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Psychology’s History and ApproachesPsychology: the science of behavior and mental processes of people and organisms. Empiricism: the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experimentation. Introspection: looking inwardOvert: in the open, something that can be seen.Covert: hidden, something that cannot be seen.Subjective: existing in the mind: personal emotions, beliefs, feelings, etc.Objective: intending to complete a goal, the same applies to everyone.Functionalism: a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function and how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. Introduced by William James.Structuralism: an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. Introduced by Edward Titchener.Experimental psychology: the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).Humanistic psychology: historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth.Cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).Nature-Nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and experience (nurture) make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Natural Selection: the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. Charles Darwin proposed this theory.Applied research: scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.Basic research: pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.Subfields of Psychology: Clinical psychologists – evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral munity psychologists – deal with broad problems of mental health in community settings.Counseling psychologists – help people adapt to change or make changes in their lifestyle.Developmental psychologists – study psychological development throughout the life span. Educational psychologists – focus on how effective teaching and learning take place.Human Factors psychologists – do research on how people function best with machines.Forensic psychologists – involves applying psychology to the field of criminal investigation and the law.Health psychologists – concentrate on biological, psychological, and social factors involved in health and illness.Industrial/Organizational psychologists – aim to improve productivity and the quality of work life by applying psychological principles and methods to the work place.Neuropsychologists – explore the relationships between brain/nervous systems and behavior. Neuropsychologists are also called biopsychologists, behavioral geneticists, physiological psychologists, and behavioral neuroscientists.Positive psychology – studies human functioning with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.Psychiatrists – deal with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.Psychometricians – sometimes called measurement psychologists, focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data. Studies the measurement of our abilities, attitudes, and traits. Rehabilitation psychologists – help clients with mental retardation, developmental disabilities, and disabilities resulting from stroke or accidents adapt to their situations.School psychologists – assess and counsel students, consult with educators and parents, and perform behavioral intervention when necessary.Social psychologists – focus on how a person’s mental life and behavior is shaped by interactions with other people.Sports psychologists – help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure.Levels of Analysis: the differing complementary, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.Biopsychosocial approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.Research and History Key People:Socrates and Plato: the mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies. Knowledge is innate.Aristotle: derived principles from careful observations. Knowledge is not preexisting. It grows from the experiences stored in our memories.Rene Descartes: agreed with Socrates and Plato about the existence of innate ideas and mind’s being “entirely distinct from body” and able to survive its death. Surmised that people’s brains have “animal spirits” (we now call them nerves).Wilhelm Wundt: established the first psych lab in Germany.G. Stanley Hall: Wundt’s American student who conducted the first psych lab in the US at Johns Hopkins University. Known for combing psych and education, particularly with adolescents.Edward Titchener: Cornell professor who introduced the school of structuralism by using introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements.William James: Harvard philosopher-psychologist who introduced the school of functionalism by considering the functions of our thoughts and feelings. Wrote the textbook Principles of Psychology and tutored Mary Calkins. Mary Calkins: student of William James who became the first female president of the American Psychological Association. She also became a pioneering memory researcher.Margaret Floy Washburn: became the first woman to receive a Ph. D. in Psychology. She also studied animal behavior.Max Wertheimer: developed the Gestalt perspective.School of ThoughtFocusKey PeopleBehavioralHow we learn observable responses and experiences.John Watson (founder of Behaviorism), B.F. SkinnerPsychoanalytic (Psychodynamic)How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.Sigmund FreudHumanisticHow we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment.Carl Rogers, Abraham MaslowCognitiveHow we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.Jean PiagetBiological(Neuroscience)How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiencesEvolutionaryHow natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes and species.Charles DarwinSocial-CulturalHow behavior and thinking vary across situations and culturesGestaltThe organized whole ................
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