Article 2
Article 1 Beliefs and Practices in Indian Cultureby Marion Lougheed, HYPERLINK "" \o "Child-rearing Beliefs and Practices in Indian Culture" Child-rearing customs and beliefs are not the same for all Indians.India is composed of a diverse population with assorted religious, political and cultural views on child-rearing practices. With so many differences among Indians, it is impossible to ascribe a unified set of customs and beliefs about child-rearing to the entire country. Influential factors on child-rearing practices such as socioeconomic status, education and individual experience vary from family to family.Social DifferencesAccording to Infochange, India has 375 million children. Around the turn of the millennium, approximately 75 million children did not have adequate nutrition. This is one example of how social differences can relate to discrepancies in lifestyle, including health, access to education and attitudes toward child-rearing practices.Another example of differing attitudes emerges from data gathered by the Berlin-Institut. In some regions, such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, each woman has an average of more than four children. In others, the average is less than two. These numbers reveal that differences exist within smaller segments of the Indian nation.Physical ClosenessBabyzone reports that Indian mothers spend a lot of time in close physical contact with their young children. As babies, Indian children might receive a daily massage and sharing a parent's bed is quite common. For the first six months, around 90 percent of mothers in India breastfeed, according to . Some continue to do so for up to two years, but the numbers drop off sharply after the first half year of life. A 2008 University of Mysore study, "Childrearing Practices Among Kurubas and Soliga Tribes from South India," reveals that showing affection can greatly benefit a child's personality development.Disciplinary TechniquesThe Mysore study on tribes from South India found that mothers often take on the main role of both disciplinarian and nurturer. That is not to say that fathers do not participate in their children's lives; they generally do, but as more of a background player. Discipline can take many forms, including physical punishment. In "Child Abuse and Neglect: Cross-cultural Perspectives," professor Thomas Poffenberger examines disciplinary techniques in India. "Although a peasant society such as rural India may dictate child treatment that would be considered abusive in the United States," he writes, "there is probably less of the extreme, irrational abuse that is common in the West." Poffenberger suggests that regular proximity of extended family members serves as a dampening influence on anger. Not all parents choose direct punishment; according to his research, some prefer methods such as deprivation as a form of discipline.Gender PreferencesMany Indian parents prefer male children over females. The CIA's World Factbook indicates that there are more males than females in every age group in India except those older than 65. An NDTV article from 2010 acknowledges the ongoing fact that "female fetuses are often aborted after a couple sees an ultrasound." Similarly, Poffenberger posits that neglecting female children, even to the point of death, may meet with "at least passive support" in some regions of India. It is clear that male and female children are often treated differently, with girls regarded as less valuable in some families.Article 2 Indian parenting practices By Thomas Kulanjiyil What are some of the salient features of traditional Indian parenting? What does traditional Indian parenting have to offer to the Indian American immigrant parent?The traditional Indian parenting is shaped by the cultural and religious values of the land, generational wisdom, and life experiences. The goal of parenting is comprehensive development of children and it integrates the cognitive, emotional, and spiritual components of an individual’s growth. It includes both the personal and social dimensions of human growth and development. Another characteristic of Indian parenting is that children are brought up in an atmosphere of emphatic richness. The supportive environment of the extended family system provides support and encouragement to parents. The parent-child bond is established by such child rearing practices as breast-feeding that provides not only nourishment to the baby, but also allows increasing physical contact between the mother and the child. Cuddling adds physical contact between the mother and the child and also provides a sense of security for the child. The strong emotional bond established between Indian parent and child during early childhood is said to be lifelong.The traditional Indian parenting is value-based parenting.? Deference for authority in social relationships is an expected behavioral norm. The family extends horizontally and laterally.?? People are bound up by their duty to family, to parents, to children, and to society. Parents are to be honored and cared for. The community is seen as the extended family.? Values of interdependence and community are promoted. It is expected that one will live up to one’s family name, and also fulfill one’s dharma (duties) to the family and to the community. Norms of personal chastity and modesty in private and social behavior is reinforced. The practice of self-control is central to character formation.The traditional Indian parenting is not without its share of disparagement.? It is pointed out that the authoritarian type of Indian parenting limits individual autonomy.? The stress on community and interdependence is detrimental to developing individual self-identity. Overprotective Indian parenting inhibits personal agency and assertiveness. Corporeal punishment, tolerated in traditional Indian parenting, is said to have long lasting emotional scars on children.In spite of these criticisms, traditional Indian parenting has a great deal to offer to the Indian immigrant parent. Such features as the focus on comprehensive development of the child, the significance of character formation, the impact of empathic richness in Indian parenting, the thrust on personal chastity and modesty in private and social behavior, and the importance of community and interdependence, are all culturally appropriate parenting practices for the Indian immigrant parent to adopt.Article 32009From: a baby arrives in a home; it is a moment of joy and a new found status that is of being parents. Mothers are always acknowledged for their role in raising the child but fathers seldom get acknowledged. Fathers also play a major role in bringing up a child. They also share the responsibilities with the mother. It is time now to acknowledge them.left0Jaya is a frustrated new Mom. Once the baby admirers had departed, she was left alone to cope up with her exhausted and weak body and a newborn who now dictated the household schedule. To make matters worse, her husband, who was equally overwhelmed by the entire experience, had begun behaving in a bizarre manner, at times even distancing himself from her and the baby.Fathers too need help to adjust Jaya is not alone. Becoming a parent takes a little bit of getting used to - for both partners. The only difference being that the changing roles of the 'new Mom' is widely acknowledged, while that of the 'new Dad' oft goes unrecognised. Yet, he is the one who has to get used to taking the back seat, while shouldering all the new responsibilities. The sooner the couple understand that the father, Nitin, needs some time and space to get used to the drastically changed routine, the better it is for the couple and baby.Parental responsibilities are increasing With the changing face of families from the traditional joint family to nuclear families, the physical and emotional strains of new parenthood also increase, as couples have to cope with new responsibilities, by themselves, and without help and time-honoured advice from the elders. The outcome of all this is that romance and sex take a backseat and all the communication revolves around 'baby' topics. This often creates an awkward situation, and a strain on the marriage. The best way for the couple to cope would be to get Nitin involved in the caring and raising of the baby. This will not only strengthen the bond between husband and wife, but will also help raise a healthy and happy child.The profile of the father is changing The traditional profile of a father is still that dad works all day, comes home and spends a few hours playing with the kids at night, before having dinner and heading off to bed. It is generally believed that the caring and raising of children is best left to women. However the 'Millennium Age Dads' are changing and challenging this tradition. They are stepping in as real caretakers with their infants and toddlers, and are doing very well! Also research shows that active fathers who help in caring and raising their child create healthier and stronger marriages, and their children are well balanced. Infants derive comfort from fathers too Fathers have that special advantage over mothers, with the distinctly deeper tenor of their voice and 'the rise and fall rhythm' of their chest. Babies derive comfort from the vibrations of the male voice, and also from the warm feel and throb of the father's chest, which straightaway lulls them to sleep. Tips on getting dad more involved The role of a father is just as important when it comes to raising children. It is imperative that mothers give fathers certain responsibilities. Dads should try and watch all those TV shows which encourage father-child bonding, and should refer to books on 'infant care' or 'fatherhood'. Couples should discuss and communicate anxieties about the newborn. Sooner or later, as dad gets more involved in the upbringing of the children, he will realise the importance and significance of this involvement. You as a father should try and draw out your own memories of childhood when raising your children. What did your father do right, and wrong? Learn from your own experiences. As a wife, you could demonstrate to your husband how the newborn responds and relates to moms and dads differently. As much as the baby needs the tender caress of his Mom, he also craves for the reassuring, firm touch of his dad. Whenever your baby is in a good mood and recently fed, leave him in the care of your husband. Encourage him to interact with the baby, and guide him subtly if he still finds