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Shara M. Marshall, M.S.
ANATOMICAL REGIONS, POSITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
Overview
Anatomy:
Physiology:
Function:
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical:
Cellular:
Tissue:
Organ:
Organ system:
Organismal:
Survival Needs
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
Definition:
Components of a Control Mechanism (contain at least the following three components)
Receptor (sensor)
Control center
Effector
Negative Feedback
Example: Regulation of body temperature
Positive Feedback
Example:
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Anatomical Position
Purpose:
Standard anatomical body position:
Directional Terms
• Superior (cranial) -
• Inferior (caudal) -
• Ventral (anterior) -
• Dorsal (posterior)-
• Medial-
• Lateral-
• Intermediate-
• Proximal –
• Distal -
• Superficial-
• Deep -
Regional Terms
Regional terms:
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View: View:
Body Planes and Sections
Sagittal plane
Midsagittal (median) plane
Parasagittal plane
Frontal (coronal) plane
Transverse (horizontal) plane
Body Cavities
Two Large Cavities:
Dorsal cavity encloses:
Two subdivisions:
Cranial cavity
Encases:
Vertebral cavity
Encases:
Ventral cavity
Houses:
Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):
Thoracic cavity subdivisions:
Two pleural cavities
Each one houses:
Mediastinum
Contains:
Also contains:
Pericardial cavity
Encloses:
Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:
Abdominal cavity
Contains:
Pelvic cavity
Contains:
Abdominopelvic Regions
Nine divisions:
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BASIC CHEMISTRY
Matter and Composition of Matter
Definition:
Matter is composed of elements -
Atoms-
Atomic Structure
Neutrons
Mass =
Protons
Mass =
Electrons
Mass =
Equal in number to:
Energy
Definition:
Types of energy:
Kinetic:
Potential:
Electrical:
Identifying Elements
Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons
Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium
Atomic number =
Mass number =
Isotopes =
Atoms of Elements can Combine Chemically with other atoms to form Molecules and Compounds
Molecule: (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)
Compound: (e.g., C6H12O6)
Chemical Bonds
Octet rule:
Chemically Inert Elements
Chemically Reactive Elements
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
Ionic Bonds
Ions are formed by:
Anions (– charge):
Cations (+ charge):
Attraction of opposite charges results in:
Covalent Bonds
Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons
Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal
Equal sharing produces:
CO2
Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces:
H2O
Hydrogen Bonds
Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Synthesis Reactions
A + B ( AB
Decomposition Reactions
AB ( A + B
CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS
Inorganic compounds
Do not contain: (ex’s. water, salts, and many acids and bases)
Organic compounds
Contain: (ex’s. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids)
Water
Salts
Ionic compounds that dissociate in water
•
Acids
Acids:
HCl ( H+ + Cl–
Bases
Bases:
NaOH ( Na+ + OH–
Acid-Base Concentration
Acid solutions contain higher concentrations of H+
As [H+] increases:
Basic solutions contain higher concentrations of OH–
As [H+] decreases (or as [OH–] increases):
pH =
Neutral solutions:
pH =
Acidic solutions
pH =
Basic solutions
pH=
For the following organic compounds, they are formed by a synthesis type of chemical reaction and broken down by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates
Sugars and starches whose building blocks =
Three classes
Monosaccharides-
Disaccharides-
Polysaccharides-
Functions
Primary role:
Lipids
Main types:
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Triglycerides
Defined as:
Building blocks =
Main functions
Phospholipids
Similar to triglycerides:
Building blocks =
“Head” and “tail” regions:
Important in:
Steroids
Steroids—
Ex’s. -Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts
Proteins
Building blocks =
After amino acids are linked together:
This folding process results in four different levels of protein structure:
Protein Denaturation
Definition:
A denatured protein is:
Enzymes
Biological catalysts
Function:
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
Building blocks =
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Four bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Four bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)
Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Function:
Phosphorylation:
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Generalized Cell
All cells:
Human cells have three basic parts:
Plasma membrane—
Cytoplasm—
Nucleus—
The Plasma Membrane is a bimolecular layer of phospholipids and proteins and plays a dynamic role in cellular activity:
The plasma membrane separates:
The plasma membrane is semi-permeable which means that:
Types of Membrane Transport
A concentration gradient is:
Passive Transport
Substance moves:
Active Transport
Substances are moved/”pumped”:
Passive Transport
What determines whether or not a substance can passively cross the plasma membrane?
