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Chapter 1: Nature vs. Art Two kinds of existing things of nature (nature (natural world) - those with the principle of change: according to Aristotle, the natural body consists of both complexes (e.g. flora and fauna) and simple bodies (e.g., earth, water, air, fire). It should be noted that for Aristotle the principle of change includes the ability to keep rest: artificial (i.e., those that require cause to change attention outside of themselves). Combination of air (anaximenes) appylon (anacymander) fire (heracrits) elements (empedocles, anaxagoras) formalism - nature is determined by the definition of things (i.e., forms) Note: Aristotle argues that the form of things is not separated from the main material, such as Plato (193b5). It is important to note that he distinguishes his account from Platonism. Chapter 2, Students in Natural Studies and Students of Nature, must know both form and substance, but are most interested in forms (they do not exist separately from matter). Chapter 3: Four Causes of What Is Causation? - Material Causes - That Something Is Made into a Formal Cause - The Form or Paradigm in which Something Is Created for An Efficient Cause - The Leading State That Results in the Final Cause of An Event - Six Modes of Causality in which Something Is Taking Place - Specific or Universal Incidental or Necessary (either Single or Multiple) Actual or Potential Chapter 4: Determinism? Sericity exists in nature in a sense. Note: Aristotle gives twice as much reduction to show that seistoticity and chance must be part of the world's causal structure. First, he argues, the description of causality provided by determinists is unconvincing (and undocumented by ancient men, i.e., prehistorics). Second, he insists that there is no coherent explanation of the coincidence provided by ancient natural philosophers. (This should be an argument against determinism, but it is not clear.) Chapter 5: The three ways of the nature of chance and coming - what always comes in the same way (i.e., necessary) is usually chapter 6 of accidental events (197a5): the nature of sejima is an externally caused accidental event (1977). : The difference between chance and seivity is that both are accidental (i.e. unintentional), while the former occurs in the realm of deliberation, but the latter is not. Chance is an event that happens to a deliberate agent, and sedivity only happens among the impossibleChapter 7: The Subject of Science Note: According to Aristotle, the study of what does not change (i.e., God) the study of what changes (i.e., God) is a study of what changes (i.e., astronomy) What can be destroyed, i.e. what can be destroyed (i.e., everything else) (material cause) what it is? (Efficient cause) is it like what it is? (The official cause) why is it better to be [than the other way]? (Ultimate Cause) Chapter 8 Teleology of Nature Everything comes into one of three ways: what is necessary (they should not be other than them) accidentally (either sebionic or accidentally) telelogically (for something) Reduction for natural tele (198b35ff) Chapter 9 Necessity in Nature Two kinds of needs - what itself needs is for (for Hypothetical) the cause of the material is (hypothetically) necessary. : The purpose of things is not a problem, but a form. Physics take the title from the Greek word fusis and translate it more accurately as order of nature. The first two books in physics are general introductions to Aristotle's natural studies. The remaining six books deal with physics itself on a very theoretical and generalized level, culminating in a debate of God, of the first cause. Physics begins with the investigation of the principles of nature. At its core, the work of the natural world requires a certain number of basic principles, accordingly which can explain all natural processes. Every change or process contains something that comes from the opposite. Something is born by wearing its unique shape, such as a baby becoming an adult and a species becoming a mature plant. This is because babies and seeds have worked towards this shape all the time, so the form itself (the idea or pattern of mature specimens) must have existed before the baby or seed actually matured. Therefore, form must be one of the principles of nature. Another principle of nature must be deprivation or absence of this form, and vice versa. In addition to form and privatization, a third principle, substance, is needed that remains constant throughout the process of change. If nothing changes when something changes, there will be no things that can be said to have unders been changed. The basic principles of nature are substance, form, and privatization. For example, education includes the form of education, the deprivation of ignorance, and the underlying problems of those who make a change from ignorance to education. This view of natural principles solves many of the problems of previous philosophers and suggests that matter is preserved: its shape may change, but the fundamental problems involved in change remainChanges are made according to four different causes: These causes are close to what we call explanations: they explain in different ways why the changes passed. Explain that the four causes are (1) material causes, and what something is made of. (2) A formal cause that describes the format or pattern in which an object corresponds. (3) An efficient cause is what we usually mean by the cause, the original cause of the change. (4) The final cause of the change. For example, when making a house, the cause of the material is the material that the house is made of, the formal cause is the architect's plan, the efficient cause, the process of building it, and the ultimate cause