africans as slaves and carried them to Europe

Slavery had existed since ancient times

Most slaves were people captured in war

Others sold themselves into slavery during times of famine

In many societies slaves were a part of the community

In time, slaves or their children might become full members of society

Atlantic slave trade

Europeans introduced slavery on a massive scale

In the 1700s, at the height of the slave trade, 60,000 slaves a year captured

By the 1600s, a trade network, linked Africa, Europe and the Americas

Racism was used to justify treating Africans as property

European slave traders relied on local African rulers to supply slaves

Paid for slaves with guns and manufactured goods

Atlantic slave trade lasted about 400 years

Ending the Slave Trade

Abolition slowly gained force

Abolition – the movement to end slavery

Britain passed a law banning slavery in its empire in 1833

Slavery in the U. S. ended with the Civil War in 1865

Effects of the Slave Trade

As European nations began to industrialize, slavery became less profitable

In parts of Africa, the slave trade disrupted whole societies

Slave trade encouraged wars and increased tensions among neighboring people

The slave trade sent millions of Africans overseas

Diaspora – migration or scattering of a homogeneous people

The African diaspora spread the ideas, customs, and beliefs of African people to other regions

of the world

In 1787, Britain set up the West Africa colony of Sierra Leone for freed slaves

Free blacks from the U.S. organized the country of Liberia

Liberia gained independence in 1847

Section 4 – Age of European Imperialism

Europeans Explore Africa

Before the 1800s, Europeans knew very little about Africa

Europeans began exploring the rivers of Africa

Europeans made little effort to understand African cultures

European Motives

By 1914, European nations claimed all of Africa except Liberia and Ethiopia

Britain controlled most of Africa

Other European countries included Spain, Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal, Germany

Economic competition was a major motive

Africa was a source of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods

Political motive

Built vast empires to boost their place in the world

Rivalries fueled the scramble for colonies

Religious motives

Christians believed that it was their duty to spread the benefits of western civilization

The Scramble for Colonies

Two innovations helped Europeans advance into Africa

Improved treatment for malaria and yellow fever

Maxim machine gun, gave an advantage over African arms

At the Berlin Conference, Europeans made decisions about dividing Africa

African Resistance

Africans resisted with military force

Unable to withstand the advanced weapons and technology of the Europeans

Struggle for Southern Africa

A bitter power struggle develop among local African groups, Dutch settlers known as

Boers, and the British

Early 1800s, the British won control of the Cape Colony from the Boers

As the Boers were moving north from the tip of South Africa the Zulu were moving

southward

Battles between the Boers and Zulu continued for decades

British joined the struggle and defeated the Zulu

The discovery of diamonds and gold sent Europeans into the Boer republics

By 1902, the British defeated the Dutch settlers in the Boer War

Eight years later, the British created the Union of South Africa out of various colonies

in the region

Only white men had the right to vote

The Boers made up a majority of the white population

Gained control of the South African government

Section 5 – Effects of European Rule

New Political and Economic Systems

In their African colonies, European nations set up governments that reflected their own traditions

Two methods of rule

Direct rule – the colonial power controlled the government at every level

Indirect rule – used by the British, left traditional rulers in place

British made decisions but expected local rulers to enforce them

Europeans expected their colonies to be profitable

European companies exploited the mineral resources

Introduced a money economy – payment of taxes in cash not goods

To make money Africans sold their labor

Men left home to find work

Caused the close-knit life of villages to change

Created difference in wealth as some people accumulated capital and property

Europeans encouraged private ownership of land

Money economy encouraged farmers to grow cash crops instead of food

Caused some areas of African to import food

Material Improvements

Colonial rule brought new systems of transportation and communication

Missionaries set up hospitals and doctors introduced better medical care

Improved sanitation and water systems

Battled diseases that had killed many people in the past

Currents of Change

Europeans set up elementary schools

African students learned European history and culture along with basic skills

A few Africans had the opportunity to attend secondary schools

Formed an educated elite in the colonies

Elite – small group of people with high social status

By the early 1900s, new African leaders were emerging

Called for Africans to reexamine their heritage and to take pride in their past

Chapter 5

Africa in Transition

Section 1 – Winning Independence

African Nationalism

By the early 1900s, nationalism had taken root in Africa

Colonial powers had drawn boundaries that included diverse ethnic groups

Many nationalists embraced the idea of Pan-Africanism

Called for unifying all of Africa

“Africa for Africans”