Three Types of Passive Transport Across Cellular membranes
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion
What types of substances use simple diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?
Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
What types of substances use facilitated diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?
Can pass through:
Passive Transport: Osmosis
Water diffuses through plasma membranes:
Mainly through channels called aquaporins (AQPs)
Importance of Osmosis
When osmosis occurs:
A change in cell volume:
Tonicity
Defined as:
Isotonic:
Hypertonic:
Hypotonic:
Active Transport
• Defined as:
• The Sodium-potassium pump (Na+-K+ ATPase) is a specific example of active transport
o
o
Other Cellular Organelles:
• Membranous structures
o Nucleus with chromatin-
o Mitochondria –
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (rough and smooth) –
o Golgi Apparatus-
o Lysosomes-
• Non-membranous structures
o Centrioles –
o Cytoskeleton -
• Extensions of the plasma membrane
o Cilia are –
o Flagella are –
o Microvilli are -
The Cell Cycle
Includes:
Interphase
3.
4. Three Subphases:
5. Gap 1 (G1)-
6. Synthesis Phase (S phase)-
7. Gap 1 (G2)-
8. Cell Division (mitotic phase or mitosis)
9. Includes four sub phases of mitosis (PMAT) and cytokinesis
Mitosis
• Purpose:
• Does not occur in:
During the S-phase of Interphase DNA is Replicated
Helicase:
DNA polymerase:
End result:
This process is called:
After DNA has been replicated:
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Mitosis—four stages of nuclear division:
Prophase -
Metaphase -
Anaphase -
Telophase -
Cytokinesis -
There are four tissue types in the body
116 Epithelial tissue
117 Connective tissue
118 Muscle tissue
119 Nerve tissue
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
Cells have polarity—
Are composed of closely packed cells
Avascular
•
High rate of regeneration
•
Classification of Epithelia
Ask two questions:
How many layers?
1 =
>1 =
What type of cell?
(If stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)
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Overview of Epithelial Tissues
Epithelia: Simple Squamous
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Simple Columnar
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Stratified Squamous
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium
Description:
Function:
Location:
Epithelia: Transitional Epithelium
Description:
Function:
Location:
Glandular Epithelia
← Gland:
← Two major types:
o Endocrine glands-
o
o Exocrine glands-
Connective Tissue
Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type
Flow Chart:
Characteristics of Connective Tissue
Connective tissues have:
Cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)
Extracellular Matrix
Ground substance
Components
Fibers (three types)
Collagen
Elastic
Reticular
Cells of Connective Tissue
“blasts” = Mitotically active and secretory cells
“cytes” = Mature cells
Fibroblasts in :
Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in:
Osteoblasts and osteocytes in:
Hematopoietic stem cells in:
Overview of Connective Tissues
Connective Tissues: Osseous
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Hyaline Cartilage
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Elastic Cartilage
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Fibrocartilage Cartilage
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Dense Regular Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Dense Irregular Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Areolar Connective Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Adipose Connective Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Reticular Connective Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Connective Tissues: Blood
Description:
Function:
Location:
Muscle Tissue (Three Types)
Skeletal Muscle
Description:
Function:
Location:
Cardiac Muscle
Description:
Function:
Location:
Smooth muscle
Description:
Function:
Location:
Nervous Tissue
Description:
Function:
Location:
Steps in Wound Repair
• Inflammation
• Organization and restored blood supply
• Regeneration and fibrosis
SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
Epithelial Membranes
The cutaneous membrane is the:
Mucous membranes
Mucosae
(e.g., digestive and respiratory tracts)
Serous Membranes
Paired membranes that line:
Parietal layer -
Visceral layer –
Serous Membranes are named based on their location:
13. Parietal and visceral pleura surround:
14. Parietal and visceral pericardium surround:
15. Parietal and visceral peritoneum surround:
Skin (Integument)
Consists of three major regions
Epidermis—
Dermis—
Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—
Epidermis
Cells of epidermis
Keratinocytes—
Melanocytes
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale
Also called stratum germinativum:
Cells travel from basal layer to surface
Takes 25–45 days
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum
Functions
Dermis
Made up of Two layers:
Papillary layer
Reticular layer
Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer
Papillary layer
Composed of:
Contains dermal papillae which may have:
Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer
Reticular layer
18. Composed of:
Skin Color
Three pigments contribute to skin color:
Melanin
19.
