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CCRT Art and Culture NotesVisual ArtsThe character of Indian art is best described as plastic, organic and sculptural.nature of Indian architecture-primarily a sculptural mass rather than a space enclosure.The “dominance” of the sculptural mode in India is due to the Indian propensity for carving sculptural caves and temples out of the living rock, of mountain escarpment or outcropping.Indian art is deeply rooted in religion and it conduces to fulfilling the ultimate aim of life, moksha or release from the cycle of birth and death.not all Indian art is religiouscreation of art by the Indian artists are not "realistic" representations in the sense we understand the term on Greek or Roman Art (but they are imagined and are idealised).In form, the males are virile beings broad shouldered, deep chested and narrow hipped. The females are precisely contrary to the males narrow shouldered, having full and fir breasts, and attenuated waist and' broad hips. The females according to the Indian artists represent Matri or the mother.The earliest examples of miniature painting in India under Palas and Jains in 11th-12th centuries.Mughal School of painting originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D, which is primarily secular.no pre-Mughal painting from the Deccan are so far known to exist. Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Influenced by Mughal style later in 17th century.art of painting in Central India, Rajasthani and the Pahari region etc. is deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, religious texts like the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works on musical themes. The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised tremendous influence on the pictorial art of these places.Indus ValleyTown planning was excellent. Burnt brick was widely used, roads were wide and at right angles to one another, city drains were laid out with great skill and forethought, the corbelled arch and baths were constructed with knowledge and skill.due to the fact that during this time sculpture and architecture was utilising organic and perishable materials such as mud, mudbrick, bamboo, timber, leaves, straw and thatch, these have not survived the ravages of time.Post Indus The Rajagriha fortification wall is made in the roughest possible manner, unhewn stones being piled one on top of the other. This belongs to the 6th-5th century, B.C.?at Sisupalgarh in the 2nd-1st century B.C. stone masons were at work using large blocks of stones to make a very well-made fort entrance that could be closed with huge doors turning on hinges.stone masonry and stone carving were imported in Ashoka's times from Persia. Similar masonry seen in Persepolis.Rock-cut architecture: Lomas Rishi Caves of Barabar Hills built by Ashoka in 3rd Century BC for Ajivika Sect. The entrance is a representation in stone of a hut entrance, with the end of the roof constructed of bent timber supported by cross beams, the ends of which are shown protruding. example showing the development from earlier shapes in timber translated into stoneBuddhist ArchitectureThree types: Chaitya, Vihara, StupaLargest Chaitya at Karle, built by Satavahanas in 1st century AD. excavated from the living rock and is unparalleled for its lofty and elevated impression. well proportioned great and bulky pillars, carrying capitals of great originality holding up a vaulted roof that has real rafters of timber inserted into it. In the far distance there is a stupa. Original wood unharmed till date.The stupa is a glorified, beautified, enlarged funerary mound: what was once the resting place of the bones and ashes of a holy man.To the stupa which consisted of a domical structure, a base, sometimes circular, sometimes square, was added in the 1st century B.C., a circumambulatory path as well as the stone railing with four elegantly carved gateways in the four cardinal directions.Ashoka constructed many stupas, including SanchiThe railing and gateways at Bharhut, Sanchi and Bodh Gaya are the most famous in the north and at Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the South.On these surfaces are carved the favourite symbols of Buddhism, the lotus, elephant, bull, lion and horse and some of the Jataka stories of the previous births of Buddha, depicted in low relief with exuberant detailsFirst imitations in stone of earlier wooden constructions.Temple ArchitectureEarliest evidence of temples: Mauryan. Mostly built of wood. So, very little remains now. Eg. Wooden temples at Sanchiearliest structural temple still standing in its original condition is the one constructed at Aihole in Karnataka. little structure built of huge almost boulder-like blocks of stones.Ladkhan Temple, Aihole: very first attempt to raise a turret, a precursor to the future loftier spire, the Shikhara. The idea behind it must have been that, a temple being the home of the God must be seen from far and nearDurga temple at Aihole is an apsidal temple of about 550 A.D. in which the architect has made immense improvements upon his previous attempts.Rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram, called Rathas or Chariots. 