it difficult to bond with him. Try to discover the ways to make your baby gurgle with joy, and share these pleasures together. Don't dole out advice or rush to comfort the baby everytime he cries. Let dad console him. Give father and child him time and space, so they can work out their relationship and equations by themselves. Your husband will device his own ways of taking care of the infant and coping up with situations. In fact, you will be encouraged by the reassuring tips he will come up with, which somehow never occurred to you. What a new dad hates most is watching his newborn cry, and being unable to soothe him or not knowing how to. Most dads avoid participating in infant care due to this very sense of helplessness and of being overpowered by feelings of inadequacy and distress. Help your husband overcome his uncertainties and master the techniques of baby care.Remember, a father who is actively involved in his child's life (not just financially) by shouldering responsibilities and contributing to decisions on child-raising, plays a tremendous role in determining whether the child will grow up having strong family ties and a healthy, well-balanced attitude, or not. Such participation not only lays the foundation for a healthy bond between father and child, but also leaves the mother with more time on her hands for other work - and play!Article 4Could there be some minimal universal parameters for child rearing that could be considered with culture-specific ones in cases such as the one where two Indian children were taken from their parents by Norwegian child welfare, asks Rakesh ShuklaAny attempt to look in a balanced manner at the issues involved in the saga of two Indian children, Aishwarya and Abhigyan, taken from their parents in May 2011 at the ages of one month and two years respectively, by the Norwegian Child Welfare Agency involves a lowering of the emotional temperature. The construct of ‘warm, perfect Indian’ versus ‘flawed, cold Norwegian’ (read: western) childrearing practices does not enable us to do justice to the serious concerns thrown up by the tussle between the parents and social services. Regardless of an amicable settlement in the present case, thanks to the intervention of the Indian government, several issues remain.The reality of the warm, effusive Indian family culture coexists with the findings of a government survey backed by the UN Children’s Fund that over 50% of children face child sexual abuse in India. Alongside the pampering and notion that childhood is a golden era is the reality of the National Commission for Child Rights’ recent findings that over 99% of children are caned, slapped, hit on the back, and get their ears boxed at school. Varying childrearing practices probably evolved in tune with preparation for development in harmony, and the eventual integration of the growing individual with the mores and norms of diverse societies.The colonial era is long past us, and formulations premising a culture as superior to another do not enjoy much acceptability except among a chauvinistic section of society. Every culture has traits that appear positive and others that appear idiosyncratic, if not harmful, when viewed from the ‘outside’. This is applicable to childrearing practices as well. There are certain universal aspects in the growth and development of a baby, such as ravenous hunger which is satisfied by feeding. And there are other aspects of childrearing that are culture-specific, such as whether babies should sleep in a separate cot or bedroom. Disciplines like modern psychology originated in western societies, and the insights were understandably affected by the practices of the specific culture in which they evolved. However the formulations, in a sense, got severed from their moorings and acquired a universal hue. Now, understandings regarding growth, mental health, pathology and functioning of the human psyche are increasingly taking on board diverse cultures and societies.??Apparently, the fact of the Indian father sharing a bed with his two-year-old son was one of the factors in the Norwegian Child Welfare Agency’s (Barnevernet’s) decision to take the children away from their parents. From the Indian cultural viewpoint, it could be asserted that European or American children are sensually starved or under-stimulated as they sleep in a separate bedroom and are cuddled less. From a western perspective, children in India face an overdose of sensual stimulation and excitement. In fact, Erikson, pioneer of locating an individual in the specific cultural milieu of his/her community, speaking of America writes: “Consider our coloured countrymen. Their babies often receive sensual satisfactions of oral and sensory surplus adequate for a lifetime. It is preserved in the way in which they move, laugh, talk, sing.” The Indian practice of feeding children with the hand seems to have been viewed as ‘force-feeding’ and weighed with the Norwegian authorities in deciding the issue of custody for the children.There is a lot of middle ground between the two ends of the spectrum -- minimal requirements like feeding which must happen for the baby to live and total absence of human touch which must not happen for the baby to not die or be severely stunted. Different