Department of Biology | College of Arts and Sciences



BIL 360 - Study Guide for Exam VHere is the study guide for the most recent material. Remember: It’s just a checklist. Anything in the notes or assigned readings corresponding with the notes is fair game.The items shown in pale orange are the parts of the last three lectures that will NOT be covered on the exam. I have left them here in the study guide to show that they are important if you want to study them for MCAT, GRE, etc. But I won’t be asking questions about them on the final.Reproduction: Natural History (Chapter 17)Understand the costs and benefits of asexual vs. sexual reproduction. Watch the VIDEO on The Selfish Gene with Richard Dawkins, and understand how this applies to reproduction.Know the various mechanisms of asexual reproduction, and be able to recognize unfamiliar examples.Know the meaning/significance of:mitotic propagulesfragmentation & regenerationclonebuddingparthenogenesis (facultative, cyclic, haploid, diploid, artificial)heterogonyspring eggs/winter eggs (Daphnia)automixisapomixisparthenogenesis in CnemidophorusUnderstand what circumstances favor asexual or sexual reproduction and why.What are the costs and benefits of asexual and sexual reproduction?What are the main hypothesis explaining why organisms are mostly sexual. (Muller’s ratchet, Red Queen Hypothesis, etc.)Understand the various physiological aspects of reproduction and how they are studied.Understand how the following affect reproduction:physical environmentphotoperiodnutritional environmenttemperaturesocial environmentresource availabilityUnderstand the meaning/significance of:embryonic diapausemelatonincircadiandelayed implantationgonadotropinscircumtidalendogenous timing mechanismscircannual“honest signal”Know the meaning/significance of: semeloparous vs. iteroparous reproduction (and what each implies about parental investment). What are the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy?Understand the relationship between the expense of producing sperm vs. eggs and possible evolutionary consequences in terms of sex-specific behaviors and parental investment.Understand the nature of prenatal and postnatal provisioning, and the forms these can take in various species. Be able to recognize examples.Know the meaning/significance of:environmental food sourceparental food sourcelactation crop milk (and its analogs)Reproduction: Modes and Physiology (Chapter 17)Understand the modes of external and internal fertilization, and its costs and benefits. Which is more primitive? Which is more derived? Which forms of internal fertilization are relatively primitive/derived?Know the meaning/significance of spawningoffspring provisioningovumamplexusspermegg(What’s the difference between an ovum and an egg? Technically speaking, an ovum is a haploid female gamete. An egg is the diploid, fertilized ovum (zygote) and any protective encasement surrounding it. But term “egg” is often used interchangeably—though not quite correctly—with “ovum”.)Know the meaning/significance (and be able to recognize examples of)oviparousamniotic eggyolk sacamniotic egg and placental structure homologiesovoviviparousamnionchorionviviparousallantoiscloaca (what comes out of it?)Know the meaning/significance (and be able to recognize examples of)monoeciousprotandrysimultaneous hermaphroditeprotandrous hermaphroditedioeciousprotogynysequential hermaphroditeprotogynous hermaphroditeKnow the basic anatomy of the female mammalian reproductive tract.vulvavaginaendometriumuterusmyometriumlabia majora labia minoraoviduct/Fallopian tubesclitoriscervixKnow and understand the terminology associated with mammalian gametogenesis and ovulation: primordial follicleovarian cortex & medullaoogonium/germinal cell (2n)ovum (n)primary folliclegranulosa cellsprimary oocyte (2n)eggsecondary folliclethecal cellssecondary oocyte (n)ovarian stem cellGraafian follicleantrumpolar body (n)corpus luteumUnderstand the development of female gametes and when the various stages occur in the female’s life.Know the stages of the estrous cycle and what defines estrus.Know the meaning/significance ofestrusmetestrusfollicular phaseovulationproestrusdiestrusluteal phase(and when each occurs relative to the others)What is the distinction between an estrous cycle and a menstrual cycle?Which species have a menstrual cycle?Know the meaning/significance of:mensesmenstruationhidden estrussexually transmitted infection (STI)Understand the neuroendocrinology of the estrous cycle, including the sources and roles of:hypothalamusluteinizing hormone (LH)estrogen/estradiolprogesteroneanterior pituitaryfollicle stimulating hormone (FSH)aromatasegonadotropinsGnRHinhibinUnderstand the mechanism of induced ovulation. Which species are induced ovulators?Understand the seasonal changes in testicular size and activity. (testicular regression and recrudescence)Understand the aspects and endocrinology of pregnancy, including the meaning/significance of:dikaryotic cellblastocystcorpus luteumkaryogamytrophoblastendometriumfertilizationchorionchorionic gonadotropinUnderstand the aspects and endocrinology of parturition, including the roles/meaning/significance of:myometriumoxytocin receptorshypothalamuscervical mechanoreceptorsestrogenrelaxinposterior pituitarypositive feedbackconnexinsoxytocinprostaglandinsKnow the basic anatomy