5 temples named after Pandavas. Built by Pallavas 5th Century ADShore Temple at Mahabalipuram similar to Dharmaraja Ratha, but it is a Structural Temple The Kailasanath temple at Kanchipuram was built by Raja Simha shortly after the Shore temple in the 8th century A.D.Mahabodhi Temple, built around 2nd century has seen numerous renovation. Built like a pyramid.Till about the 6th century A.D., the style of temple architecture was similar both in the north as well as in the south.temple architecture developed most markedly were the Deccan and Orissa and in both these areas the northern and southern style temples can be found side by side.in India the sculptor and the architect were often one and the same person and it would be highly misleading to treat sculpture and architecture separatelyThe early Indian temple was provided with a flat roof and there was a problem of letting out accumulated rain water.Orissa templeGradually these slanting slab-roofs begin to increase from one to two and from two to three and gradually by multiplying these roofs, a pyramidal roof results over the shrine, called?Jagamohana?in Orissa, which precedes the main shrine.Evolution towards pronounced ornamentation over the outside of the walls, with decorative elements, including human figures, gods and goddesses, flora and fauna.Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneshwar, masterpiece of architecture.Lingaraja Temple (1000AD) marvel of architecture: Jagamohana, Lofty Spire, Roofs adorned with a procession of infantry, cavalry, elephants and miscellaneous other scenes.in the later temples of Orissa, including the Lingaraja, there are two additional shrines attached along one axis - in front of the?Jagamohana,?a?natamandapa,?or a hall of dance and music, and a?bhogmandapa,?a hall of offeringsSun temple at Konark constructed by the eastern Ganga ruler Narasimha Varmana, about 1250 A.D. originally consisted of a sanctum sanctorum, with a curvilinear?shikhara,?a?Jagamohana?and a dancing hall, built on the same axis, and an extensive compound wall with three entrance gateways. The sanctum sanctorum and the dancing hall have lost their roofs and it is only the?Jagamohana?which has remained intact with its roof.Most imp Pattadakal Temple: Virupaksha, built by queen of Vikramaditya II datable to 740 A.D., was most likely built by workmen brought from Kanchipuram, and in direct imitation of the Kailasanath at Kanchipuram. Dedicated to ShivaKailashnath Temple at Ellora: Built by Rashtrakuta King Krishna 8th Century, Rock cut. largely pertaining to the theme of Shiva and Parvati, Sita's abduction and Ravana shaking the mountain.In some temples there are tanks surrounded by elegant pillared halls.The temples built in the 12-13th centuries under the patronage of the Hoysalas of Mysore, are at Somnathpur, Belur and Halebid. vimana?is of a star shaped plan.Khajuraho Temples: Built of sandstone. Almost all the temples have an inner shrine an assembly hall or?mandapa,?and an entrance portico. Eg: Kandariya Temple, the Mahadeva Temple, the Chaunsat Yogini Temple (the only temple made entirely of granite?and dedicated to 64 yoginis)South-East of Khajuraho is famous for Jain Temples. The Parsvanatha Temple is most important one whereas the Ghantai Temple is named because of the bell and chain ornaments at its pillars.Pala Period in Eastern India: Intense Buddhist and Hindu architecture period. Pala school of art first flourished in the Magadha region. Early Pala- Buddhist, later- HinduBengali architecture styles in particular shared many features with other northern schools. From 17th century, greater Islamic influence.Importance of Temples in South IndiaUnlike the North, the South is literally dotted with thousands of temples, having been relatively free from repeated foreign invasions to which the North was subject.?It was the centre of all cultural and social life, the hub around which all activities revolved.Employment generation in constructionfinest craftsmen from neighbouring provinces found employment and sculptors were trained by them during its construction.assured employment to a large number of people, priests, musicians, dancing girls, teachers, florist, tailors, etc.Poet pavillions, confectioners