Carotene
Hemoglobin
Appendages of the Skin
Derived from the epidermis
Sweat Glands
Two main types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands
Eccrine sweat glands— abundant on palms, soles, and forehead
Sweat:
Apocrine sweat glands—confined to:
Sebum:
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Sebum
Hair
Functions
Consists of:
Hair Follicle
Two-layered wall consisting of:
Hair bulb:
Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus):
Arrector pili
Structure of a Nail
Structures of the nail:
Functions of the Integumentary System
Protection—
Chemical
Physical/mechanical barriers
Biological barriers
Body temperature regulation
Cutaneous sensations
Metabolic functions
Blood reservoir—
Excretion—
Skin Cancer
Three major types:
Basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Melanoma
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Appearance:
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Appearance:
Melanoma
Appearance:
Melanoma
Characteristics (ABCDE rule)
A: Asymmetry-
B: Border-
C: Color-
D: Diameter-
E: Evolution-
Partial-Thickness Burns
First degree
Second degree
Full-Thickness Burns
Third degree
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bones: An Overview
Functions of Bones
Support
Protection
Movement
Storage
Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in:
Classification of Bones by Shape
Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Examples:
Irregular bones
Examples:
Bone Markings (Refer to Table 5.1)
Bone Markings: Projections
Sites of muscle and ligament attachment
Tuberosity—rounded projection
Crest—narrow, prominent ridge
Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface
Tubercle—small rounded projection
Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle
Spine—sharp, slender projection
Process—any bony prominence
Projections that help to form joints
Head - bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
Facet - smooth, nearly flat articular surface
Condyle - rounded articular projection
Ramus -armlike bar
Bone Markings: Openings
Meatus -canal-like passageway
Sinus - cavity within a bone
Fossa -shallow, basinlike depression
Groove- furrow
Fissure -farrow, slitlike opening
Foramen -round or oval opening through a bone
Bone Textures
• Compact bone
•
•
• Spongy bone
•
Membranes of Bones
• Periosteum (fibrous connective tissue)
197 Surrounds:
198 Contains:
199 Secured to compact bone by:
Endosteum (areolar CT)
201
Structure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis (shaft)
Epiphyses
Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones
“think of a stiffened spongy bone sandwich”
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone
Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit
Lamellae
Central (Haversian) canal
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
Lacunae—
Canaliculi—
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone
Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic
Bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts
Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic
Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
Bone Formation, Growth and Remodeling
Ossification—
Stages
Bone formation—
Postnatal bone growth—
Bone remodeling and repair—
Growth in Length of Long Bones
Interstitial growth:
Growth in Width of All Bones
Appositional growth:
Control of Remodeling
What controls continual remodeling of bone?
Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)
( Blood Ca2+ levels
(
__________________________
(
PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+
(
____________________________________
Response to Mechanical Stress
Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle
Trabeculae form along lines of stress
Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
Hematoma forms
The break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus
Bony callus formation
Bone remodeling
Homeostatic Imbalances: Read about Osteoporosis and understand its risk factors, symptoms and characteristics.