is to provide shelter and comfort. Natural objects, such as plants and animals, differ from artifacts in that they have an internal source of change. All causes of changes in artificial objects can be seen outside the object itself, but natural objects can cause changes from within. Aristotle rejects the idea that chance constitutes a fifth cause similar to the other four. We usually talk about chance, with two separate events with their own causes, comparing coincidences in a way that is not explained by either cause. For example, there may be a reason why both of them are in a certain place at a certain time, but neither of these sets of reasons explains the coincidence that both people are there at the same time. The ultimate cause applies as naturally as art, so everything in nature serves a useful purpose. Aristotle disagrees with the views of both democracies, who believe that the need for the natural world has no useful purpose, and Empedocles, whose evolutionary views were able to reproduce themselves, with only a combination of useful living parts surviving. If democracy is right, there will be as many useless aspects of nature as possible, but Empedocle's theory does not explain how random combinations of parts can come together in the first place. Books III and IV examine some basic concepts of nature that begin with change and deal with infinity, location, voids, and time. Aristotle defines change as a potentially present reality. In other words, change is down to the possibility of one thing changing to another. In all cases, the change comes to pass through the contact between the drug and the patient, where the agent gives the patient a form and the change itself occurs within the patient. 2. What is nature? (Or: what is the nature in things? Example: Wood in bed. (If you plant a bed, it may grow into a tree, not another bed.) Others say form: wood is not the nature of the bed, but potentially so. The same applies to meat and bone problems. Shapes and shapes are natural, and it isIt cannot be separated except for accounts. Aristotle: Shape is more true nature than matter. What is growing, not what it is growing from, but what it is growing into? Chapter 2. Natural students (= physicists) mathematicians: research surfaces, solids, lengths, points, features that can be separated from the body in thought. Nature students: Study bodies with these characteristics as co-incidents. Platonist: It's like a study in mathematics. Aristotle: We need to study nature as a form of problem (for example, a snub, i.e. a rounded nose, which is a certain form in one matter). Chapter 3. Cause type (4 causes) 1. Material composition: statue bronze, bowl 2 silver. The formal pattern explains the essence (octave = 2/1 ration) 3. An efficient source of change: fathers cause children 4. At the last minute, what will it be made for? Health causes walking These can all be described or modified in various ways: general/specific; accidental; actual/potential (see summary in 195b12-16). Chapter 4. Luck and Chance: Introduction Opon (Endxa) review. Some say that everything has a clear cause and that there is no luck. Previous philosophers did not mention chance, but they should have. Others say that chance causes everything. This is awesome. Chapter 5. Luck and chance, where luck is defined, are both things that happen for something or at some end, but it does so by accident. Luck happens especially among those that match decisions (or those with thoughts). (Luck is a chance to happen to people.) Example: A man went to the market to sell olives and, if he was lucky, met a man who owes money for paying off his debts. He was lucky. Chapter 6. Chance-defining opportunities are wider than luck. It can contain animals, children, or inanimvores. It is the kind of thing that nature may have caused for a purpose, but it has cause for chance. Example: A statue of a body fell on top of the man who killed him. By chance the murderer met his proper justice. Chapter 7. So far summary nature students need to study all causes. But some things are supernatural (beyond nature): those that start moving without moving. (A preview of Aristotle's Prime Mober or God. To some extent, the form is such or ultimately the cause. Chapter 8. The relationship between eventual causality and necessity Why should nature act for a purpose and not simply due to (material) need? But why doesn't this happen because of the necessary facts about clouds, the sun, etc.? These processes are for something and they happen very regularly. But the pure things that only happen by accident are exceptions, not rules. There must be something to explain why these pure things happen regularly - this mustBecause they happen for a reason or purpose. Chapter 9. Essentially what is needed is conditional or unqualified (is it hypothetical or absolute? what is the role of the need for materials in the essence of things? An example of an absolute need: the wall would happen because of the fact about its material - the stone would go to the bottom, and it would be light, so wood on top. Rebuttal: No: The wall is about to provide protection. What comes for something has the necessary nature, but it is not happening because of this (material) need. Essentially the need for assumptions: forms need to hypothesis and problems. If there is a saw, you need iron. The need mainly belongs to the cause of the material (not necessarily the iron teeth cut something as soft as a tree). But it is also in the sense that it is in shape: the shape of the saw means cutting, cutting means teeth, teeth mean hard things like iron. Previous: Aristotle Overview Ancient Greek Philosophy Main Page Cynthia Freeland's Homepage March 14, 1996

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