New Nations Emerge

As WWII ended, independence movements gained strength in both Africa and Asia

Soviet Union condemned imperialism and aided some nationalist movements

1950 – Africa contained only for independent nations

Liberia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and South Africa

In South Africa a white minority ruled

Ghana

Gained independence through mostly peaceful means

Kwame Nkrumah organized strikes and boycotts to protest British rule

Boycotts – refusal to buy certain goods or services

In 1957, Ghana became the first black African nation to win independence

North Africa

During the 1950s, Libya, Tunisia, and Morocco won independence through mostly

peaceful means

Algerians fought a bitter was with the French

In 1962 Algerian gained their independence

Kenya

Fighting broke out in Kenya

In 1964, the British agreed to withdraw

Southern Africa

Portugal refused to give up its colonies of Angola and Mozambique

Nationalist in both colonies waged guerrilla war

Guerrilla war – small bands of fighters stage hit-and-run attacks against a

larger power

Angola and Mozambique finally won independence in 1975

The Colonial Legacy

The effects of colonial rule lasted long after African nations won independence

While creating high expectations, colonial rulers did little prepare Africans for independence

Section 2 – Steps Toward Development

Building Governments

After independence, African governments faced the challenge of building national unity

Economic differences created further divisions

In 1960, the Congo won independence from Belgium

Regional rivalries plunged the Congo into civil war

Province of Katanga tried to secede from the Congo

Secede – break away

From 1965 to 1997 Mobutu Sese Seko held power

In 1997, after Seko was ousted from power, civil war resumed

Civil war left the Congo deeply divided and economically weak

Civil war disrupted Ethiopia and Somalia

Lead to widespread famine

In 1994, ethnic tensions in Rwanda resulted in the massacre of 800,000 people

In West Africa, civil wars left thousand dead and hurt the economies of Liberia and

Sierra Leone

To build national unity, some African leaders set up one-party rule

Believed competing political parties would create divisions in society

Also reflected the tradition African values as discussion and consensus

In some nations the military stepped in to restore order and get rid of corrupt leaders

Once in power some military leaders became corrupt

In the late 1980s, some African nations joined the worldwide trend toward democratization

Democratization – moving toward a free system of government

Economic Systems

Independent nations experimented with various economic systems

African Socialism

Socialism – government owns and operates major business and controls other parts

of the economy

Mixed economies

Today most African nations have mixed economies

A major goal is to build factories and produce goods for their own use

To gain capital countries have turned to multinational corporations

Multinational corporations – huge enterprises with branches in many countries

Some people see the multinational corps as simply replace colonial powers in the

economic system

Multinationals make a profit by exporting crops and commodities

Most of the profits flow out of Africa

Economic Choices and Challenges

Need to develop agriculture

Nations often neglect the needs of subsistence farmers

Most government programs focus on cash crops for export

Rapid population growth and unpredictable rainfall also cause problems for farmers

A major goal of nations is to reduce economic dependence

By relying on a single crop for export, economies are at the mercy of world market prices

Attempting to limit costly imports

Because of the unequal distribution of natural resources some nations must import

Debt, drought, disease, civil war, and international conflict work against economic progress

The Population Explosion

Since independence, birth rates have risen

In 2000, Africa’s population was about 800 million

Current growth rate will more than double by 2050

African traditions encourage large families

Children are seen as a valuable resource to the family

Almost half the people in Africa are less than 15 years old

Section 3 – Changing Patterns of Life

Growth of Cities

The population explosion and the growth of industry have contributed to rapid urbanization

In 1990, 22% of Africans lived in cities

By 2025, about 54% of Africans will live in urban areas

Rural poverty is driving millions of people to give up farming

Effects of Urbanization

Growth of cities is helping to reshape African societies

A new urban elite has emerged

Wealth, education, and power set them apart from others

Most cities have a small middle class

Great majority of city dwellers are poor workers who can barely get by

Urbanization is changing family life

The longer people live in cities, the less attached they feel to their ancestors and the

land

Among the wealthier and more educated marriage customers are changing

Choosing their own mates and not agreeing to arranged marriages

Further weakens family ties

Western technology is welcomed but people are warned against westernization

Since the 1980s a religious revival has swept across the Islamic areas of Africa

Since the early 1900s many independent Christian churches have grown up in Africa

Blend of Christian and local African religious beliefs

Women’s Lives

Women continue to gain rights

But women’s lives have changed little

Conditions continue to deteriorate because of wars, conflict, and the spread of AIDS

African women are organizing politically to change attitudes

Rural Patterns

Many Africans still live in rural areas

Many farmers continue to use non-mechanized farming tools

Some herders sell their cattle for cash

Many refuse, cattle is seen as a symbol of wealth

Fishing societies are using motorized boats

Refrigeration allows them to send their catch to distant markets

Schools and Universities

School is another force for cultural change

Leaders hope to encourage a sense of national unity

Before 1960, only a small percentage of children went to school

Students often drop out because the system provides fewer classes at the higher level