and others were allowed to become part of temple complex.all these additional structures, more compounds were added to the original temple compound, one inside the other, like Chinese boxes.Indo-Islamic ArchitectureVery little developments in the Sultanate period. Mughal period saw flourishMany differences with Hindu stylesOpen courtyard for prayer, while garbha griha in Hindu temple usually in a closed housebased on arches, vaults and domes, on columns and pyramidal towers or slender spires, called trabeate.The practice of the burial of the dead, as distinct from the cremation practised by the Hindus, chamber, a?mihrab?in the western wall and the real grave (qabr) in an underground chamber.?he Hindu style or ornamentation is largely naturalistic showing human and animal forms. But Muslims introduced geometrical and arabesque patterns, ornamental writing and formal representation of plant and floral lifeThe Muslims, like the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar?First structures built by destroying Hindu temples. Eg: Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque built by destroying 27 templesQutub Minar of Mehrauli was built around 1199 by Qutub-ud-din and finally completed by his son-in-law and successor IItutmish?Sultan Ghari tomb: First Monumental Muslim tombFortified towns like Tughlaqabad look solid with sloping walls, with arches and domes in Syrian and Byzantine styles, but very little ornamentation.Ornamentation started with Mughal ruleLocal flavours in Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bengal etc developed. With the end of the Delhi Sultanate, architecture became Indo-Islamic, with Hindu elements.Bengal Roof with sloping cornices, earlier used for bamboo roof construction, along with bricks commonly found in the alluvial plains. Eg Dakhil Darwaja built by Barbak Shah at GaurThe walls of Sidi Said Mosque, Ahmedabad, built in 1572 consist substantially of perforated screens.The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627-57). It is the largest dome cubicle in the worldSurs: Tomb at Sasaram, Purana Quila in Delhi.first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture, is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi. pink sandstone and white are used with admirable effectAkbar: Capital at Agra. Made use of red sandstone. Town of Fatehpur Sikri built. The city is a modest and compact township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasure-resorts, baths, mosques, tombs. Most imp is Panch Mahal, airy open pillared verandas for the emperor’s recreation. Diwan-i-Khas, Buland Darwaza infront of the Jama Masjid.Shah Jahan: greatest builder. His architecture more sensuous with greater ornamentation than Akbar. Used Marble extensively, unlike sandstone by Akbar.Founded Shahjahanabad, Delhi. Red Fort that housed the Peacock Throne and Kohinoor. Jama Masjid.Many Hindu rulers also adapted Islamic styles. Eg Kirtistambha, or Tower of Fame, constructed by Solanki ruler of Gujarat, another in Chittor, Hawa Mahal in Jaipur (best example) with numerous perforated jallis.Modern ArchitectureTraditional Indian architecture revolved around religion and spiritualism, very little around common day-to-day problems. Coming of British brought closer to realismBest Example: Lutyens’ Delhi. Post independence: Le Corbusier’s development of ChandigarhRecent: Charles Correa and Inter-University Centre for Applied AstroPhysics in Pune. Goa MuseumModern Indian Architects going abroad and meeting western architects and learning from ing back home and applying traditional architecture to solve complex socio-economic problems, eg: high pop density, lack of electricity, water conservation, etc.SculptureIndus Valley?a male torso of polished red lime stone from Harappa, chiselled in the round. The head and arms of this figure were carved separately and socketed into the drilled holes of the torso.bust portrait of a bearded nobleman or high priest, from Mohenjodaro, weaving a shawl with trefoil pattern. It bears a close resemblance to a similar figure discovered in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa.bronze dancing girl of Mohenjodaro. a female dancing figure standing as if relaxing after a dance number, with her right hand on her hip and the left dangling free. She wears a large number of banglesBronze figures made using lost-wax processTerracotta figure of Mother Goddess from Mohenjodaro. she is the bestower of fertility and prosperityBronze Bull. The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right and there is a cord around the neck.toy animal, with a moveable head from Mohenjodaro, belonging to the same period. ?manipulate by moving their heads with the help of a string.Large