societies have evolved different practices in the middle arena which they consider ‘necessary’ for healthy childrearing. These cultural practices are designed to shape and mould the growing baby to fit, with the least amount of friction, into the community’s specific habitat as well as norms of being in that particular society.?A perspective that considers the minimal universal and the specific cultural would offer a more constructive way of approaching the issues involved in this controversy. News media describing the meeting arranged by the Norwegian agency between the children and their parents reported that the one-year-old Aishwarya did not recognise her mother. This could be seen by the parents as: “Look what the cruel Norwegian agency has done in taking away the child. Little Aishwarya does not even recognise her mother!” The agency could turn it around and view the non-recognition as evidence of ‘attachment problems’ between parent and child.At four weeks, the age at which Aishwarya was taken away, a baby feels instinctive hunger and something is put in its mouth that brings satisfaction. At this stage of development, the baby does not reflect upon the source of the milk supply. It has no concept of a person outside of itself who satisfies its needs. It does not have a memory for faces and, in that sense, does not ‘recognise’ its mother; there is no visual memory yet. However, the baby receives an infinite number of impressions through physical contact, which lead to the association of ‘mother’ with ‘pleasure, satisfaction and protection’. It is only gradually that the satisfactions of nursing become associated with the human face. Initially, the baby smiles at any human face that evokes the memory of pleasure and satisfaction. Similarly, in the early months, the baby feeds regardless of the person who gives it the milk bottle. Later, even when hungry, the baby may turn away and howl at being fed by strangers. These responses of the growing infant indicate that positive identification and differentiation of the mother’s face take place at around eight months, and point to the reassurance and security provided by the familiar faces of the parents. This is applicable to all babies, including Aishwarya and Abhigyan.Regardless of Barnevernet’s reasons for taking away the babies, the fact that they were placed with three different sets of foster parents in the course of 11 months is bound to have been unsettling and must have worked against a sense of security and protection in the children, leading to greater anxiety and distress.In sharp contrast to the Indian authorities that have a penchant for disclosing the details of minors involved in legal cases, the Norwegian agency, citing confidentiality, has refused to say anything more than a vague mention of ‘emotional disturbance’ and/or some sort of ‘attachment issue’. In the absence of data, it is difficult to discuss the merits/demerits of Barnevernet’s decision to take the two children away from their parents.The figure of 12,500 children having been taken away by the Child Welfare Agency in a small country like Norway is worrying, more so if it involves a disproportionate number of immigrant families. Understanding the trajectory of a baby’s development at various stages of its growth would help chart out a course of conduct in the best interests of children. And avoid getting caught in the trap of judging the ‘rights’ or ‘wrongs’ of childrearing practices across cultures.(Rakesh Shukla is a Supreme Court lawyer, Member, International Council of Jurists, Affiliate, Indian Psychoanalytical Society, Member, Indian Association of Family Therapy, Psychotherapist, Centre for Psychoanalytical Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi) News & Features, March 2012Article 5Beliefs, Values and Customs of Chinese Parentsby Damon Verial, Demand Media Chinese ancestor worship shows the Chinese connection to family, even after death.What a parent believes strongly affects her parenting style and her framework for raising a child. Because different cultures value different concepts, Chinese and Western parents naturally differ. Not only do Chinese parents differ in family customs, but they also differ in the goals they set for their children. Understanding Chinese culture can give Westerners insight into the palpably different style of parenting of Chinese parents.Parent-child DependenceIn Chinese culture, parents and children are mutually reliant, with each one taking more responsibility at certain times. Parents take on most of the responsibility until the child has found a husband or wife. Depending on the age of marriage, this could mean the child relies on her parents up to the age of 30. It is not uncommon to find a 30-something proudly admitting that she lives with her parents. This cultural aspect gives Chinese children the expectation that they can virtually always rely on their parents, both financially and for moral support. Chinese children are therefore less independent than their Western counterparts, who tend to leave the home in early adulthood and find work even earlier. Overall, a Chinese parent sees her job to last well after the child has reached the age of majority.Academics Come FirstUnlike their Western counterparts, most