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WORKBOOK ANSWERS
Edexcel GCSE (9–1) History Workbook
Early Elizabethan England, 1558–88
This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that you could give for the questions asked in the Workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.
Queen, government and religion, 1558–69
The situation on Elizabeth’s accession
1
|Queen |Nobles |Gentry |Yeomen |Merchants |Fourth sort |
|1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |
|Made all the important|The wealthiest |Made up of lesser |Farmers who owned their|Those who had made |Labourers in towns and |
|decisions, but was |landowners, with |nobles and knights; |own land and could sell|their wealth through |agricultural labourers |
|advised and helped by |huge influence on |many were judges and|surplus produce. |trade and industry; |in rural areas; they |
|nobles and gentry. |national and local |sheriffs. | |many were mayors. |were more vulnerable. |
| |government. | | | | |
2
|Monarch |Privy Council |The Royal Court |Parliament |
|1 |2 |3 |4 |
|This person governed the country. |This was the queen’s government|This was generally made up of the|This organisation was called to |
|Their wealth came from their lands|and comprised the chief |queen and all the people who took|meet when the monarch deemed it |
|and customs duties. They were in |ministers whom she appointed. |care of her household and |desirable or necessary, or when it |
|charge of the Church and the |This organisation closely |personal needs and who helped her|was obliged to in times of raising |
|courts and decided when Parliament|advised the monarch on every |govern the country. Court members|revenue or war. It did not make the|
|should be called. |aspect of government in |included household staff, such as|law, although the queen at times |
| |national and international |cooks and bakers, and the highest|sought its approval. |
| |affairs. |statesmen in Council. | |
3
|Legitimacy |Gender |Marriage |Succession |
|Reason 1: Some believed that |Reason 1: Women rulers in the |Reason 1: Marriage was seen as |Reason 1: Children would be |
|Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn |sixteenth century were seen as |essential for the succession, and |essential for the succession |
|had been illegal. |unnatural and a liability. |because many sixteenth-century men |and clearly linked to marriage.|
|Reason 2: Elizabeth was the child |Reason 2: Women were seen as |did not think women were capable of |Reason 2: The succession would |
|of an unlawful marriage. |too weak to keep powerful |being monarch on their own. |be problematic if Elizabeth |
| |nobles under control. |Reason 2: There was much division |remained childless. The next in|
| | |among Elizabeth’s Council, Court and |line was her cousin, the |
| | |Parliament about whom she should |Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. |
| | |marry. | |
4 Elizabeth had many attributes that would help her become a good and successful queen. For example:
Ability: Elizabeth was brought up as a Protestant, and was well educated on matters of religion and on issues related to monarchy.
Elizabeth’s tutor wrote that her mind was free from weakness and blessed with hard work and a retentive memory. She was conversant with Greek, Latin, French and Italian.
Character: Elizabeth had been suspected of treason and briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1554. This fear of potential death gave her much strength of character.
Strengths: Elizabeth had overcome significant difficulties in being Henry’s Protestant daughter before she became queen in 1558.
Elizabeth had been around the Tudor Court most of her life, except 1536–43 and 1553–58. She had considerable experience of witnessing the Royal Court at work.
5 A suggestion may be of ‘Appointing the Privy Council’ on top, since that would be key for the possible resolution of all other problems.
‘Financial problems’ and ‘Peace and prosperity’ on the second row, because these would be the foundations for greater domestic and foreign stability.
On the final row – but still significant – would be ‘Challenge from Catholics’, ‘Challenge from Puritans’ and ‘Poverty’.
6
|Heading |Statement |
|Relations with Spain and the issue|Philip II of Catholic Spain did not want to oppose Elizabeth as this would leave the pathway open for |
|of the Spanish Netherlands |Mary Queen of Scots and her ties with France. Increased involvement in the Spanish Netherlands, |
| |however, along with other factors, would cause increased difficulties with England. |
|Ongoing war with France and the |In 1558 France was at war with England and Spain. The French strengthened their forces in Scotland and |
|issue of Calais |in January 1558 they captured Calais. |
|Relations with the Pope |Pope Pius IV decided not to excommunicate Elizabeth, but this remained a possibility that could unleash|
| |rebellion against Elizabeth among Catholics both at home and abroad. |
|Mary Queen of Scots |Scotland had been ruled by Mary Queen of Scots since 1542 and she had claimed to be heir to the English|
| |throne from 1558. She returned from France in 1561 with close links to French Catholics. |
|Relations with Scotland |In 1559 Scottish Protestant nobles took control of the government and, supported by England and France,|
| |backed down from invading. In 1561 Mary was a Catholic queen in a Protestant country with little power.|
Exam-style questions
7 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabethan society was the divisions in power and wealth between social classes in the countryside. For example, the landowning nobility were the most wealthy and powerful, followed by the gentry, the yeoman and the tenant farmers, and then the landless labourers.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabethan society was the divisions in power and wealth between social classes in towns and cities. For example, the merchant classes were the most powerful and wealthy, followed by the professional classes (lawyers), then craftsmen and labourers.
8 The institutions of Parliament, the Privy Council and the monarchy each played an important part in the working of Elizabethan government.
Parliament played a significant role in Elizabethan government. Elizabeth did not possess complete power and could not pass laws without Parliament’s approval nor raise taxes without its consent. Although it was called only occasionally by the queen, Parliament also advised Elizabeth on all aspects of government, for example finance, religion and war.
The Privy Council was crucial to the functioning of Elizabethan government, and appointing its members would be crucial to the success of Elizabeth’s reign. The Privy Council contained men chosen as advisers as well as heads of government departments such as the Lord Treasurer, who was responsible for the Crown’s finances. Furthermore, it met frequently and advised on the most significant decisions, such as the succession, finance and war.
The role of the monarch herself was central to Elizabethan government. It was Elizabeth who bore total responsibility for all aspects of government, and it was widely believed that her authority was ultimately bequeathed by God. All authority was invested in the monarch.
Overall, the role of the monarch was the most significant in Elizabethan government because this was where ultimate power and authority lay in a monarchical state. Central to the success of government, however, were the administrative and decision-making functions of her key ministers in the Privy Council and the successful management of the institutions of Parliament to add legitimacy to her decision making.
9 Elizabeth’s gender, her marital status and Mary Queen of Scots’ position in the succession were all aspects that presented significant problems in Elizabeth’s reign.
Gender presented a problem during Elizabeth’s reign because, despite the fact that she held the highest office of state, Tudor politics was still overwhelmingly a man’s world. Considerable doubts continued to persist about whether successful women rulers were either possible or desirable.
The issue of legitimacy also presented a problem in Elizabeth’s reign because many Catholics in her kingdom did not accept her right to be queen. Elizabeth’s father had divorced his first wife to marry Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn, by taking the unprecedented step of not waiting for the Pope to annul his first marriage and orchestrating the split with Rome.
The issue of the succession was also a significant problem during Elizabeth’s reign because until 1587 if she had died without marrying and producing an heir then Mary Queen of Scots would have had the strongest claim to be the next monarch. This caused Elizabeth’s Privy Council and the Parliament considerable anxiety. Mary Queen of Scots was a Catholic and had strong links through her marriages with France and with prominent noble English families.
Overall, the issue of the succession was the most problematic in Elizabeth’s reign. This was due to the prominent position of Mary Queen of Scots in the line of succession. This is not to deny the significance of the associated difficulties of legitimacy and gender, however, which Elizabeth could only hope that time and good governance might slowly diminish.
10 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabeth’s character was her ability to use her experiences to find ways of dealing with difficult situations. For example, she had learned to live with the difficult situation of her father ordering her mother’s execution, many doubting her legitimacy to be queen on account of the circumstances of her parents’ marriage, and the fact that she had been suspected of and arrested for treason. She gained resilience and perseverance.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabeth’s character was her skills and abilities developed through education. For example, she received a good character education, read literature, spoke several languages and enjoyed the arts. She was also hard working and had a strong memory.
11 When Elizabeth became queen, England was at war with Catholic France, which had close ties with Scotland through Mary Queen of Scots’ marriage to Francis, who became King of France in 1559. Furthermore, Elizabeth’s Protestant upbringing meant that many Catholics abroad (including the papacy and Spain) were concerned over her legitimacy and were keen to monitor developments.
Elizabeth’s most pressing problem with Catholics abroad when she became queen was that her kingdom was at war with Catholic France and this compromised relations with Scotland, where France strengthened its forces along England’s vulnerable northern border. Faced with mounting financial and other domestic problems, along with the lack of military resources to defeat the French, Elizabeth signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in January 1559.
Emerging rivalry with Spain also presented a problem for Elizabeth by 1569. Spain was the most powerful country in Europe and a devoutly Catholic country, whose King Philip II had been married to Mary, Elizabeth’s sister. Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 strained relations with Spain, along with the gradual growing commercial rivalry.
The most significant problem for Elizabeth with Catholics abroad by 1569 was her relations with the papacy, even though for much of the 1560s this remained cordial. The attitude of the papacy was vital for influencing the actions of European Catholic rulers, as well as Catholics in England. Opposition and excommunication by the Pope towards Elizabeth would unleash the potential for a range of problems for Elizabeth’s security.