number of seals. made of steatite, terracotta and copper , of various shapes and sizes. Generally they are rectangular, some are circular and few are cylindrical. representation of a human or an animal figure and have on top an inscription in pictographic script which has not been deciphered so far.Seal of Pashupati or Lord Shiva. surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger. There are two deer shown under the throne.After Indus, no evidence of sculptures or visual arts upto 6th century BC as perishable materials like wood used by AryansBuddhist SculptureEarliest sculture from Mauryan age (4th-3rd century BC). Inspired from the Achamaenid EmpireLarge monolithic capitals and pillars of sandstone with animals like lion, bull, elephant, etc. eg: Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Rampurva Bull Capital, Lion capital at SarnathRock cut elephant at Dhauli, Orissa. First attempt at carving a massive animal out of a hill rockYakhas and Yakshinis in Mauryan age. figure wearing elaborate jewellery and a heavy undergarment. Eg Yakshi at Didarganj, BiharUnder Sungas, Yakshas and Yakshis continued to be made. dwarfish?Yaksha?from the Pithalkhora caves in Central IndiaTill the coming of Kushanas in 3rd century AD, most Buddhist scultures didn’t have image of Buddha but used other symbols like Bodhi tree, etc to depict him. Hinayana Buddhism.Many Jataka descriptions also presentSatavahana in 1st century BC also renovated the Sanchi stupaSimilar sculptures in Amaravati and NagarjunakondaWith Indo-Greeks and Scythians came Gandhara Art – combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements.Buddha gets a human form: protuberance of the skull, the hair-knot, bindi between the eyebrows and elongated ears. Result of mix of Buddhism with Hindu Devotional Philosophy.Drapery clearly Greco-Roman but Buddha in yogic posture is purely IndianAnother typical example of Gandhara art of 3rd century A.D. is the figure of a standing BodhisattavaMathura School: Developed under Kushanas. Used red sandstone. Eg Seated Buddha. Catered to Hinduism and Jainism also. Coins with Emperor’s portraits also madeBoddhisattva and Fair Maidens with typical Indian features also made in Mathura. Acquired perfection under Guptas.Gupta SculptureWith Guptas, India entered classical phase of sculpture. The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one.Focus is on female figure. Nature recedesOrnaments, jewellery become minimal. Light drapery worn. But nudity absent.Adopted and locally modified in Siam, Cambodia, Vietnam, China and JapanStanding Buddha at Mathura and Sarnath, with Abhayamudra. Temple building started. Characteristic properties of temples emerged.temples at?Deogarh?and those from the temples of?Udayagiri?and?Ajanta. large panel of?Sheshashayi Vishnu?from the?Deogarh?templeThe Head of Shiva is an elegant example of Gupta terracottas, depicted with matted locks, tied in a prominent and graceful top knot.Vakatakas, contemporary of Guptas in South. can be best seen in the later caves at Ajanta, the early ones at Ellora and those at Aurangabad.Medieval Indian SculptureInstead of classical simplicity and sobriety, moving more towards ornamentation, jewellery and unusual imaginary creatures like half human, half monsterWomen: The hips are more slender, the waist more supple, the legs longer. No longer mother goddess, but divine charmerPallava style in Mahabalipuram Rathas: Arjuna’s Penance or Descent of the Ganga, The thin and elongated limbs emphasise the tallness of the figure. The female figures are much lighter in appearance8th century Rashtrakutas: Best example Kailashnath Temple at Ellora. Best sculpture: Ravana shaking Mount Kailashacave-shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous Mahishamurti.?Cholas who succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from the 9th to 13th centuries A.D. created the great temples at Tanjavur, Gangai Kondo Cholapuram, Darasurama. Chola art not only influenced the art of Ceylon, but it travelled as far away as Java and Sumatra.good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of Siva as Gajsurasamaharamurti. Fiery dance of ecstasy after killing elephant demonChandellas built Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho with sensuous and erotic figuresPala and Sena Rulers of Bengal and Bihar influenced by Nalanda and Vikramsila. Pala rulers had intimate relations with Java which are evident in Hindu-Javanese sculptureEastern Ganga dynasty in Orissa from the 7th to the 13th centuries have left monumental temples at Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konarak? Orissa school took sensuous delight in woman body forms. Orissa temles dotted with Nayikas- seductive