of the male mammalian reproductive tract and its products, and the functions thereof.scrotumtestesprostateseminal vesicleSertoli cellsdartos musclesvas deferens urethraepididymisLeydig cellssperm (and its anatomy)cremaster musclespenissemenEndocrine and Neuroendocrine Systems (Chapter 16 to page 449)Know the differences between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland, and recognize examples of each.Know the difference between endocrine glands that areunicellular vs. multicellulardiscrete, diffuse, and intermediateKnow the meaning/significance/functions of: hormoneepithelial (nonneural) endocrine cellsperipheral activationparacrine substancediscrete, diffuse, and intermediate glandspreprohormoneautocrine substanceneurosecretory cellsprohormoneendocrine glandneurohormonelipoprotein carrier moleculetarget cellneurohemal organwater vs. lipid soluble hormonesKnow the location, general anatomy, general functions, and interactions of the following. (For a quick summary of each without digging through the text, see Appendix K in your text.) Hypothalamus: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)somatostatinGrowth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)dopaminePosterior pituitary (neurohypophysis; neural): stores vasopressin/anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis; glandular):Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)Prolactin (PRL)Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)Growth hormone (GH)Luteinizing hormone (LH)Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Adrenal glands: corticosteroids, catecholamines, androgensPancreas (Islets of Langerhans): insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, gastrinGonads: sex hormonesThyroid: thyroid hormones (T3 and T4; what is the relationship between these?)Parathyroid: parathyroid hormone (PTH)Compare and contrast the control systems of the nervous system and endocrine system.What is a hormone? What criteria distinguish hormones from other chemical messengers?Know the three major classes of hormones (steroid, peptide, and amine) and their basic chemical properties.What is the chemical precursor to all steroid hormones? (HINT: You often hear its bad for you. But you need it.)How do fat-soluble hormones enter a cell? Water-soluble hormones?Know how these are synthesized, stored, and released (see table 16.1 in your text) What is a hormone’s half-life? What factors affect the half-life, and why does it matter?Understand the anatomy and function of the anterior and posterior pituitary, and their relationship to the hypothalamus. What is peripheral activation, and what is its functional significance?Know the meaning/significance/function of: synergismhypothalamussympathetic nervous systempermissivenessanterior pituitaryhormone cascade agonism/agonistposterior pituitaryaxis (e.g., HPA, HPT)antagonism/antagonistadrenal glandpineal gland & parietal eyeUnderstand mechanisms of hormonal modulation (negative or positive feedback, synergism, permissiveness, antagonism) and how these influence endocrine glands and other target tissues. Be able to recognize examples of each type of modulation.Know the function and evolutionary origin of the pineal gland and how it interacts with the pineal eye. What hormone does it secrete, and what is the hormone’s function?Know the function of insulin. When/why is insulin secreted? What effects does insulin have?Know the function of glucagon. When/why is glucagon secreted? What effects does glucagon have?Muscle (Chapter 20)Which two organ systems are unique to animals? They come together here.Know the general anatomy and function of the three types of muscle: smooth, striated skeletal, and striated cardiac. Which ones are under voluntary control? Which ones are under involuntary control?Know the meaning/significance/function of the following in muscle contraction/neuromuscular junction:arrival of action potentialacetylcholine bindingCa+ ions entering presynaptic cellactivation of ion channels in the postsynaptic cellacetylcholine releaseWhat is the role of Ca+?actinpower strokemyosincross-bridge detachmentcross-bridge formationreactivation of myosin head(The video here will help with this: HYPERLINK "" )Know the general anatomy of a vertebrate skeletal muscle. Be able to recognize the following in a diagram:muscle bundlet tubulesA bandZ line/discmuscle fiber/cellterminal cisternaeH bandsarcolemmamyofibrilI bandsarcoplasmic reticulumsarcomereM lineKnow the meaning/significance of:neuromuscular junctiontetanic contractionmuscle twitchtetanus (normal vs. disease condition)summation(How does Clostridium toxin cause permanent tetanus?) Know the general anatomy of vertebrate smooth muscle, including its components:spindle-shaped cellscytoskeletal filamentsdense bodiesactin and myosinvaricositiesWhere is smooth muscle found? What are its functions? How does it contract and relax?Understand the distinctions and functional differences between multi-unit vs. single-unit smooth musclephasic and tonic smooth muscle contractionWhere would you expect to find smooth muscle performing these types of contractions? Control of Skeletal Muscle (Chapter 19)Know which areas of the brain initiate and coordinate muscle movement. What are the roles of cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and basal ganglia?Know the difference