Overall, emerging difficulties with the papacy would become Elizabeth’s most pressing problem with Catholics abroad by 1570. This is because after a decade of cordiality in relations, during which time difficulties with Spain, France and Scotland were overcome by ongoing diplomatic activity, the excommunication of Elizabeth in 1570 incited Catholic recusancy against Elizabeth, both abroad and within England itself. (Recusants were those Catholics who refused to submit to the authority of Elizabeth.)
12 Financial problems were a significant part of Elizabeth’s domestic problems in 1558–69, but it is more convincing that religious divisions presented Elizabeth with the most troublesome difficulties in the first decade of her reign.
There is some evidence to support the view that financial problems presented Elizabeth with significant domestic problems on her accession to the throne, given that the monarch was expected to pay for all aspects of governance of the country from his/her revenue. In 1558 the cost of Mary’s war with France meant that Elizabeth inherited a debt of £300,000, placing further difficulties on the Crown’s revenue streams and costs.
The appointment and management of her Privy Council and key ministers was also a difficult problem, since it would be they who would share the responsibility of all aspects of government as well as religious and financial reform. In 1558 Elizabeth had to reconsider key appointments in her Privy Council to conduct her affairs of state, again a difficulty that could be managed through careful consideration and attention to detail in the transition.
The evidence is more convincing that religious divisions were the most enduring of Elizabeth’s domestic problems, however. These included the legacy of Henry’s reformation, and the development of a new religious settlement and its implementation.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that financial difficulties were a significant cause of Elizabeth’s domestic problems, it is argued that these were overcome with prudent policies and management of economic policies. Religious problems, however, were far more enduring in the longer term, with Catholic opponents who were unwilling to find compromise in Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 ultimately hatching plots to undermine her government.
The ‘settlement’ of religion
13
| |Catholic opinion |Protestant opinion |Puritan opinion |
|Head of the Church and |6: Wanted Pope as Head of the |3: Wanted monarch as Head of the |9: Wanted committees of churchgoers|
|role of the bishops |Church, with archbishops. |Church, with archbishops. |to make decisions and rules. |
|Church decoration |1: Wanted richly decorated |7: Wanted less decoration and fewer|12: Wanted a very plain church |
| |interiors in order to glorify God. |images of glorification. |without fancy altars and statues. |
|The Bible and church |4: Wanted Bible in Latin only, read|2: Wanted Bible and church services|10: Wanted Bible and church |
|services |by priests and with a Latin Mass |in English with Holy Communion. |services in English with Communion.|
| |with bread and wine. | | |
|The clergy |11: Wanted clergy in richly |8: Wanted clergy in less decorated |5: Wanted clergy in plain black |
| |decorated robes called vestments. |robes. |gowns. |
14
|Head of the Church and bishops |Church decoration and music |The Bible and church services |The clergy |
|Elizabeth was Head of the Church, |The singing of hymns continued. |New Protestant prayer book to be |Clergy had to agree to |
|with the title of Supreme | |used in every church. |Elizabeth’s title and use the|
|Governor. | | |new prayer book. |
|Officials swore an oath and |Ornaments and decorations were |Bible and church services to be |The clergy had to wear a |
|bishops ran the Church. |allowed in church. |in English. |plain white gown called a |
| | | |surplice. |
15
|Head of the Church and bishops |Church decoration |The Bible and church services |The clergy |
|This was acceptable to all but a |Not radically changing the |The omission of Latin Mass was |Only 250 out of 9,000 priests|
|few. Catholics still took their |appearance of the Church won many |unacceptable to Catholics, but |refused to take the oath of |
|leadership from the Pope, however,|over, although a lot of |they could get around this by |loyalty or to use the new |
|and some Puritan communities were |Puritan-leaning bishops and clergy|taking Latin Mass with Catholic |Protestant prayer book. |
|reluctant to follow archbishops |complained that the new Church |priests in secret, in private | |
|and bishops. |looked too Catholic. |places of worship. | |
16 A suggestion may be of ‘Linking loyalty to her with loyalty to the Church’ on top, since that would be key for the stability of State and Church.
‘Licensing the clergy’ and ‘Making church attendance a test of loyalty’ on the second row, because these would be the foundations for greater unity in implementing religious change and ensuring that people complied.
On the final row – but still significant – would be ‘Adding her accession to the calendar of church festivals’, ‘Encouraging the manufacture of medallions and engravings’ and ‘Encouraging the Church’s role in moral guidance’.
Exam-style questions
17 Feature 1: One key feature of Catholic beliefs about the organisation of the Church is that it had a strong and fixed hierarchical structure. For example, to Catholics all over Europe the Pope was the Head of the Church. The Church had an international organisational structure, with cardinals based in Rome and archbishops in each country to help the Pope govern the Church and take care of its interests and teaching.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Catholic beliefs about the organisation of the Church was strict rules regarding the reproduction and use of the Bible and church services. For example, the Pope and the archbishops wanted the Bible to be printed only in Latin and read only by priests, who would conduct the Catholic Mass in Latin in all churches throughout Christendom.
18 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 was the impact on Church governance of superseding the role of the Pope with that of the monarchy. For example, the Act of Supremacy 1559 made Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of the Church of England and this meant that all clergy and officials swore an oath of allegiance to her leadership of the Church.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 was the Royal Injunctions 1559, which were detailed instructions about how the Church would conduct itself in communities. For example, these were a set of instructions that regulated the practice of clergy in conducting church services and parish business, as well as including information on how ordinary people should worship God.
19 Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 was an attempt to reconcile and bring about a compromise in the divisions between Catholics and Protestants in England. While there is evidence that the decoration of the Church was an important part of this religious settlement of 1559, it is convincing that the most significant impact was on Church governance.
There is some evidence to support the view that changes in the decoration of the Church due to the religious settlement had a significant impact. There was considerable division between Protestants and Catholics regarding Church decoration and music. Traditionally, Catholic churches were decorated to show the majesty of God and were elaborate and expensive, but Protestants were increasingly convinced that this went against the teachings of Jesus. On this issue there was more compromise since some Protestant churches retained elaborate decoration while others chose not to.
The issues surrounding the reproduction of the Bible and the regulation of church services had a more significant impact since there was less compromise. Catholics wanted the Bible in Latin only, read by priests, and in services that included the Mass, where bread and wine symbolised the actual body and blood of Christ. Protestants wanted the Bible and services in English, with the symbolism of Communion rather than the Catholic Mass. On this issue Protestant views prevailed and many Catholics were unhappy with this.
The most significant impact of the religious settlement was on the governance of the Church. Catholics wanted the Pope as Head of the Church, with a system of cardinals, archbishops and bishops responsible for Church governance and answerable to the Pope. Protestants wanted the monarch to govern the Church, while some Puritans rejected this in favour of committees elected by congregations. Again, Protestant views prevailed, causing much Catholic discontent.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that the impact of the religious settlement was some gradual change in Church decoration, the most lasting and enduring impact was on Church governance. This changed hands from the papacy to the monarchy, and thus impacted on the regulation of the clergy, church services and the Bible.
20 The Church of England played a central role in Elizabethan society, through national government and all rural and urban communities throughout the country.
The Church played an important role in national government in Elizabethan society. For example, the Church was responsible for ensuring adherence to Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559, completing the transition from Mary’s reunion with Rome.
The Church was also a form of social control and cohesion in Elizabethan rural communities. This was achieved through licensing the clergy and controlling what they said, as well as fining the people if they did not attend church. The Church was also a focal point for community organisation and the village priest brought parishioners together through church services. Its custodial role was secured from cradle to grave, from baptism to funeral.
The Church also played a role in trying to reconcile differences within communities in the more complex organisation of Elizabethan towns. Towns had a wider collection of people than rural communities, often with diversity in what they believed and how they wished to practise their religion. Here the Church needed to show more flexibility.
Overall, the Church of England played a central role in Elizabethan society, assuming many of the responsibilities that have since become the responsibility of national and local government. In essence, it was a form of social control through ensuring that people were God-fearing and loyal to the monarchy, but it also provided vital services throughout England’s rural and urban communities that supported families and communities from cradle to grave.
Challenge to the religious settlement
21 Puritans were pleased that the new Church was Protestant, but many felt that the changes had not gone far enough. They believed there was too much compromise with Catholics over Church governance, Church decoration, the dress of the clergy and the wording of the new prayer book.
22 Some Puritans worked within the new Church, hoping to persuade Elizabeth to move it in a more Puritan direction. They lobbied for the removal of holy days, the signing of the cross and organ music, and they argued for the wearing of plain black gowns, but were largely unsuccessful. In the 1570s Puritan MPs tried to make changes through Parliament and some were imprisoned.
23 There was much about the settlement that was acceptable to most Catholics and many took the oath to Elizabeth. Hard-line recusants, however, refused to accept many aspects and were not prepared to compromise.
24 The attitude of the papacy was vital in influencing the actions of European Catholics, and the Pope’s decision not to excommunicate Elizabeth from the Church was important in keeping Catholic reaction to a minimum. Furthermore, Spain had no appetite to support a Catholic rebellion in England for fear of the potential influence of Mary Queen of Scots, and France was involved in its own religious civil war.