Only a few students attend high school or university

In 1960, 6 universities in Africa

More than 100 universities today

Chapter 6

Africa in the World Today

Section 1 – Regional and Global Issues

Regional Cooperation

Although the goal of Pan-African unity was never reached, the dream never died

In 1963, independent nations formed the Organization of African Unity (OAU)

By 1991, all African nations joined, except South Africa

Supported independence movements and promoted peace

Many nations did not want the OAU meddling in internal affairs

2002, formed a new organization, African Union (AU)

Hoped to attract foreign investment by promoting good government and

human rights

Many African nations belong to regional groups

These groups encourage economic development

These groups help small nations strengthen their position

Nine-nation Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC)

Helped members reduce their dependence on South Africa

16-nation Economic Community of West African States (ECWAS)

Helped members by ending customs duties

Support joint transportation and energy projects

International Ties

At independence each African nation joined the United Nations (UN)

Seek international cooperation on issues such as the environment, education,

and agricultural development

Algeria, Libya, and Nigeria are members of OPEC

Many African nations also have strong economic and cultural ties to former colonial powers

The Cold War and After

African nations won independence during the Cold Was

United States and the Soviet Union wanted to win allies among the new nations

Most African countries chose a policy of nonalignment

Nonalignment – policy that did not favor either side in the Cold War

Although they remained nonaligned, many African nations looked to the superpower

for aid

The superpowers often interfered in the internal affairs of African nations

Former colonial powers have also remained involved in African affairs

Debt and AIDS

Economic factors outside their control affect emerging nations in Africa

All are influenced by global trends

African nations spend billions each year to repay old loans

African nations are also seeking help from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and

the World Bank

Both lending agencies have demanded that debtor nations reform their economies before

receiving loans

Debt is linked to the AIDS epidemic that is sweeping across Africa

Estimates are that more than 25 million Africans have AIDS

AIDS is taking a terrible toll on the future of African nations

Ongoing Challenges

In dealing with AIDS and other problems, African nations are seeking solutions that are

appropriate to their societies

The population growth has put a strain on the economies of African nations

The UN and other groups are working with African governments to set up programs that

teach family planning

African nations are also finding ways to increase food production

Introduced dry-season farming

Allows farmers to produce two crops a year

Experts are developing new kinds of crops

Scientists are working with farmers to stop soil erosion

Nigerian farmers are trying “alley-cropping”

Alley-cropping – plant long rows (Alleys) of crops and plant fast-growing

trees and vines that can be harvested for firewood

Researchers have curbed tropical diseases such as malaria and sleeping sickness

Section 2 – The Republic of South Africa

In 1910, Britain granted South Africa self-rule

Until 1994, a small white minority governed the nation

70% of South Africans are black

In 1948, the Nationalist party came to power

Drew its support from conservative white farmers

Descended from Dutch settlers who held strong views on white superiority

Set up a strict legal system of apartheid

Apartheid – rigid separation of races by law in South Africa

Under apartheid, the government classified all South Africans as white, black, or “coloured”

Then passed laws to keep the races separate

Apartheid enforce a system of inequality

Apartheid extended to education

Black schools received much less money

Four fifths of South Africa, including its rich mineral resources and fertile farmlands,

remained in the hands of whites

To control movement, the government enacted pass laws

Required all blacks to carry a passbook that included a record of where they could

travel or work, their tax payments, and a record of criminal convictions

The passbook had to be carried at all times and shown upon demand

Pass laws divided families

Struggle Against Apartheid

From the start, blacks and some others South African opposed apartheid

Archbishop Desmond Tutu won the Nobel Peace Prize for his strong opposition to

apartheid and rejected violence in the fight

South African police and government forces used violence

At a 1960 protest in Sharpeville, a township near Johannesburg, turned violent

when the police opened fire killing more than 60

The “Sharpeville massacre” aroused anger world wide

Opposition groups were banned

Nelson Mandela, a leader of the African National Congress (ANC) was captured

and sentenced to life in prison in 1964

While South Africans demanded change from within, international pressure grew

UN placed an arms embargo on South Africa

The Olympic Committee barred South African athletes from competition

During the 1980s many nations imposed economic sanctions

Cut off trade in many items and ended financial dealings with businesses

Steps Toward Change

Protests and economic sanctions had an effect

As sanctions slowed South Africa’s economy, white business leaders pressed for

change

The government repealed the hated pass laws

Opened some segregated facilities to all South Africans

In 1989, South Africa’s president, F.W. de Klerk, lifted the ban on the ANC and other

groups opposed to apartheid

In 1990, Nelson Mandela and other ANC leaders were freed from prison

In early 1990s, a new constitution was written to guarantee blacks basic rights

In 1994, blacks voted for the first time, Nelson Mandela was elected South Africa’s president

Mandela faced many problems

The gap between rich and poor in South Africa was one of the largest in the world

Mandela retired in 1999

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