The Skeleton
Two Major Divisions of the Skeletal System:
The Axial Skeleton Includes Three Regions:
1
2
3
The Skull
Two sets of bones
Cranial bones (8 cranial bones)
1 Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity
1 Calvaria:
2 Cranial base:
Facial bones (14 Facial bones)
1 Cavities for:
2 Provide sties of attachment for:
4 All skull bones are joined by:
Frontal Bone
Parietal Bones and Major Associated Sutures
Four sutures mark the articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:
Coronal suture—
Sagittal suture—
Lambdoid suture—
Squamous (squamosal) sutures—
Occipital Bone
Contains:
Temporal Bones
Inferior to parietal bones
External acoustic canal:
Zygomatic process:
Mastoid process:
Styloid process:
Mandibular fossa:
Sphenoid Bone
Three pairs of processes:
Contains the:
Ethmoid Bone
Superior part of :
Contains:
Mandible
Temporomandibular joint:
Mandibular condyle articulates w:
Maxillary Bones
•
Zygomatic Bones
Nasal Bones and Lacrimal Bones
Nasal bones
Form:
Lacrimal bones
Lacrimal fossa houses:
Palatine Bones and Vomer
Palatine bones
Vomer
Inferior Nasal Conchae
Form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity
Orbits
Encase:
Sites of attachment for:
Formed by:
Hyoid Bone
Site of attachment for:
Vertebral Column
Flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)
Cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of:
Thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of:
Lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebra of:
Sacrum—bone inferior to:
Coccyx—terminus of vertebral column
Vertebral Column: Curvatures
Increase the resilience and flexibility of the spine
Primary curvatures
•
Secondary curvatures
•
Read about Abnormal spine curvatures (Scoliosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis)
General Structure of Vertebrae
Body or centrum
Vertebral arch
Formed from:
Vertebral foramen
Seven processes per vertebra:
Spinous process—
Transverse processes (2)—
Superior articular processes (2)—
Inferior articular processes (2)—
Cervical Vertebrae
C1 to C7:
C3 to C7 share the following features
Transverse foramen in:
C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features
Atlas (C1)
Consists of:
Superior articular facets articulate with:
Axis (C2)
Thoracic Vertebrae
T1 to T12
Lumbar Vertebrae
L1 to L5
Sacrum and Coccyx
Sacrum
1
2 Forms:
3 Contains the sacral canal for:
4 Articulates with:
Coccyx
1
2
3 Articulates superiorly with:
Thoracic (Rib) Cage
Composed of
Thoracic vertebrae
Sternum
Ribs and their costal cartilages
Sternum
Three fused bones
2 Manubrium
3 Body
4 Xiphoid process
Ribs and Their Attachments
12 pairs
2 All attach:
Pairs 1 through 7
1
2 Attach:
Pairs 8 through 10
1 False ribs
1
Pairs 11-12
4
6
The Appendicular Skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and their girdles (pectoral and pelvic)
Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)
Clavicles and the scapulae
1 Attach:
2 Provide:
Clavicles
Acromial (lateral) end:
Sternal (medial) end:
Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)
Three fossa are the site of origin for the rotator cuff muscles:
The Upper Limb
Arm
1
Forearm
1
Hand
1 8 carpal bones in the wrist
2 5 metacarpal bones in the palm
3 14 phalanges in the fingers
Humerus
Head of Humerus Articulates with:
Contains:
Articulates inferiorly with the radius and ulna via the:
Bones of the Forearm
Ulna
1
3 Contains:
Radius
1
3 Contains:
Hand: Carpus
Eight bones in two rows
Only scaphoid and lunate:
Hand: Metacarpus and Phalanges
Metacarpus
1
Phalanges
1 Each finger (digit), except the thumb, has three phalanges-
3 The thumb:
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
Consists of:
Attaches:
Transmits:
Each coxal bone consists of three fused bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis
2 Iliac crest, sacroiliac joint
Ischium-
2
Pubis
2 Pubic symphysis, pubic arch