Exam-style questions
25 Feature 1: One key feature of the reaction of some Puritans to the religious settlement of 1559 was to welcome the split with Rome and the restoration of Protestantism in England. For example, they accepted posts as bishops and clergy within the Church of England and hoped that their cooperation would enable them to further the aims of Puritan beliefs within the development of the Church.
Feature 2: A second key feature of the reaction of some Puritans to the religious settlement of 1559 was to be critical of many of its key aspects in practice. For example, some Puritans rejected the organisation of the Church having the monarch as Supreme Governor responsible for appointing archbishops and bishops. Many Puritans longed for a Church controlled by committees elected by the communities they served.
26 While there is evidence that the lack of Catholic opposition to the religious settlement of 1559 was down to Elizabeth’s concessions to Catholics and also to Catholics waiting to see how events would develop, it is most convincing that the reaction of the Pope was the main reason for the lack of Catholic opposition by 1569.
There is some evidence to support the view that Elizabeth’s concessions to Catholics were a significant reason for the lack of Catholic opposition. For example, in the religious settlement of 1559, Elizabeth and her advisers fashioned her role in the Church as the Supreme Governor rather than the Supreme Head. This was a significant concession for Catholics because they could tolerate Elizabeth’s governance of the Church in England while continuing to believe that the Pope was the Supreme Head.
The evidence is more convincing that Catholic opponents were waiting to see what became of Elizabeth’s marriage and succession. Catholics were aware that Mary Queen of Scots was next in line to the throne if the rules of succession were not changed. This offered the prospect, in the event of Elizabeth not marrying and remaining childless, that at some point in the future England may return to the family of Catholic states and see a reunion with Rome.
The most significant reason for the lack of Catholic opposition, however, was the reaction of the Pope. Pope Pius IV could have responded immediately with opposition to Elizabeth’s religious settlement through excommunication of Elizabeth from the Church as an illegitimate, female, Protestant monarch. Pius, however, took no action. The attitude of the papacy was therefore vital in influencing the actions of European Catholic rulers, as well as Catholics in England.
In conclusion, the evidence to support the view that the reaction of the Pope was the main reason for the lack of Catholic opposition in the first ten years of Elizabeth’s reign is strong, since it left Catholic recusants without leadership. It is important, however, to acknowledge that the nature of Elizabeth’s religious settlement (and that it was prudent and pragmatic to observe subsequent developments in it, along with developments in the issue of the succession) also played a vital role.
The problem of Mary Queen of Scots
27 The main reason that Mary Queen of Scots considered herself to be heir to the English throne was that she was Elizabeth’s cousin and, after the death of Queen Mary, was now the nearest living relative to Henry VIII apart from Elizabeth herself. This reason was further enhanced by her marriages and by the fact that she would bring closer ties between England and Scotland. Her residence in England since 1568 and her strong links to Catholic noblemen further supported the strength of the claim for some influential nobles.
28
| |Development |Effect on their relationship |
|1561 |7: Mary started to show her claim to the English throne by |Elizabeth was furious about this because she felt that it |
| |displaying the coat of arms. |might further antagonise disgruntled Catholics. |
|1561 |5: Mary returned to Scotland but the country was now ruled |Elizabeth shared some sympathy with Mary about this because it|
| |by Protestant lords. |clearly undermined the authority of the concept of monarchy. |
|1565 |4: Mary married Lord Darnley, who also had a claim to the |Elizabeth recognised that this further supported Mary’s |
| |English throne. |eventual claim to the throne because Darnley too had a claim, |
| | |so it made her feel further unease. |
|1566 |8: The birth of Mary’s son James strengthened the family |Together with her claim and her marriage, Mary could now |
| |claim to the throne. |provide an heir. This may appeal to those who supported a |
| | |secure succession, so Elizabeth’s unease further grew. |
|1567 |3: Elizabeth showed shock at the murder of Lord Darnley and|Initially Elizabeth revealed some sympathy that her cousin’s |
| |sent sympathy. |husband had been murdered. |
|1567 |1: Elizabeth criticised Mary for marrying the Earl of |Elizabeth strongly criticised this action as not becoming of a|
| |Bothwell, the chief suspect in Darnley’s murder. |sovereign while investigations were ongoing and rumour still |
| | |rife. |
|1568 |2: Mary arrived in England and asked Elizabeth for help, |This led to further deterioration of Elizabeth’s relations |
| |which made the relationship difficult. |with Mary, since supporting her claim to regain the throne |
| | |meant conflict with Scotland and by remaining in England she |
| | |became a beacon for disgruntled Catholics. |
|1569 |6: Opinions over what to do with Mary were complicated by |This created considerable division and antagonism within |
| |divisions from this point forward. |Elizabeth’s Court, and caused her growing personal irritation.|
Exam-style questions
29 Birthright, experience of monarchy and marriage each played an important part in strengthening Mary Queen of Scots’ claim to the throne over the period to 1567.
Mary had a strong claim to the throne because of birthright, and particularly because in the event of Elizabeth dying without marriage and children she was the next nearest living relative to continue the Tudor line. With all of Henry VIII’s children deceased by 1558 except Elizabeth, the nearest living relative to continue the Tudor line was her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots.
Mary’s claim was further strengthened because she had experience in practising the role of monarchy. Mary had been Queen of Scotland since 1542, and had for a short time been Queen of France as she was married at an early age to Francis, who became the King of France in 1559 before dying in 1560.
For some, Mary’s claim might be considered to be further strengthened through her marriages on her return to Scotland in 1561. In 1565 she married Henry, Lord Darnley, who also had a distant claim to the throne through his grandmother Margaret Tudor’s second marriage. This strengthened Mary’s claim to the throne, as did the birth of their son James in 1566, who would be a fitting heir to the English throne because the line of succession would be secured.
Overall, birthright was the most important reason why Mary had such a strong claim to the English throne. This was a claim further strengthened in the hearts and minds of some by her experience, her marriage, her son and her Catholicism.
30 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabeth’s relationship with Mary was family affection and maintaining cordial relations with the possible heir to the English throne. For example, Elizabeth continued to correspond with Mary, at times expressing sympathy at allegations of her involvement in Lord Darnley’s murder. Elizabeth also resisted those within her Privy Council who wanted a more decisive and aggressive policy towards excluding Mary from the possible succession.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabeth’s relationship with Mary was Elizabeth’s increasing concern and suspicion from 1560 onwards, which caused their relationship to deteriorate rapidly. For example, Elizabeth was furious when Mary began to display the English coat of arms from 1561 to show her claim to the throne, a sentiment intensified by Mary’s marriages (which furthered her rights to the succession), her arrival in England in 1568 and her alleged involvement in plotting against Elizabeth from the late 1560s onwards.