between afferent (sensory) information vs. efferent (motor) commands, and in which direction they move (effector to CNS or CNS to effector).Understand the general differences between invertebrate and vertebrate neural circuits and CNS.Understand the basic mechanism of the startle reflex in an invertebrate (e.g., cockroach).Understand the mechanics of the vertebrate spinal reflex.Know the meaning/function/significance of the following:local circuitsensory receptorsproprioceptor/proprioceptionascending circuitCNS interneuronsmechanoreceptor/mechanoreceptiondescending circuitreflexKnow the general anatomy, organization and function of a muscle spindle and its components:extrafusal muscle fibers (?)1a afferent sensory neuronsalpha (?) motor neuronsintrafusal muscle fibers (?)gamma (?) motor neuronsUnderstand the principle of muscle reciprocity:agonistic and antagonistic muscles in the reciprocity mechanism.how excitatory and inhibitory neurons prevent opposing muscles from working against each otherBe familiar with the stretch reflex and its various functions:Understand the mechanism of coactivation in voluntary movement (e.g., load compensation)Understand the mechanism of the flexion reflex. What is its function? Understand the crossed extensor reflex? What is its function?Be familiar with the concept of neural generation of rhythmic behavior: stereotyped, repetitive sequences of movement (breathing, walking, swimming, flying, trotting, pacing, etc.)What is a central pattern generator? Is it under central vs. peripheral control? Where is it located? Understand the roles of brain, spinal cord and sensory input in control and coordination of rhythmic movement.Respiration and Gas Exchange (Chapters 22, 23)Know the meaning/significance and differences among: cellular, external, and internal respiration. What are the two respiratory gases? Understand how the properties of gases (Ideal Gas Law, Henry’s Law, etc.) affect gas exchange in animals. (You don’t have to memorize equations; just understand what they’re telling you.)Understand how partial pressure of dissolved gases relates to gas exchange in living organisms.Know the meaning/significance of the absorption coefficient. How do temperature and salinity affect solubility of gases in water?Is the absorption coefficient the same for all gases?Does gas move more readily through a gaseous or a liquid phase? Why is this important?Know the meaning/significance of: gas exchange membrane (respiratory membrane), blood-air barrierKnow which types of animals are most likely to respire via skin lungs (invaginated breathing organ)gills (evaginated breathing organ)…and at which life cycle stages.Know the meaning/significance of: passive vs. active ventilation (which is more reliable for good gas exchange?)unidirectional vs. bidirectional (tidal), vs. nondirectional air flowWhich systems are most efficient at gas exchange, relative to one another?Understand the concepts of ventilation rate and gas exchange efficiency (utilization coefficient).Understand the mechanisms and relative gas exchange efficiencies of concurrent gas exchangecountercurrent gas exchangecross-current gas exchangeIn which organ systems is countercurrent exchange used? In a diagram of any of these systems, be able to recognize pressure gradients relevant to gas exchange.Know the meaning/significance of: buccal (suction) breathingram breathingcostal breathingair breathing fishdiaphragmatic breathingamphibious fishIn which types of animals would you see each type of breathing?Recall the scaling of gas exchange membrane surface area as a function of body size. Is it the same across all animal taxa?Understand the basic difference between septate and alveolar lungs. Which types of animals have each?Understand how amphibians breathe, including how they change from larva to adult. What is a dual (bimodal) breather?Know the anatomy of the mammalian respiratory system including: naresprimary bronchidiaphragmalveolisinusesbronchioles (respiratory and non-respiratory)tracheaWhich structures are involved in actual gas exchange?Understand the mechanism of unidirectional breathing in birds, including the air sac system. Do the lungs expand as the bird breathes? What part of the system expands?Does air pass through the lungs at inhalation or exhalation?Do birds breathe costally or diaphragmatically? Unidirectionally or tidally?Understand the respiratory challenges generated at high altitude.What are the illnesses that can result from lack of adequate acclimatization to high altitude O2 partial pressure? Circulation (Chapter 25)Understand the main differences between a plant vascular system and an animal circulatory system.Know the major functions of the circulatory system and what it transports.Know the meaning/significance of:open vs. closed circulatory systemblood vesselsWhich phyla have open circulatory systems?haemolymphheart(s)Which phyla have closed circulatory systems?haemocoelbloodRecognize the major metalloprotein pigment molecules found in animals, and which animals use them.hemoglobinhemerythrinhemocyaninerythrocruorinchlorocruorinKnow the different types of vertebrate blood cells, their general development and functions:Leukocytes:basophils monocyteserythrocyteseosinophilslymphocyteslymphocytesplateletsWhat is the role of the kidneys in hematopoiesis? What hormone triggers