Chinese parents emphasize academic skills above all other skills, including interpersonal skills, according to parenting scholar Yan-Mei Yang, author of a Chinese parenting book that compares the parenting styles of Chinese and Western parents. Because of this, to Westerners, Chinese children might seem less mature in their interpersonal communication and relationships. However, Chinese children tend to perform well in school and have a strong drive to gain high grades, because doing so would please their parents. The Chinese parent’s desire to see his child perform well in school often is related to their hope for a child’s success at an older age. As the care-taker role switches from parent to child after a child marries, parents want their children to earn a successful living to support the family.Parenting StyleA parenting style is a general scheme of how much control and response a parent gives her children. According to the McClelland Institute, Chinese parents are more likely to use a more controlling and less responsive parenting style. This parenting style puts the parent as a strong authority figure and the child as something of a subject to the parent. A Chinese parent, for example, will put an expectation on her child without explaining why, such as by saying, “You must declare a pre-med major when you go to college.” Children are unlikely to question their parents’ expectations or rules, accepting them without conflict.Specific Cultural AspectsThe Chinese culture contains many concepts that do not exist in Western culture. To the Western world, many of these concepts are so obscure that English translations for them do not exist; they are simply written in Romanized Chinese. But these concepts pervade the thought style of the Chinese parent, guiding many of their actions. The concepts of “guan” and “xiao shun,” for example, teach that parents are the rulers of the family and that children should follow the orders of the parents due to rulers being naturally benevolent. In addition, traditional Chinese folk religion includes the worship of one’s ancestors and the belief that your ancestors are still watching you even after death. In this way, children have the pressure of not only their parents’ wishes but their parents’ parents’ wishes. 6Traditional Chinese parenting: What research says about Chinese kids and why they succeed ? 2011 - 2012 Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved Why people are interested in traditional Chinese parenting “Chinese Americans are overrepresented in many of the nation's elite universities" say Yong Zhao and Wei Qiu. The kids get higher SAT math scores, and are disproportionately represented among U.S. National Merit Scholars (Zhao and Qiu 2009). A recent study of American tenth graders found that Asian-Americans outperformed all other ethnic groups in math and science (Else-Quest et al 2013). Why is this the case? Contrary to popular belief, it’s not because Chinese people enjoy an innate advantage in IQ. When James Flynn analyzed past studies of achievement and IQ, he found that Chinese attainments could be better explained by environmental factors (Flynn 1991). So what’s the secret? Yale law professor Amy Chua says it’s about parenting. Chinese mothers raise more accomplished, academically successful kids because they are more demanding and strict than Western mothers are. Is Chua correct? There is some evidence in her favor. We know, for example, that parents who set high standards tend to have kids who are more successful at school. It’s also clear that Chinese parents tend to spend more time pushing their kids to study, practice, and achieve. But the devil is in the details, and many critics want to know about the specific parenting practices Chua describes in a controversial piece for the Wall Street Journal, and in her autobiographical book, Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother. As I note below, these practices -- which feature the threat of punishment and lots of psychological control -- sound like authoritarian parenting, an approach to child-rearing that is usually not associated with the best academic and emotional child outcomes. The best child outcomes are usually linked with a different style-- authoritative parenting. It's true for many Westerners, and it's also true for many Chinese. When Chinese kids are raised by authoritative parents, they do as well or better than Chinese kids from authoritarian homes. So it’s doubtful that Chua’s tactics are as effective as she thinks, and recent research bears this out. As I note in this blog post, a new study testing Chua's ideas links “tiger parenting” with lower academic achievement and poorer emotional adjustment (Kim et al 2013). What, then, can explain Chinese achievement? Decades of research suggests that Chinese kids have two big advantages, advantages that have little to do with authoritarianism: ? Parents emphasize effort, not innate ability ? Children's peers support each other when they work hard at school Effort--and the belief that effort pays off--is a key ingredient to Chinese success. Chua herself makes this point in the Wall Street Journal. She doesn’t let her kids believe they can’t succeed. So here is an overview of Chua’s controversial claims, and a