Challenges to Elizabeth at home and abroad, 1569–88
Plots and revolts at home
1
|Cause |Event |Consequence |
|2: The earls had political and economic |3: From 9 to 15 November 1569 the earls |4: The revolt had little chance of success |
|grievances against Elizabeth. She had weakened |of Northumberland and Westmorland urged |since it was ineffectively led, confused in its|
|their control by appointing a Council of the |all their tenants to join their army and|aims and lacked the support of most English |
|North and had taken lands from nobles, |march south to bring an end to the Privy|Catholics, who were not committed to the |
|including the Earl of Northumberland. |Council, which supported Elizabeth’s |revolt. The revolt also did not receive support|
| |policies. |from abroad. |
|6: The earls had strong Catholic traditions and|1: The Earl of Sussex assembled a huge |5: Elizabeth’s government did not panic. |
|both had taken part in a plan to marry Mary |royal army of 10,000 men, causing the |Officials in the north prevented rebels from |
|Queen of Scots to the Duke of Norfolk to |Northern Earls to turn back their march |taking key towns and were successful in raising|
|further support her claim to the throne. They |and escape into Scotland. The Earl of |a huge army in support of Elizabeth. This army |
|held a Catholic service in Durham Cathedral. |Northumberland was later executed, along|was prepared to fight to defend her governance |
| |with 450 rebels. |of the kingdom. |
2
| |Cause |Event |Significance |
|Ridolfi Plot of 1571 |2: Mary Queen of Scots used Ridolfi |1: Elizabeth’s government carefully|The Duke of Norfolk was put on trial |
| |to carry messages to Catholics |unravelled the details of the plot.|in January 1572 and beheaded in June.|
| |abroad, urging them to organise an |Norfolk’s servants betrayed him |Ridolfi stayed abroad. Elizabeth |
| |invasion of England. Their aim was to|under interrogation and the duke |passed an Act saying that anyone |
| |overthrow Elizabeth, make Mary queen |was arrested in September 1571, |claiming she was not the rightful |
| |and restore the Catholic religion. A |bringing an end to a plot that had |queen was a traitor, but fears of |
| |coded message was left with the Duke |failed to be put into action. |Catholic plotting remained. |
| |of Norfolk. | | |
|Throckmorton Plot of |Francis Throckmorton carried letters |3: Throckmorton was put under |The plot confirmed that some |
|1583 |from Mary Queen of Scots to the |surveillance in April 1583; he was |Catholics continued to plot against |
| |French and Spanish ambassadors and |arrested in June and, after a |Elizabeth. Fears increased after the |
| |was in touch with English Catholic |search of his house, incriminating |assassination of William of Orange in|
| |nobles. The plan was to create an |papers detailing the plan were |July 1584. Elizabeth’s government |
| |uprising of English Catholics, |discovered. Throckmorton confessed |intensified its surveillance to |
| |assisted by a French invasion and |under torture to this plan and was |protect Elizabeth and to incriminate |
| |Spanish financial support, to free |executed in July 1584. |Mary in any plots. |
| |Mary and restore Catholicism. | | |
3
|Chronological order |Statement |
|1st |5: Anthony Babington was a page to the Earl of Shrewsbury. He was responsible for Mary’s custody and had |
| |carried letters for her in the early 1580s. In 1586, urged by Catholic friends, he appears to have been |
| |persuaded to engage in more serious plotting. |
|2nd |1: In July 1586 Babington wrote to Mary, outlining six steps to make the plan a success. The steps involved |
| |planning for a foreign invasion (probably from Spain, with which England was already at war), freeing Mary and |
| |murdering Elizabeth. |
|3rd |3: Babington was apparently unaware that this latest plot originated from a fanatical priest whom Elizabeth’s |
| |government already had under surveillance. The intention was to murder Elizabeth, make Mary queen and restore |
| |Catholicism. |
|4th |6: Elizabeth’s government had placed spies in Mary’s household, who persuaded her that it was safe to send |
| |letters hidden in beer barrels. Mary could not resist and all of her letters were intercepted and sent to |
| |Walsingham. Mary replied to Babington on 17 July 1586 and her fate was sealed. |
|5th |2: Babington and two other conspirators were arrested as they attempted to flee, and the rest were rounded up |
| |and condemned to death for treason. They were executed in September 1586 and Mary was moved to Fotheringhay |
| |Castle to begin her trial. |
|6th |4: In September and October evidence was heard and legal proceedings discussed Mary’s role in the plot. At the |
| |end of October the Commissioners found Mary guilty of plotting to take Elizabeth’s life and recommended that |
| |she should be executed. |
4
|Method |Explanation |
|1: Intercepting coded |The plotters developed increasingly sophisticated ways of communicating; some of Mary’s letters were smuggled|
|messages |out in the heels of her ladies’ shoes. Elizabeth’s government kept on top of this, often by placing informers|
| |in suspects’ households. Walsingham employed a man skilled at re-sealing letters so the plotters did not know|
| |they had been intercepted, and a leading code breaker who deciphered Mary’s letters. |
|2: Employing a spy network|Agents with code names were based overseas in major towns and cities, including in France, Italy and Spain. |
| |Some were double agents, taking part in plots against Elizabeth and sending information to Walsingham. Spies |
| |were deployed to root out information as events arose. The Lord Lieutenants of each county and the bishops |
| |officially reported any threats to Walsingham and everyone was encouraged to report suspicions of dangers to |
| |the queen. |
|3: Acts of Parliament |Walsingham was influential in Parliament, which passed Acts throughout the 1570s and 1580s, increasing |
| |penalties against Catholics, including the execution of priests. The 1584 Bond of Association pledged that in|
| |the event of Elizabeth’s life being threatened, Mary Queen of Scots was to be executed. |
|4: Searches and registers |Town councils were authorised to search foreigners’ houses. The owners of taverns and inns had to report any |
| |foreigners staying with them. Customs officials also stopped and questioned travellers from overseas and |
| |could search them for papers, including messages and letters. |
|5: Interrogation and |Captured priests, such as Edmund Campion, and plotters like Francis Throckmorton, were tortured on the rack |
|torture |to extract information about their intentions and other threats to Elizabeth. Then they were executed as a |
| |warning. |
|6: Capturing Catholic |After the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth in 1570, her government believed her life was in danger from Catholic|
|priests |fanatics. From 1574, the Pope started sending missionary priests to England. Walsingham’s spies were |
| |particularly effective at seizing priests in the streets of London, with one Jesuit complaining: ‘The spies |
| |are so many and diligent as every hour almost we heard of some [priests] taken.’ |
5
|Chronological order |Causes, events and consequences |
|1st |1: Elizabeth’s Council and Parliament were hostile to Mary’s claim to the throne. |
|2nd |5: In July 1586 Babington wrote to Mary outlining six steps to end Protestantism. |
|3rd |6: Mary was increasingly disillusioned with her confinement in England since 1568. |
|4th |2: On 17 July Walsingham’s spies intercepted Mary’s reply to Babington’s preparations. |
|5th |3: Mary’s trial was in October 1586 and she was found guilty of plotting. |
|6th |4: The Commissioners recommended execution and the death warrant was signed in February 1587. |
Exam-style questions
6 Feature 1: One key feature of the Revolt of the Northern Earls is that it revealed that nobles whose power and influence was diminishing would consider their own interests before their loyalty to the monarchy. For example, the earls felt that Elizabeth had undermined their interests in the north by extending central control from London through the Council of the North, presided over by the Earl of Sussex, and were prepared to plot in order to replace her advisers.
Feature 2: A second key feature of the Revolt of the Northern Earls is that it revealed opposition to Elizabeth’s religious settlement and the additional complicating factor of Mary Queen of Scots’ status. For example, the Northern Earls were leading Catholic noblemen opposed to Elizabeth’s attempts to impose Protestantism in the region through the appointment of James Pilkington as Bishop of Durham. The Northern Earls wanted to protect Catholicism in their region.
7 Dormant Catholic recusancy, three key Catholic plots and the trial of Mary Queen of Scots each played an important part in causing unrest, division and threat to Elizabeth’s kingdom.
The potential for Catholic recusancy was apparent from the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign, but was clearly more evident after 1569. One way in which Catholic plotting threatened Elizabeth was through the discontent of the Catholic nobility, particularly in the north in 1569, which resulted in the Revolt of the Northern Earls. The earls of Northumberland and Westmorland had personal, religious and political grievances against Elizabeth.
This Catholic plotting intensified in the 1570s and 1580s and became a particular threat to the stability of Elizabeth’s rule, evident in her excommunication by the Pope in 1570 and the subsequent Ridolfi and Throckmorton plots of 1571 and 1583. In 1570 Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth, providing a stimulus for Catholics abroad and in England to plot to undermine her.
Such Catholic plotting reached new heights in 1586 with the Babington Plot. This plot involved six steps to free England from Protestantism and restore Catholicism, with Mary as Queen of England. Most controversially, it comprised a foreign invasion (probably Spanish) and the murder of Elizabeth.
Overall, Catholic recusancy had intensified by the 1580s and much of the plotting focused around the plan to support Mary’s succession to Elizabeth, hence the intensification of domestic anti-Catholicism during her reign.
8 Babington’s personal association with Mary led to active planning, and an attempt to put this plan into action played an important role in the Babington Plot of 1586.
Anthony Babington had been a sympathiser of Mary from the early 1580s and became involved in an embryonic plan by a fanatical priest to kill Elizabeth to open the pathway for Mary’s succession. Babington had been a page to the Earl of Shrewsbury when the earl was responsible for Mary’s custody.
In July 1586 Babington began to write to Mary, outlining six detailed steps to free the country from Protestantism. The first four involved planning for a foreign invasion (probably by Spain since England was already at war with it), the fifth was the freeing of Mary and the sixth was the murder of Elizabeth.
After intercepting the letters through Walsingham’s elaborate spy network, the conspirators, including Mary, were promptly arrested and put on trial for treason. By September 1586 all the conspirators had been rounded up, put on trial, found guilty of treason and executed, including Babington himself. Mary was executed in 1587.
Overall the plot had a conception phase and an elaboration phase, watched by Walsingham’s spies and network of agents. Babington and the co-conspirators had been caught red-handed and their plot thwarted. Mary’s collaboration was also accounted for eventually, leading to her execution in February 1587.
9 Employing a network of spies and informants, along with interrogation and persecution, each played an important part in Sir Francis Walsingham’s (Secretary of State from 1573) methods for ensuring Elizabeth’s security.
Employing spies, agents and a network of informers was the key ingredient of Walsingham’s methods. For example, spies and agents with code names were based overseas (France, Spain and Italy) and throughout towns and cities in England. Some were paid and trained by the government to use ciphers and deciphers for all correspondence.
Searches, interrogation, torture and registers provided a further method of providing intelligence on developments that might compromise Elizabeth’s security. Walsingham would act when the intelligence proved – in his mind – to be of a significant threat. In this event he would support town councils, keepers of taverns and inns, and customs officials to stop, question and search for papers and evidence.
Capturing recusants and putting them on trial, and then either imprisoning them or condemning them to death, provided a final layer of punishment in Walsingham’s elaborate security apparatus. Conspirators in the Ridolfi, Throckmorton and Babington plots were quickly imprisoned and put on trial. Legislation was passed in 1571, 1581 and 1585 that increased penalties against Catholic plotters.
Overall, Walsingham’s elaborate security and surveillance apparatus was designed to provide intelligence and information to identify and eradicate Elizabeth’s opponents, either within England or from abroad.
10 While there is evidence that Mary Queen of Scots had represented a threat to Elizabeth long before the Babington Plot of 1586, it is more convincing to suggest that it was the timing of her involvement in the plot that played the major part in her execution in 1587.