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves
Female pelvis
1 Adapted for:
2 True pelvis:
3 Cavity of the true pelvis is:
Male pelvis
1 Adapted for:
3 Cavity of the true pelvis is:
The Lower Limb
Three segments of the lower limb
1 Thigh:
2 Leg:
3 Foot: 7 tarsal bones in the ankle, 5 metatarsal bones in the metatarsus, and 14 phalanges in the toes
Femur
Femoral head articulates:
Contains:
Bones of the Leg
Tibia
1
3 Articulates with:
5 Contains:
Fibula
1
3 Articulates with:
5 Contains:
Foot: Tarsals
1
2
Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges
Metatarsals:
1
Phalanges
3 Each digit (except the hallux) has three phalanges –
5 The great toe:
JOINTS
Joints (Articulations)
Articulation—
Functions of joints:
Joints can be classified Functionally and Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
Three functional classifications:
Synarthroses—
Amphiarthroses—
Diarthroses—
Structural Classification of Joints
Based on:
Three structural classifications:
Fibrous (As a general rule, these are immovable)
Cartilaginous (Both movable and immovable, most are amphiarthroses)
Synovial (All are freely movable)
Fibrous Joints
Bones joined by:
Three types: Sutures, Syndesmoses, Gomphoses
Fibrous Joints: Sutures
Fibrous Joints: Syndesmoses
Examples:
Interosseous membrane btwn. Radius/ulna and btwn. Tibia/fibula (distal tibiofibular joint)
Cartilaginous Joints
Examples, Symphyses (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs)
Synovial Joints
Four Distinguishing features:
Articular Cartilage-
Articular Capsule-
3. Joint cavity-
Encloses synovial fluid
4. Reinforcing Ligaments
Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures
Bursae:
Contain:
Commonly act as “ball bearings” where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Tendon sheath:
Classification of Synovial Joints
Six types, based on shape of articular surfaces:
Plane
Hinge
Pivot
Condyloid
Saddle
Ball and socket
Plane Joints
Example(s):
Hinge Joints
Example(s)
Pivot Joints
Example(s)
Condyloid Joints
Example(s)
Saddle Joints
Example(s)
Ball-and-Socket Joints
Example(s)
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Three Types of Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle tissue:
Cardiac muscle tissue:
Smooth muscle tissue:
Muscle Functions
Skeletal Muscle
Each muscle is served by one artery, one nerve, and one or more veins
Connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle:
Epimysium:
Perimysium:
Endomysium:
Skeletal Muscle: Attachments
Muscles attach to bone by an origin and insertion
Origin-
Insertion-
Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber
Myofibrils
Exhibit striations:
Sarcomere
Regions of a Sarcomere
A band (Dark Band)-
H zone:
M line:
I band (Light Band)-
Z disc:
Structure of a Thick Filament
Composed of many myosin proteins
A single myosin protein contains:
A tail
A head which can:
Structure of Thin Filament
Other Skeletal Muscle Organelles
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• Network of:
• Stores:
• T (transverse) Tubules:
• Continuous with:
• Penetrate cells interior at each:
o T tubules:
Sliding Filament Theory
In the relaxed state:
During contraction:
As H zones shorten and disappear:
The Neuromuscular Junction
Defined as:
Axons of motor neurons:
Each axon:
Each axon ending forms:
Axon terminal and muscle fiber are:
Synaptic vesicles within axon terminal contain:
Junctional folds of the sarcolemma contain:
Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
A nerve impulse:
1. Ca2+:
2. Ca2+ entry causes:
3. Ach diffuses:
4. Ach binding:
5. Na+:
6. Once threshold is reached:
The Action Potential
The AP is:
Repolarization:
Destruction of Acetylcholine
ACh effects are quickly terminated by:
Prevents:
Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction
At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration:
At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations:
Cross Bridge Cycle