creatures with lot of ornamentationThe famous temple at Konarak, was built by Narasimhavarman in the middle of the 12th century and dedicated to Surya or the sun-god. It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged by seven rearing horses.?Gujarat and western India: Marble scultures, as seen in Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu (Jain temple)Hoyasala 12th Century: Emphasis more on ornamentation than movement of human bodyBy 13th century, ornamentation runs riot. Human body disappears under ornamentationVijayanagara: Hampi, Kanchipuram, etc. show the Chola and Chalukyan art traditions. Ramayana and Krishna Bal Lila became favourite themes. The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors. Eg portrait of Krishnadeva Raya at ChidambaramUnder the Muhammadan rulers great impetus was given to architecture, but sculptures are rarely found?Modern Indian Sculpturealienated from the great Indian tradition, though and even more strongly hinged to the modern, eclectic, international concept.began in the academic style, based on mid-Victorian ideas of naturalism and smugness, and was a legacy of the British. so called realist or naturalist school?story of contemporary Indian sculpture is the story of a transition from academism to well-defined non-objectivism.introduced to new and unconventional materials, most certainly in the manner of employing them, such as, sheet metal, welded bric-a-brac wire, plastic, hardware and junk.Nandalal Bose, pupil of Abanindranath Tagore, important artist in the pre-independence eraJamini Roy, contemporary of Nandalal, deeply inspired by Bengal folk art traditionK. Sreenivasulu, also inspired by South Indian traditionA.A. Almelkar we enter a different phase of contemporary Indian painting. largely inspired by Indian miniature and mural traditionThe radiating, iridiscent concept of light by Biren De: a vision of spiritual light, a primeval, self-emanating concept of light.?'50s, Satish Gujral expresses the idea of desolation beautifully.In "Two Figures' Husain reduces the figures to a purely orchestrated concept of colour, in mutual contrast.A collage is an organisation of an assortment of materials, both conventional and unconventional to produce an integrated pictorial concept. Piraji Sagara? used broken pieces of wood along with metal and pointLiterary ArtsAncient Indian LiteratureIncludes prose, poetry, science, religion, epics, songs and oral traditionsEarliest literature: VedasRig Veda: Hymns in praise of Indra, Agni and other Gods. Purushasukta- ?the whole creation as a yajna extended by the divine forces of nature. Yajna means the worship of the divine, coordination and giving (sacrifice).?Yajur Veda: related to yajnaSama Veda: mantras of the Rig Veda are adapted to certain melodies and this collection is named Sama VedaAtharva Veda: deals with the peace and prosperity of human society and is concerned with the daily life of manBrahmanas: Discussion on the Vedic ritualsAranyakas: Treatises on the forest, explanation of ritualsUpanishads: expressions of philosophical conceptsRamayana: Seven books called Kandas, together called Kavya. Talks about victory of good over evil, and how to achieve fourfold objectives (Purushartha) of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Valmiki called Adikavi- first among poetsMahabharata: mythical history. Bhagwad Gita incorporated in the Mahabharata primarily to give an integrated view of Dharma. Dharma means to perform righteously one’s duty in a selfless way (Nishkama Karma) with complete dedication to the will of God.PuranasMeans: That which renews the old. Always used with Itihasato illustrate and expound the truth of the Vedas, through popular legends and mythology18 Mahapuranas, and 19 UpapuranasSynthesis of the traditions and philosophy of the Aryans and Non AryansClassical Sanskrit Literatureincludes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales, didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar, medicine, law, astronomy, mathematics, etc. Classical Sanskrit literature is on the whole secular in character.In the Kavya tradition, more care is bestowed on the form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background.drama is stylized and is packed with poetry and descriptive prose. Also has Rasa (theatrical experience or aesthetic sentiment), as explained in Bharata’s NatyashastraKalidasaKumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar)Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus)Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra)Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi)Abhigyana Shakuntala (the recognition of Shakuntala)Meghaduta (the cloud messenger) poet makes a cloud