There is some evidence to support the view that Mary Queen of Scots had presented a significant problem to Elizabeth from the beginning of her reign, and that this provided the background context in which Mary would eventually be executed. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558 it was widely understood that Mary Queen of Scots was the next in line to the throne should Elizabeth not marry and so remain childless.
More convincing is that Mary’s opponents in England were becoming increasingly concerned about the threat that her possible succession represented after 1568. Mary was implicated in supporting a succession of plots against Elizabeth, if not directly involved.
The evidence is more convincing, however, that the coming of war with Spain and Mary’s involvement in the Babington Plot and her guilt established through trial was the primary cause of her execution in 1587. The Babington Plot of 1586 and Mary’s direct involvement in this through the interception of messages increased the resolve of Elizabeth’s government.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that Mary had been a threat for over 20 years, it is most convincing to argue that Elizabeth’s reluctance to take action, and reluctance even to sign the death warrant to the last, indicates that it was indeed Mary’s direct involvement in the Babington Plot of 1586 that finally sealed her fate.
Relations with Spain
11
|Increasing political rivalry |Increasing religious rivalry |
|2: King Philip of Spain was the ruler of the most powerful |1: In 1559 Elizabeth established a Protestant Church of England and she|
|country in the world, with interests in the Spanish Netherlands |began to increase penalties against Catholics through Acts of |
|and the New World in the Americas. Commercial interests and |Parliament in 1571, 1581 and 1585. These Acts increased the concerns of|
|wealth gained in these areas made it important for Philip to |the Spanish ambassadors in England and they counselled the King of |
|defend Spanish political interests, and England was perceived as|Spain accordingly. |
|undermining such interests. | |
|3: Spain appeared to be implicated in the political plotting of |5: As Catholic missionaries began increasingly to arrive in England to |
|Catholics in England against Elizabeth’s governance in the |support English Catholics from the 1570s onwards, fears in England of a|
|Revolt of the Northern Earls and in the Ridolfi, Throckmorton |religious crusade to restore Catholicism were intensified. Such |
|and Babington plots. Such interference was a major irritation to|religious differences continued to further sour relations that emerged |
|Elizabeth’s government and was the source of ongoing political |from political and commercial differences. |
|tension between the two countries. | |
|4: Philip’s policy towards England was complicated because he |6: In 1570 the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth from the Catholic Church. |
|preferred Elizabeth as queen rather than Mary Queen of Scots, as|While King Philip of Spain took no immediate action, this intensified |
|Mary had links with France. If Spain was too hostile to England |the religious divisions between the two countries because it justified |
|he feared that England might be driven into an alliance with |the reaction of foreign powers to Elizabeth’s religious reforms. |
|France, which would further undermine Spanish political | |
|interests. | |
12 Religious rivalry: Elizabeth’s religious settlement of 1559 established a Protestant Church of England and she began to increase penalties against Catholics through Acts of Parliament. This increased the concerns of the Spanish ambassadors in England and they counselled their king accordingly. During the 1580s, Spain was implicated in plotting to overthrow Elizabeth.
Political rivalry: The Spanish ambassador repeatedly expressed consternation over Elizabeth’s involvement in the Spanish Netherlands, the direction of religious policy and the position of Mary Queen of Scots. Meanwhile Elizabeth’s government was angry about Spanish Catholics thought to be supporting the Catholic recusancy in England.
13
|Decline of the Antwerp wool trade from 1550 |Spanish concerns over trade in the New World |Spanish anger over English pirates |
|5: Before 1550 the bulk of English trade |1: From the 1550s onwards, English explorers |2: The Spanish Empire in the New World |
|abroad was based on the export of woollen |began to look for new trading markets after |consisted of Mexico, Peru, Chile and the |
|cloth to Antwerp in the Netherlands. Both |the collapse of the Antwerp market in wool. |Caribbean. For English explorers these areas |
|overproduction of woollen cloth to these |This involved making arrangements in new |presented commercial opportunities to make |
|markets and increasing Spanish interference |areas like Russia and India, but also in the |money fast, either through attacking Spanish |
|led to a decline in the market, directly |New World, where Spain was dominant. |treasure fleets or by trading directly. |
|affecting English exports. | | |
| |3: In 1562 and 1564 John Hawkins made two |6: From 1558 Spain was commercially wary of |
| |slave trade voyages from Africa to sell |England trading with the New World in the |
| |slaves to colonists in the New World. This |Americas. In particular Spain was very wary |
| |was an illegal attempt to break into Spain’s |of growing English involvement because of the|
| |trading empire, and it increased commercial |potential for piracy and looting of Spanish |
| |and political rivalry between the two |treasure and growing English trade, so Spain |
| |countries. |refused to grant licences to English |
| | |merchants. |
| | |4: In 1568 at the battle of San Juan de Ulúa,|
| | |in 1572 with the sacking of Nombre de Dios, |
| | |and in 1579 with the capture of the |
| | |Cacafuego, the English pirate Sir Francis |
| | |Drake attacked and seized Spanish gold and |
| | |silver, sometimes with secret orders from |
| | |Elizabeth’s government and investors. King |
| | |Philip of Spain made many formal complaints |
| | |to Elizabeth’s government. |
Exam-style questions
14 Feature 1: One key feature of the increasing commercial rivalry between England and Spain before 1585 is the growing competition in the New World. For example, the slaving voyages of Hawkins in 1562 and 1564 created increasing diplomatic difficulties between Elizabeth’s and Philip’s respective governments as England sought illegal access to Spanish markets to sell slaves.
Feature 2: A second key feature of the increasing commercial rivalry between England and Spain before 1585 is the rise of piracy and the raids by the English on Spanish shipping and territories during the 1570s. These included Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe in 1577–80 and the capture of the Cacafuego.
15 The decline of the Antwerp wool market and increasing Spanish control of the Netherlands, the encouragement of mercantile adventures and the activities of Sir Francis Drake each played an important part in increasing trade and commercial rivalry between England and Spain in the years before 1585.
The decline of the Antwerp wool market in the 1550s and increasing Spanish control of the Netherlands played a significant role in increasing trade rivalry between England and Spain. The collapse of the Antwerp wool trade from 1550 as a result of overproduction, together with increasing Spanish control of the Netherlands, meant that the Antwerp market slipped into chaos.
This rivalry was further intensified by the Elizabethan policy of encouraging mercantile adventure, including in the New World, which encroached on Spanish commercial interests. Spanish control of the New World attracted English traders and pirates, which was illegal but was encouraged by private investors, including Elizabeth’s government.
The activities of Sir Francis Drake further antagonised commercial rivalry. In 1572 Sir Francis Drake attacked Spanish ships full of gold and silver at Nombre de Dios, seizing over £20,000. During his circumnavigation of the globe Drake attacked Spanish settlements and merchant ships.
In conclusion, the collapse of the Antwerp trade and the closure of principal trading routes to English traders in Europe resulted in growing trading and commercial competition between England and Spain in developing markets in other areas of the world throughout the 1560s to the 1580s.
Outbreak of war with Spain, 1585–88
16
|1572 |1578 |1584 |1585 |
|3: Protestants in the Netherlands|1: A larger Spanish army under |4: William of Orange was |2: The Treaty of Nonsuch was |
|rebelled against Spanish rule and|the Duke of Parma arrived in the |assassinated by a Catholic |signed, in which Elizabeth |
|Philip II sent a huge army |Netherlands, causing Elizabeth’s |fanatic with links to Spain. This|agreed to direct English |
|against them. Elizabeth secretly |government concern at such a |forced Elizabeth to consider her |involvement in the Spanish |
|gave support to the rebels. |large army just across the |future policy and actions towards|Netherlands. She sent an army |
| |channel. |events in the Spanish |led by Robert Dudley, Earl of |
| | |Netherlands. |Leicester, to help rebels. |
17
|Chronological order |Causes, events and consequences |
|1st |6: In 1585 Elizabeth appointed Francis Drake in charge of an expedition to attack the Spanish interests in |
| |the West Indies. He partly succeeded by capturing two wealthy towns and returning to England with £30,000. |
|2nd |1: Philip of Spain was incensed about Drake’s expedition and was convinced that he needed to speed up his |
| |plans to deal with England by assembling a massive fleet to embark on an invasion and conquest. |
|3rd |5: When news of Philip’s plans to arm a great fleet reached England, Drake persuaded Elizabeth that attack |
| |was the best form of defence. In April 1587, in a cheeky, daring raid, he sailed into Cadiz Harbour and |
| |inflicted heavy damage on the ships anchored there. |
|4th |3: After the attack on Cadiz, Drake’s convoy sailed northwards, destroying Portuguese vessels heading for |
| |Lisbon with materials needed to make the barrels that would hold the Armada’s food supplies. |
|5th |2: Finally Drake headed off to the Azores, capturing a Spanish treasure ship, the San Felipe, and returning |
| |to England with £114,000. His actions had disrupted Spanish plans and brought Elizabeth a further 12 months |
| |to plan defences. |
|6th |4: The immediate impact of the Cadiz raid was to delay the construction of the Spanish fleet that Philip was |
| |assembling in order to invade England. |
Exam-style questions
18 While there is evidence that increasing commercial and political rivalry before 1584 played a significant role in the emergence of conflict with Spain by 1585, it is most convincing that events in the Spanish Netherlands in 1584–85 were the vital immediate cause for war between England and Spain.