Continues as long as:
Cross bridge formation:
Power stroke:
Cross bridge detachment:
“Cocking” of the myosin head:
[pic]
Motor Unit: The Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit
Motor unit =
Graded Muscle Responses
• Defined:
Changing:
Changing:
Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency
A single stimulus results in a single contractile response called a:
Increase frequency of stimulus(
Ca2+ release stimulates further contraction (
Further increase in stimulus frequency (
If stimuli are given quickly enough, (
Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction
ATP is regenerated by:
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)
Anaerobic pathway
Aerobic respiration
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)
CP is:
When ATP stores are depleted:
Products are:
Provides energy for:
Anaerobic Pathway
Under intense muscle activity or when oxygen delivery is impaired:
Begins just like aerobic pathway (glycolysis) but pyruvic acid is:
Products are:
Provides energy for:
Aerobic Pathway
Produces:
1. Fuels:
2. Products are:
3. Provides energy for:
Muscle Fatigue
Defined:
Results from:
Skeletal Muscles: Functional Groups
• Antagonists
o
• Synergists
o
Naming Skeletal Muscles
• Location—bone or body region associated with the muscle
• Shape—e.g., deltoid muscle (deltoid = triangle)
• Relative size—e.g., maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long)
• Direction of fibers or fascicles—e.g., rectus (fibers run straight), transversus, and oblique (fibers run at angles to an imaginary defined axis)
• Naming Skeletal Muscles
• Number of origins—e.g., biceps (2 origins) and triceps (3 origins)
• Location of attachments—named according to point of origin or insertion
• Action—e.g., flexor or extensor, muscles that flex or extend, respectively
Muscles of Facial Expression
• Epicranius (Frontal belly and Occipital belly)
o
o
• Orbicularis Oculi
o
• Orbicularis Oris
o
• Buccinator
o
• Zygomaticus
o
• Platysma
o
Muscles of Mastication
• Temporalis
o Prime movers of jaw closure
• Masseter
o
Muscles of the Neck
• Sternocleidomastoid
o
Anterior Trunk Muscles
• Pectoralis Major
o
• Rectus Abdominis
o
• External and Internal obliques
o
• Transversus Abdominis
o
Posterior Trunk Muscles
• Trapezius
o
• Latissimus Dorsi
o
• Erector Spinae
o
▪
Arm Muscles
• Anterior Flexor muscles
o Brachialis, Biceps brachii, Brachioradialis
▪
• Posterior Extensor muscles
o Triceps brachii
▪
Shoulder Muscles
• Deltoid
o
• Rotator cuff Muscles
o Supraspinatus
o Infraspinatus
o Subscapularis
o Teres Minor
Muscles of the Forearm
• Actions:
• Most anterior muscles are :
• Most posterior muscles are :
Hip/Thigh Muscles
• Iliopsoas and Sartorius
o
• Gluteus Maximus
o
o
• Gluteus Medius
o
• Adductor Muscles
o
o
• Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus)
o
o
• Quadriceps Group (Vastus Medialis, Lateralis, intermedius and rectus femoris)
o
o
Muscles of the Anterior Compartment of the Lower Leg
• Tibialis anterior and Extensor digitorum longus
o
Muscles of the Lateral Compartment of the Lower Leg
• Fibularis longus
o
Muscles of the Posterior Compartment of the Lower Leg
• Gastrocnemius and Soleus
o
o
SPECIAL SENSES – THE EYE
The Eye and Vision
Eyebrows
Function in
Eyelids
Palpebral fissure—
Medial and Lateral Canthi-
Caruncle—
Tarsal plates—
Levator palpebrae superioris—
Eyelashes
Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids
Tarsal glands-
Conjunctiva
Mucous membranes of the eye
Palpebral conjunctiva:
Bulbar conjunctiva:
Lacrimal Apparatus
Consists of:
Releases: Lacrimal secretion (tears)
The solution also contains:
Blinking spreads the tears towards the:
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
The movement of the eye is controlled by six muscles on the external surface of each eye:
Superior rectus:
Inferior rectus:
Lateral rectus:
Medial rectus:
Inferior oblique:
Superior oblique:
The innervations to each muscle can be remembered by the following equation: (LR6SO4)O3
Which means:
Lateral rectus:
Superior oblique:
All others:
Structure of the Eyeball
The eyeball is composed of three layers
Fibrous layer
Vascular layer
Sensory layer
Fibrous Layer
Two regions: sclera and cornea
Sclera
2. Cornea:
Vascular Layer
Middle layer
Three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Choroid region
2. Ciliary body
3. Iris
The anterior colored part of the eye
Pupil—
Close vision and bright light—
Distant vision and dim light—
Sensory Layer: Retina
Delicate two-layered membrane
Pigmented layer –
Neural layer -
The Retina
Ganglion cell axons
Optic disc (blind spot)
Photoreceptors
Rods
More numerous at:
Operate in:
Provide:
Cones
Found in:
Operate in:
Provide:
Cones
There are three types of cones named for the colors of light absorbed:
Intermediate hues are perceived by:
Color blindness is due to:
Internal Chambers and Fluids
The lens and ciliary zonule separate the anterior and posterior segments
Posterior segment contains vitreous humor that:
Anterior segment is composed of two chambers
Anterior chamber—
Posterior chamber—
Anterior segment contains aqueous humor
Supplies:
Glaucoma:
Lens
Lens fibers—
Lens becomes denser, more convex, and less elastic with age
Cataracts (clouding of lens) occur as a consequence of aging, diabetes mellitus, heavy smoking, and frequent exposure to intense sunlight
Light
Our eyes respond to:
Light:
Rods and Cones:
Refraction and Lenses
Refraction
Light passing through a convex lens:
The image formed at the focal point:
Focusing Light on the Retina
Pathway of light entering the eye: cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, neural layer of retina, photoreceptors
Light is refracted
Change in lens curvature allows for fine focusing of an image
Focusing for Distant Vision
Light rays from distant objects are:
Ciliary muscles are:
Lens is:
Focusing for Close Vision
Light from a close object diverges as it approaches the eye; requires that the eye make active adjustments
Close vision requires
Accommodation—
Near point of vision is determined by:
Presbyopia—
Constriction—
Convergence—
Problems of Refraction
Myopia (nearsightedness)—
Hyperopia (farsightedness)—
Functional Anatomy of Photoreceptors
Rods and cones
Outer segment of each contains visual pigments -
Once light is absorbed by the visual pigments:
The Visual Pathway from the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of brain
SPECIAL SENSES- THE EAR
The Ear
Three parts of the ear
External (outer) ear
Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
Internal (inner) ear
The Ear: Hearing and Balance
External and middle ear are involved with:
Internal ear (labyrinth) functions in both:
External Ear
The auricle (pinna) is composed of:
External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Middle Ear
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube—connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx
Ear Ossicles
Three small bones in tympanic cavity: the malleus, incus, and stapes
Transmit :
Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles :
Internal Ear
Bony labyrinth
Three parts:
Filled with:
Filled with:
Vestibule
Contains two membranous sacs (saccule and utricle) that:
Semicircular Canals
Three canals that:
Membranous semicircular ducts:
Ampulla (swelling) of each canal houses:
Receptors respond to:
Equilibrium
•
The Cochlea
A spiral, conical, bony chamber
Contains the cochlear duct:
Sound and the Cochlea
•
•
•
•
•
Transmission of Sound to the Internal Ear
Deafness
• Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent
• Common causes:
•
• Conduction deafness
• Can be caused by:
•
•
•
•
• Nerve Deafness
• Can be caused by:
•
•
•
•
-----------------------
A
B
C
Cranial Bones (8)
Facial Bones (14)
................
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