a messenger to tell the story of two lovers who are separatedBharavi (550 A.D): Kiratarjuniyam (Kirat and Arjun)Magha (700 AD): Sishupalvadh (killing of Shishupal)Sudraka (248 AD) : Mrichhattika (clay kart) characters are drawn from all stratas of society, which include thieves and gamblers, rogues and idlers, courtesans and their associates, police constables, mendicants and politiciansBhasha : Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)Bhavabhuti (700 A.D.) : Uttar-Ramcharitam (the later life of Rama)Jayadeva (12th century): Gitagovinda (the song of Govinda) to describe every phase of love beween Krishna and RadhaVishnu Sharma : Panchatantra (practical wisdom and politics)Narayan Pandit: Hitopodesha (man-animal stories of advice)Pali and Prakrit LiteraturePrakrit: Derived from Sanskrit. Adopted by JainsPali: Archaic Prakrit. Adopted by BuddhistsTripitaka and Jataka Kathas (bodhisattva) in PaliBuddhacharita by Ashvaghosha in SanskritGrammar on Prakrit by HemchandraGathasaptasati by Hala (300 AD) erotic Jain literaturepoetesses like Pahai, Mahavi, Reva, Roha and SasippahaUpamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.) in SanskritEarly Dravidian LiteratureIndian languages 4 major groups: Austric, Sino-Tibetan, Dravidian, Indo-EurpoeanDravidian literature mainly consists of the four languages, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Tamil oldestEarly classical Tamil literature is known as Sangam literature meaning ‘fraternity’Two Schools: Aham (Love) and Puram (Valour of kings)Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (eight anthologies of lyrics and ten long poems), included women poetsTolkappiyam: Tamil GrammarThirukural by Thiruvalluvar: manual of precepts to guide one to noble living. It expounds a secular, moral and practical attitude towards life.Two epics: Silappadhikaram (story of the anklet) by Ilango Adigal, and Manimekalai (story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar Tamil reveals a triumph of Brahmanic and Buddhist knowledge, Kannada shows Jain ascendency in its ancient phase. Malayalam absorbed a rich treasure contained in the Sanskrit language.Tamil Bhakti movement started with 12 Alwars, including poetess Andal, and later the NayanarsMedieval LiteratureLater Prakrit became Apabhramsa which led to development of modern Indian languagesElements of Bhaktilove poetry. Love for one’s Lord, Krishna or Rama, the two main incarnations of the great God VishnuThis love is depicted as love between husband and wife, or between lovers, or between servant and master, or between parents and child.Worldly love is Kama (Eros) and divine love is Prema (mystic Eros).poetic approach to religiondid away with the elite tradition of SanskritBhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship of humanitymovement was in essence subaltern, as most of its poets belonged to the so-called ‘lower’ castesKannada: Pampa, Basavanna (both Shaivite), Allama PrabhuMarathi: Gyaneshwar, Eknath, TukaramGujarati: Narsi Mehta and Premananda (both Vaishnavite)Kashmir: Lal Ded, poetessBengal: Sri Chaityanya turned Vaishnavism into a movementAssam: Sankardev used Kirtan (devotional songs) and Ankiya Nat (plays) to propagate VaishnavismOrissa: Jagannath Das wrote Bhagavad( story of Krishna)Muslim and Hindu saint-poets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created oral poetry of divine intoxicationMedieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century A.D.) wrote narrative poems based on Sufistic philosophyHindi: Kabir, Surdas, Tulsidas, MeerabaiTranslation of Ramayana and Mahabharata to regional languagesHindi: Ramcharitmanas by TulsidasTamil: KambanBengali: Krittibasa OjhaOriya: Sarala DasMalayalam: EzutuchattanTelugu: NannayaMalik Muhammad Jayasi wrote Sufi and Vaishnava poetryBulleh Shah : Muslim Punjabi popularised Sufism through Punjabi KafiShah Latif in Sindhi wrote RisaloWomen Poets of BhaktiIn Vedic age: Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha BrahmavadiniBuddhist literature: Mutta and Ubbiri and Mettika in Pali?Alwar: Andal in BhaktiLal Ded?: Muslim poetess from KashmirMeera Bai?:Gujarati, Hindi Avvayyar, in Tamil, and Akkamahadevi in KannadaWrote about the social conditions prevailing at that time, and the position of woman at home and in society.Other Trends in Medieval LiteratureLove Ballads and Heroic poetry in Punjabi: Kissa and Varmost famous Punjabi love ballad is Hir Ranjha, an immortal book by a Muslim poet called Warris ShahSimilar experiments with erotic literature in HindiAmir Khusro experimented with Hindi and Persian- gave birth to Urdu.REFER NIOS AND CCRT WEBSITE FOR MODERN LITERATURE ................
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