There is some evidence to support the view that increasing commercial rivalry had become a significant reason for war between England and Spain by 1585. This includes rivalry in Europe, especially in the Spanish Netherlands, and competition in the New World. This competition was a background cause, however, as it had existed for two decades prior to the declaration of war.
Such commercial rivalry between England and Spain was further antagonised by religious and political divisions in the period to 1585. Religious rivalry had increased due to the religious settlement of 1559, the Pope’s excommunication of Elizabeth in 1570, and new Acts of Parliament punishing Catholic recusancy in the 1570s and 1580s.
The evidence is more convincing that increasing rivalry between England and Spain in the Spanish Netherlands was the main cause of war by 1585, particularly after the assassination of the protestant leader William of Orange in 1584. England increasingly began to take an interest in the Spanish Netherlands in the 1570s, and in 1572 Elizabeth was persuaded to secretly send money and weapons to support Dutch rebels. In the Treaty of Nonsuch in August 1585 Elizabeth agreed to direct English involvement in the Spanish Netherlands.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that longstanding commercial, religious and political rivalry provided important background conditions to the emerging conflict, it is most convincing that differences between the two powers with regard to policy towards the Netherlands was the most important cause of the war by 1585.
19 Feature 1: One key feature of Drake’s raid on Cadiz was the acceptance by Elizabeth’s government by 1587 that the broadening of the conflict with Spain from the Spanish Netherlands was inevitable. To this end, Drake was able to persuade Elizabeth of the need to disrupt King Philip II’s plans to assemble a great fleet to mount an invasion of England, if necessary by mounting a surprise and unprovoked raid on Spanish ports.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Drake’s raid on Cadiz was the execution of the daring raid into Cadiz Harbour to inflict maximum damage on the Spanish ships anchored there. This succeeded in destroying Spanish ships and supplies and in diverting Spanish warships in his pursuit, thus delaying the execution of Spanish plans to invade England. These actions bought Elizabeth another 12 months to prepare English defences.
The Armada
20
|Spanish plan |Description |One aspect of the phase |
|Phase 1 |4: The Armada to sail through the Channel to Calais. |This was the most direct route to Calais from Spain. |
|Phase 2 |2: Duke of Parma to meet the Armada at Calais. |The Duke of Parma had 20,000 troops in the Netherlands to |
| | |be used in the invasion. |
|Phase 3 |6: Parma’s army to be ferried to England. |This would be done in barges protected by the large Spanish|
| | |galleons. |
|Phase 4 |1: Spanish forces to land in Kent and then march on |The roads to London were direct and across low-lying land, |
| |London. |over which it was relatively easy to march an army. |
|Phase 5 |5: English Catholics to rise up against Elizabeth. |Catholic recusants throughout English provinces were to |
| | |rise up and lend support for the invasion. |
|Phase 6 |3: Elizabeth to be overthrown and the Catholic faith to|The English monarch was to be replaced by a replacement |
| |be restored in England. |suitable to the Spanish. |
21
|Problems with Spanish tactics |Wind and weather |Quality of leadership |Resources |
|Reason 1: Waiting at Calais |Reason 1: A favourable wind blew |Reason 1: The English leadership |Reason 1: English cannon were |
|Harbour would make the Spanish |the fireships into the harbour at|knew what had to be done. |quicker to load and had a longer |
|vulnerable. |Calais. |Reason 2: Lord Howard was chief |range. |
|Reason 2: The choppy waters of |Reason 2: Storms in the North Sea|commander and responsible for the |Reason 2: The English ships were |
|the English Channel were |scattered the Spanish fleet and |decision to send in the fire ships.|smaller and lighter and easier to|
|difficult for Spain’s big |forced it to sail north. | |move than the Spanish. |
|galleons. | | | |
Exam-style questions
22 The considerable antagonism between England and Spain by 1585, along with Drake’s attack on the Spanish West Indies in 1585, convinced Philip II to defeat the English by constructing a massive fleet, picking up the Duke of Parma’s army at the port of Calais and then launching an invasion of England.
Constructing a formidable Spanish fleet was the first stage in Philip II’s plan to defeat the English. From 1585 he began to construct a great fleet at considerable expense and utilising the labours of Spanish shipbuilders in the great port of Cadiz and elsewhere.
This fleet would then sail from Spain through the English Channel to Calais. At Calais the fleet would pick up the Duke of Parma’s army of 20,000 men.
This fleet would then launch its invasion of England from the port of Calais. It was envisaged that Spain would be able to overwhelm the English fleet and establish a land base in England in the county of Kent. The army would then disembark and begin its march on London, taking towns and cities on the way and encouraging English Catholic recusants to rise up and take up arms against Elizabeth and her government.
Overall, the plan had three distinct phases: the building and supplying of the Armada, setting sail for Calais to pick up the Duke of Parma’s army, and then the invasion and conquest of England.
23 While there is evidence that the weather played a significant part in the English victory, it is most convincing that resources and leadership decisions played a more significant role.
There is some evidence to support the view that weather was a significant contributory factor in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Elizabeth herself proclaimed that God had sent the Protestant wind to defeat the Spanish.
The evidence is more convincing that the resources of the opposing fleets played a decisive role in the battle’s outcome. This includes the superiority of the resources of the English fleet compared to those of the Armada for battle in the Channel and the North Sea.
The evidence is also more convincing that outstanding leadership played the most significant role in the defeat of the Armada. This includes difficulties with the Spanish leadership and the excellent leadership of the English fleet by Lord Charles Howard of Effingham, supported by Drake and Hawkins.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that the weather and the resources of the fleets were favourable to the English, the quality of the leadership decisions made in the heat of the battle was most convincing and decisive in the English victory.
Elizabethan society in the Age of Exploration, 1558–88
Education and leisure
1
|Children of the nobility |Children of gentry, merchants and yeomen |Children of the fourth sort |
|3: The sons in this social class were at |1: Sons in this class of people would most |2: There was an expansion during the |
|first educated at home by a private tutor. |likely go to parish/petty schools for 4- to|sixteenth century in the number of sons |
|Some would then attend the fee-paying |7-year-olds to learn to read and write in |of this class going to school. Most |
|boarding schools called independent or |preparation for grammar schools from ages |families in this social class were too |
|public schools, before going to university |7–15. Demand for places at grammar schools |poor to send their children to school, |
|at 15. About one-third of students who |grew and 72 new grammar schools were |however, since even schools for the lower|
|graduated from Oxford and Cambridge came |founded in Elizabeth’s reign. Latin, Greek,|classes charged for coal, candles and |
|from the nobility and gentry. On completion|Classics and arithmetic were important |educational materials. Parish/petty |
|of his education a gentleman would be |parts of the curriculum in preparation for |schools taught 4- to 7-year-olds to read |
|distinguishable from the lower classes |university. Some students may have gone to |and write in preparation for grammar |
|because he could speak and write in several|public schools (fee-paying boarding |schools. Some even managed to go to |
|languages. Increasingly, some families in |schools). At university all degrees |university. |
|this social class also had home tutors for |involved a broad range of subjects before | |
|their daughters. |specialisation, and law was a popular | |
| |option. | |
2
|Lords and gentry, and their families |Everyone |Working people, their families and the |
| | |unemployed |
|2: Storytelling was an important part in |3: Archery and fishing were popular at all |1: Visiting inns and taverns was an |
|the lives of this social class. The |levels of society. Celebrating feast days |important part of everyday life. Pastimes|
|invention of the printing press led to |was also popular and attracted a broad |for this social class often involved |
|popular stories being published. |range from the community. Theatre-going was|activities, singing ballads and other |
| |another popular activity. |games. |
|6: Gentlemen preferred sports like fencing,|4: All took part in hunting. The rich |5: Gambling on the outcome of sports such|
|tennis and bowls. Nobles enjoyed |mainly hunted for deer and hawks, while the|as bear baiting, cock fighting and |
|performances by household musicians, |lower classes liked to hunt rabbit. |racing, as well as cards and dice, was |
|musical evenings and reading. | |popular. |
3
[pic]
Exam-style questions
4 Formal education and literacy levels were very low in Elizabethan times, although the provision of education for all classes of people was increasing, encouraged by Humanists and Protestants, and by the growth of the printing press and of towns. What provision did exist, however, supported and perpetuated the class-based divisions within Elizabethan society.
The children of the fourth sort had the most patchy education provision. There was no national system of education and all schooling had to be paid for, which disadvantaged the lower classes. Some were taught to read and write by their masters at their place of work, and in the case of servants and apprentices this would be the place where they lived as well. Girls of the fourth sort barely ever received any education.
The children of the gentry, merchants and yeomanry benefited most from the extension of education provision. For example, there was an expansion of parish and petty schools up to the age of 7 years, which would prepare young children from these social classes to move on to the growing number of grammar schools. These were mainly attended by boys. Children from these social classes were increasingly likely to attend grammar schools from ages 7–15, and then university.