hematopoiesis?Understand the basics of human blood types (ABO and Rh groups), including who are universal donors and universal recipients.Know the basic types of animal hearts and which types of animals have them.Understand the anatomical and functional difference between two-chambered, three-chambered, and four-chambered vertebrate hearts. Which animals have each type? Are four-chambered hearts all descended from an ancestor with a four-chambered heart?Know the path of blood flow through the mammalian heart, and know its general anatomy. Know and be able to recognize the major structures of the heart and the path of blood through them.Pulmonary veininferior and superior venae cavaeLeft atriumright atriumLeft atrioventricular valveright ventricleLeft ventriclepulmonary trunkAortic valvepulmonary arteriesAortaWhich vessels go to the pulmonary circuit? Which vessels go to the systemic circuit?Know on a diagram of a mammalian heart where oxygenated and unoxygenated blood will be foundKnow the meaning/significance of: systolemyocardiumspongy myocardiummixed structure myocardiumdiastoleendocardiumcompact myocardiumcardiac lumencardiac outputpericardiumcoronary arteriesUnderstand the difference between myogenic and neurogenic hearts. Which types of animals have each?Understand the basic course of events in the cardiac conduction system, and the role of: SA nodeBundle of HisAV nodeBundle branchesPurkinje fibers.How do the ventricles contract from the bottom of the heart, upwards? Which of the above trigger that event?Understand the points of an electrocardiogram: P wave, QRS wave, T wave.Understand the difference between hormonal, nervous, and intrinsic control of heartbeat.Know the path of blood flow through pulmonary and systemic circuits.Know the general anatomy and properties of: arterymicrocirculatory bedvasoconstrictioncapillaryarteriolevenulevasodilationveinsKidneys and Excretion (Chapters 27, 29)Know the major functions of the excretory system.Know the meaning/significance of:intracellular fluidfluid osmotic pressuremolarityblood plasmaextracellular fluidfluid ionic compositionosmolarityinterstitial fluidfluid volumeBe familiar with the diversity and evolutionary progression of complexity of excretory systems.What three things do all have in common?Recall the three types of nitrogenous waste (ammonia, urea, uric acid), their relative toxicity, energy expense to produce, and amount of water needed to flush. What types of animals excrete each of these? What is gout?Know the meaning/significance/function of: protonephridiumnephronureter…and in which animals they are foundmetanephridiumpronephrosurethra and at which stage of development.flame cellmesonephroscloacanephridioporemetanephrosKnow the organs involved in excretion in aquatic vs. terrestrial animals.What are the normal components of definitive (final product) urine?Be familiar with the general anatomy and function of the vertebrate (mammal) kidney:capsulerenal pyramidminor calyxrenal arteries and veinscortexpyramid apexrenal columnmedullapyramid papillacollecting ductBe familiar with the general anatomy and function of the vertebrate nephron:Bowman’s capsulerenal corpuscleascending Loop of Henleglomeruluspodocytedistal convoluted tubuleafferent arterioleproximal convoluted tubulecapsular fluidefferent arterioledescending Loop of Henletubule fluidUnderstand the difference between primary and definitive urine.Why is blood filtration by the kidneys sometimes likened to cleaning out your refrigerator? Understand the basic mechanisms of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion.(Watch the video Glomerular Filtration: HYPERLINK "" )Understand how ion movement (passive and active) across the ascending Loop of Henle membrane generates the high salt concentration gradient from the renal cortex into the deep layers of the medulla. Why is this gradient important? (Hint: Watch those videos! )What factors affect Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)? What is the net pressure in a nephron capsule?Be aware that different processes (active and passive) along different regions of the nephron result in re-uptake and secretion at various locations along the nephron.Understand the basics of hormonal regulation of renal function by:vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)aldosteroneatrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (what is natriuresis?)Know the meaning/significance of:diuresispolyuriaosmotic diuresispolydypsiapressure diuresisPU/PDWhat is a diuretic? What are the three different types of diuretics and their basic functions?Are there diuretic compounds in commonly ingested substances? Which ones?What is the significance of the osmotic U/P ratio?What can you tell about an animal that has a U/P ratio of <1 or >1? What about UP = 1?What do these ratios tell you about relative urine and plasma concentrations?What types of animals should exhibit each type of ratio?What is extrarenal salt excretion? What types of animals can do this, and with what organ?What is metabolic water? Preformed water?How is metabolic water made?Which macromolecule nutrients generate the most metabolic water?What are the roles of obligatory respiratory, urinary, and fecal water loss?Watch the two videos at the end of Lecture 19 for a thorough overview. ................
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