The children born into the nobility had the most privileged education provision. Sons of the nobility were educated first at home by a private tutor and then proceeded to university education at age 15, or some may have attended the earliest independent or public schools, which were Winchester and Eton.
Overall, despite the growth of education in Elizabethan times for children of all social classes, the system largely served to perpetuate existing divisions in society and to prepare young people for their future roles. It was the sons of the nobility who had the most privileged education provision. The poor had the most patchy education provision, especially girls.
5 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabethan pastimes was the enjoyment of sport. All classes enjoyed a variety of sport, but this varied between social classes. The fourth sort took part in wrestling, bear baiting, cock fighting and racing. Gentlemen preferred fencing, tennis and bowls.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabethan pastimes was taking part in hunting. All classes enjoyed hunting but this, too, varied according to social class. The poor had access to common land and hunted mainly for rabbit, while the rich had greater access to noble estates and enjoyed hunting deer.
6 Feature 1: One key feature of Elizabethan theatre was how different social classes had different experiences. All classes went to the theatre, but the experience of the poor in the pit differed from that of the wealthier classes who could afford to sit in the covered galleries.
Feature 2: A second key feature of Elizabethan theatre was audience participation. For example, the audience often wandered around during performances and made their opinions of the plays clear through clapping, booing and even throwing items at actors. Plays were often coarse and rowdy and this accounts for their popularity.
The problem of the poor
7
|Reason |Explanation |
|1: Harvests and changes in |Everyone depended on food grown by farmers, but farmers were at the mercy of the weather. During |
|farming |Elizabeth’s reign, there were disastrous harvests in 1562, 1565, 1573–77 and 1585–86. Even one bad|
| |harvest caused food shortages, however, and meant that the price of bread and other foods went up.|
| |At these times, the poor suffered most because they struggled to afford the higher bread prices. |
| |Many farmers began to look for profitable ways to earn their living, by switching to different |
| |methods of agriculture. One method was to enclose land with hedges and put sheep on it instead of |
| |growing crops. This saved the farmers money because they did not have to employ labourers to work |
| |the land. |
|2: Unemployment in industries|The only important industry in the sixteenth century was the cloth trade, where English woollen |
| |cloth was exported to Europe. This provided work for many spinners and weavers. When the cloth |
| |trade collapsed in the 1550s, tens of thousands of people lost their jobs. |
|3: Population growth |The country’s population had fallen by nearly half at the time of the Black Death in 1348–49. It |
| |remained low until the sixteenth century, when it began to increase. The rise in population became|
| |steeper in Elizabeth’s reign. This rise in population meant that more jobs were needed but, as |
| |explained above, there were fewer jobs in farming and the cloth industry. More and more people |
| |could not find work, so could not earn money. |
|4: Growth of inflation |Another problem causing poverty was inflation – prices were going up all across Europe. Wages |
| |began to rise in the 1550s and continued to rise until about 1570. After that they increased only |
| |very slowly. Prices, however, particularly of food, rose much more steeply, especially after 1570.|
| |The result was that people, particularly those on lower wages, struggled to afford even basic |
| |food. Prices might be going up, but their wages were not. |
|5: The closure of the |Until the 1530s, the monasteries provided food and shelter for the homeless and unemployed. They |
|monasteries |were closed down by Henry VIII in the late 1530s, however. This dissolution of the monasteries |
| |meant there was less help for the poor, and many of them were left to wander the roads or drift to|
| |the towns in search of work. |
8 A suggestion may be the concern over the ‘Threat posed to the social order’ on top, since that would be key for the stability of state.
‘The growing cost of Poor Relief’ and ‘Puritan beliefs about hard work’ on the second row, because these would be the foundations for ensuring that people had to work hard and that the finances of funding the poor could be tackled.
On the final row – but still significant – would be ‘Beggars turned to crime’, ‘Wandering groups of vagabonds spreading disease’ and ‘Increasing unemployment’.
9
|Vagabonds Act 1572 |Act for the Relief of the Poor 1576 |
|Element 1: Anyone over the age of 14 found guilty of being a vagabond|Element 1: Towns were required to find work for the |
|was to be whipped and burned through the right ear. For a second |able-bodied poor. |
|offence, vagabonds were to be sent to prison. |Element 2: Those refusing an offer of work were to be sent |
|Element 2: Persistent offenders were to be executed. |to a house of correction (prison). |
|Element 3: Children of convicted beggars were to be placed in |Element 3: This law was to be strictly enforced across the |
|domestic service. Local Justices of the Peace were ordered to keep a |country. |
|register of the poor in their parish, and to raise a poor rate to pay| |
|for food and shelter for the sick and elderly. | |
Exam-style questions
10 The increasing visibility of the poor, fear of a growth in disorder and the difficulties of developing policies to enable the authorities to cope with the increasing problem all contributed to a change of attitude towards the poor in Elizabethan England.
The increasing visibility of the poor impacted on changing attitudes in that there was growing concern about the poor. The decline in the cloth trade, changes in agricultural production and the enclosure of the land, together with rising population and inflation at a time of growing unemployment, led to the poor being increasingly visible in rural and urban areas.
Attitudes towards the poor began to change in Elizabethan times because of the perceived challenge to the social order from increasing numbers of poor. The authorities were particularly concerned about the undeserving poor, the spread of disease and the growth of disorder. They were therefore keen to place an emphasis on Protestant and Puritan beliefs in working hard.
A further impact was reflected in attitudinal changes among the rich and powerful with regard to help for the poor in terms of Poor Relief. The rich and powerful were not only expected to control the lower classes, they were also obliged to help poor people in times of need. Landowners took this seriously and gave gifts of money and food to the poor, called Poor Relief. This reliance on generosity was being severely tested, however.
Overall, there were various changes in attitudes towards the poor in Elizabethan England. There was a growth in the acknowledgement of an increasingly visible problem, the challenges that it posed for social order and the demand it was creating for the authorities to begin to tackle the problem more effectively.
11 While there is evidence that poor harvests were a significant cause of Elizabethan poverty, it is most convincing that population growth and inflation were more significant causes.
There is some evidence that the decline in some industries due to decline in trade was a cause of Elizabethan poverty. The most significant decline was that of the cloth trade. The cloth trade was the only important industry in the sixteenth century, but from 1550 it began to collapse, resulting in the loss of jobs.
A more convincing cause of Elizabethan poverty was poor harvests and changes in agricultural production. There was a series of disastrous harvests in 1562, 1565, 1573–77 and 1585–86, during which starvation was an ever-present danger. These poor harvests led to food shortages, which meant that demand, prices and inflation rose. Enclosure of the land antagonised the situation further.
The most significant causes of Elizabethan poverty, however, were population growth and inflation. In 1560 the population was 3.2 million, but this rose year-on-year to over 4.4 million by 1600. This rise in population led to increased demand for all products and also for jobs at a time when unemployment had grown. Rising demands and poor harvests led to high inflation.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that poor harvests were a considerable cause of poverty in Elizabethan England, the picture is more complex in an interrelated economy. The decline in the wool trade also contributed, but the growth of the population coupled with the rise in prices is most convincing.
12 Modifications of existing policy, together with the Vagabonds Act 1572 and the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1576, played an important part in changing Elizabethan government policy towards the poor.
As poverty increased, a change in government attitudes led to changes in the methods of dealing with the poor. For example, the local Poor Relief tax organised by the Justices of the Peace continued to grow, with the proceeds spent on trying to relieve the worst aspects of poverty. However, tinkering with old methods had limited success, and increasing concerns about poverty drove the demand for policy changes.
Changes in attitude were further reflected in changes in government policy towards vagabonds. For example, the Vagabonds Act 1572 aimed to target vagrants, to deal with the threat they posed but also to help by providing work where possible.
Further attitudinal changes were reflected in changes in government policy towards Poor Relief. For example, the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1576 aimed to tackle the problem of increased unemployment and poverty caused by the fall in the wool trade. By this Act towns were required to find local work for the able-bodied poor, and to encourage them to engage in it.
Overall, there was a growing awareness in Elizabethan England of the growth of poverty, which led to the modification of existing policies together with the introduction of Acts of Parliament to deal with the problem of vagrancy and the more deserving poor, introduced in 1572 and 1576.
Exploration and voyages of discovery
13
|Factor 1 |Brief explanation of the link |Factor 2 |
|Developments in |Seafaring technology could be used to develop better ships and navigation |To compete with other |
|seafaring |equipment in order to explore new lands and compete with the Spanish, who had|countries like Spain |
| |already made a good start at expanding in the New World. | |
|To develop knowledge |Each journey furthered knowledge and understanding of navigation routes that |Strategic and military|
| |could be used for strategic and military purposes, e.g. Drake’s | |
| |circumnavigation of the globe in 1577–80. | |
|Financial |Each expedition could be used to develop trading relationships or to attack |To compete with other |
| |other settlements or naval fleets, thus gaining financial advantage and being|countries like Spain |
| |more able to compete with other countries in terms of military and strategic | |
| |influence. | |
14
|Preparations before December |Stage 1: Sailing to Brazil, |Stage 2: Brazil to Guatulco, |Stage 3: Guatulco to |
|1577 |December 1577–April 1578 |April 1578–April 1579 |Plymouth, April |
| | | |1579–September 1580 |
|• Drake had developed a |• The fleet set sail again in |• From April 1578 the fleet |• At Guatulco, in Central |
|hatred of Spain and sought to|December and sailed south down |sailed down the coast of Brazil. |America, Drake decided to |
|challenge its economic and |the west coast of Africa. |• Divisions among the crew led to|find a route home via North |
|political power in Europe and|• At the Cape Verde Islands |Drake executing Sir Doughty and |America. |
|the New World. |they captured a Portuguese ship|rationalising his ships to three.|• From California Drake |
|• Drake prepared a fleet of |and its cargo of wine. |• In September 1578 Drake made |sailed west across the |
|five ships and a crew of 164 |• As they neared the coast of |his way up the west coast of |Pacific Ocean, making trade |
|sailors. |Brazil quarrels began to break |South America and, after many |deals with the King of |
|• After setting off from |out among the crew, which |problems, captured considerable |Ternate. |
|Plymouth on 15 November they |threatened success. |treasure from Spanish settlements|• Then Drake sailed across |
|had to return after three | |and the Cacafuego. |the Indian Ocean, past the |
|days. | | |Cape of Good Hope and up the |
| | | |west coast of Africa, |
| | | |reaching Plymouth on |
| | | |26 September 1580. |
Exam-style questions
15 While there is evidence that developments in seafaring technology and competition with countries like Spain were important in the growth of voyages of discovery, it is most convincing that financial motives were the main cause.
There is some evidence to support the view that developments in seafaring and the desire to increase knowledge were significant causes of the growth in voyages of discovery. This includes improvements in the design of ships, new navigational equipment and the development of standardised maps.
More significant was the desire to compete with countries like Spain and to develop strategic and military advantages through the growth of voyages of discovery. The growing wealth and power of Catholic Spain and France was based on voyages of discovery, particularly in the New World. Enterprising merchants like Hawkins and Drake realised that unless they began to compete with this growth, England would increasingly fall behind the growing strategic, commercial and military power of other European powers, particularly Spain.
The evidence is more convincing that financial motives were the most significant cause of the growth of voyages of discovery, however. This includes the development of trade with Russia and India, along with the voyages of Hawkins and Drake to the New World with the aim of breaking into Spanish markets and/or attacking and plundering their territories for financial gain, particularly with the collapse of the wool trade in Antwerp.
In conclusion, despite evidence to support the view that new seafaring technology and the desire to compete with other European powers were important, financial motives are the most convincing reason for the growth of voyages of discovery in Elizabethan times.
16 Preparation and Drake’s leadership, along with persistence in the face of adversity throughout, each played an important part in the successful circumnavigation of the globe in 1577–80.
One reason Drake was successful in circumnavigating the globe was that he prepared a clear set of aims and assembled a fleet capable of pursuing them. For example, Drake’s aims were to avenge and challenge the Spanish control of the New World, to attack and plunder Spanish ships, to spread English power and to find new lands for commercial expansion.
A further reason Drake was successful in circumnavigating the globe was that he overcame the challenges of leadership and maritime difficulties in the first two stages of his voyage. For example, in December 1577 they sailed to the west coast of Africa, capturing a Portuguese ship and its supplies, and then across the Atlantic Ocean to the coast of Brazil. Quarrels among the crew and the captains began to surface and Drake displayed ruthless leadership skills as they sailed down the coast of Brazil, executing Sir Doughty and consolidating his resources onto his three best ships. After hitting stormy seas in September 1578 in the Pacific, Drake’s ship was the only one to survive and he was attacked and wounded on the Island of Mocha. However, by April 1579 Drake experienced considerable success attacking Spanish settlements and cargo ships, including the Cacafuego, before arriving at Guatulco.
A final reason Drake was successful in circumnavigating the globe was his risk-taking and good fortune in the face of adversity on the final stage of his voyage. For example, Drake showed considerable risk-taking leadership skills by deciding to find a route back to England around North America, then across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope and up the west coast of Africa, before arriving back at Plymouth in September 1580.
Overall, preparation, decisive and daring leadership, and some considerable luck all combined to make the circumnavigation of the globe in 1577–80 a success.
Raleigh and Virginia
17
|Chronological order |Event |
|1st |In April 1584 Walter Raleigh dispatched two small ships on a reconnaissance expedition to the |
| |area off modern-day North Carolina. |
|2nd |When the ships returned they reported enthusiastically on a fertile land with many natural |
| |resources and with civilised Native Americans. In 1585, 108 male settlers, under the command of |
| |Ralph Lane, sailed to America with Sir Richard Grenville. |
|3rd |The settlement got off to an unfortunate start when Grenville’s ship hit rocks as it came in to |
| |land. The resulting seawater in the hold damaged supplies and seed crops. Lane began the |
| |construction of a fort and settlement on Roanoke Island and, after a couple of months, Grenville|
| |returned to England to get more settlers and supplies, leaving the garrison of 108 men. |
|4th |Relations with Native Americans began to sour as some tribes started to get angry that the |
| |colonists were taking up good land and resources. Lane was forced to abandon Roanoke Island in |
| |June 1586, owing to hostilities between the English and the local Secotan tribe, on whom Lane’s |
| |men depended for food. |
|5th |When Drake arrived at the colony on his way home from the West Indies in June 1586, starving |
| |colonists climbed aboard his ships to go back to England. |
|6th |On his return to England by the summer of 1586 Ralph Lane enthused about the strengths of |
| |Chesapeake Bay as the best place for a settlement, and planning for another expedition began. |
18 In 1587 the second expedition (again dispatched by Raleigh) was forced to land again in North Carolina when the master pilot, Simon Fernandes, refused to take them any further. They established a second colony there, but it was too late to plant seeds and, again, relations with the local Native Americans were poor. John White decided to return to England to bring back more supplies, but by then all ships were needed for defence against the Armada. He was unable to return to Roanoke until 1590, when he found the settlers he had left behind had disappeared.
19 Raleigh’s expeditions, although perhaps not seen as a success at the time, provided the foundations for the eventual colonisation of America by the English in the next century. They also excited merchants with examples of goods to trade, including the potato, and increased navigational knowledge of the continent.
20 A suggestion may be the ‘Lack of a decent harbour’ on top, since a decent harbour would have been key to establish good sailing links.
‘Failure of ships to arrive from England’ and ‘Food supplies did not survive the journey’ on the second row, because the lack of food resulted in starvation and also in growing reliance on the Native Americans.
On the final row – but still significant – would be ‘Colonists depended on local Native Americans for food’, ‘Relations with the Native Americans deteriorated’ and ‘Disease’.
Exam-style questions
21 Feature 1: One key feature of the attempted colonisation of Virginia in 1585 was the unfortunate start of the settlement. For example, Grenville’s ship hit rocks as it came in to land and the resulting seawater in the hold damaged supplies and seed crops. This led to over-reliance on good relations with the Native Americans.
Feature 2: A second key feature of the attempted colonisation of Virginia in 1585 was the growing dependence of the colonists on the Native Americans. At first relations were at least possible, but they became increasingly strained as the tribes developed opposition to colonists taking up good land and resources, forcing Lane to abandon Roanoke Island in June 1586.
22 Feature 1: One key feature of the attempted colonisation of Virginia in 1587 was the unfortunate start. For example, the master pilot was worried about hurricanes, refused to take the settlers further and put them off at Roanoke Island rather than Chesapeake Bay. It was too late to plant seeds and relations with the Native Americans were already poor.
Feature 2: A second key feature of the attempted colonisation of Virginia in 1587 was that it was poorly supported. After John White returned to England to bring back more supplies, return was impossible because all boats were needed to defend against the Spanish Armada. When he returned to Roanoke Island in 1590 the settlers had disappeared.
23 Difficulties in food supplies, over-dependence on the Native Americans and poor supply routes from England each played an important part in the failure of the Virginia colony by 1588.
One reason why the attempted colonisation of Virginia had failed by 1588 was difficulties in food supplies, the planting of seeds, and consequent starvation and disease. For example, the first colonists left England too late to reach Virginia in time to plant crops. The second attempt to establish a colony was again too late to plant seeds and had not resolved the lack of safe accessible harbour.
A further reason why the attempted colonisation of Virginia had failed by 1588 was that the colonists became dependent on the local Native Americans for food, and these relations deteriorated over time. For example, when Grenville left the first settlement on Roanoke Island, relations with the Native Americans began to deteriorate. Furthermore, after the difficulties at the start of the second colony, again its leader John White decided to leave the colony and on his return the second colony had been abandoned.
A final reason why the attempted colonisation of Virginia had failed by 1588 was the failure of good communication links to supply the colony from England and the lack of a safe, accessible harbour. The harbour at Roanoke Island was rocky, adding to the difficulty of accessing navigational routes to England. This meant that the problems of the first and second settlements remained and were added to by the interruption of communication with England because of the impact of the Armada.
Overall, the difficulties of food supplies, deteriorating relations with the Native Americans, and the lack of support that could be secured through good communication links with England and of navigable waters and harbours, all contributed to the failure of the first two attempts to establish a colony in Virginia, a failure that would not be overcome until the next century.
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