look at the research on Chinese parenting. Self-portrait of a Chinese mom Amy Chua is the daughter of Chinese immigrants to the United States. Her parents, she says, were “extremely strict but extremely loving.” She tried to raise her kids the same way. What does this mean? Chua provides some specific examples. For instance, Chua says she never allowed her kids to have a playdate, watch TV, participate in a school play, or choose their own extra-curricular activities. The kids are also not allowed to “get any grade less than an A” or “not be the No. 1 student in every subject except gym and drama.” When her 7-year-old daughter failed to master a new piece on the piano, Chua drove her relentlessly. “I threatened her with no lunch, no dinner, no Christmas or Hanukkah presents,” Chua writes, “no birthday parties for two, three, four years. When she still kept playing it wrong, I told her she was purposely working herself into a frenzy because she was secretly afraid she couldn't do it. I told her to stop being lazy, cowardly, self-indulgent and pathetic.” Chua made her daughter work into the night, denying her even a break to go to the bathroom. “The house became a war zone, and I lost my voice yelling, but still there seemed to be only negative progress, and even I began to have doubts.” Then--at last--the girl made a breakthrough. She mastered the piece, and wanted to play it again and again. And the emotional strife had lifted. That night, the girl crawled into her mother’s bed, and they “snuggled and hugged, cracking each other up. “ To many people, this story is disturbing. Chua’s approach seems harsh and unhelpful. But Chua got the results. And, Chua notes, the point is this: Unlike many Western parents who would have backed down, convinced that the child just wasn’t ready or able to master the new piano piece, Chua believed that her child could do it. But she wasn’t going to learn the piece without intense effort, and that effort wasn’t going to happen unless the child was pushed. What helps kids? To be allowed to choose for themselves, or to be pushed into achievements that will pay off later in life? A more indulgent approach might seem more caring. But, as Chua argues, her parenting style shows a concern for the long-term welfare of her kids. “The Chinese believe that the best way to protect their children is by preparing them for the future, letting them see what they're capable of, and arming them with skills, work habits and inner confidence that no one can ever take away.” That doesn’t mean that Chinese parenting is better. As Chua recounts in her book, one of her daughters rebelled, and Chua had to reassess her views. She tells Jeff Yang, "...I'm aware now of the limitations of that model -- that it doesn't incorporate enough choice, that it doesn't account for kids' individual personalities...” But Chua sticks by her basic premise. If you want to know why Chinese kids succeed, it’s because of the sorts of parenting practices described above. What does the research say? Chua’s claims have caused a stir. Are the parenting tactics she describes truly effective? And if these tactics work, do they work at a cost to the kids? Here’s what the research says. 1. Traditional Chinese parenting has been labeled as “authoritarian” by some researchers. Authoritarian parenting is a style of child-rearing that emphasizes high standards and a tendency to control kids through shaming, the withdrawal of love, or other punishments. This is distinguished from authoritative parenting, which also emphasizes high standards, but is accompanied by high levels of parental warmth and a commitment to reason with children. 2. When compared with authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting is linked with lower levels of self-control, more emotional problems, and lower academic performance. These links have been documented for Western kids raised in North America. They have also been documented for Chinese kids living in Beijing and Taiwan. But there are some exceptions. Studies Hong Kong Chinese (Leung et al 1998) and of Chinese immigrants to North America (Chao 2001) have linked authoritarian parenting with higher school achievement. 3. Researchers like Ruth Chao argue that the authoritarian label doesn’t quite map onto the strict, controlling parenting style of many traditional Chinese. “Authoritarian” implies that parents are rather cold and distant. But strict Chinese parents enjoy a sense of closeness with their kids. And the kids may interpret their parents’ coercive tactics as evidence that they are loved. This, says Chao, is why some studies have failed to show a link between poor outcomes and authoritarian parenting among Chinese immigrants. Unlike children in Western authoritarian families--children who feel alienated by their parents--the Chinese-American kids feel connected (Chao 1994; Chao 2001). 4. Traditional Chinese parenting has one clear advantage over contemporary Western parenting: Chinese parents--like many other Asian parents--are more likely to emphasize effort over innate talent. Experiments show that people learn more when they believe that effort, not innate intelligence, is the key to achievement. And other research suggests that Westerners are more likely to assume that a child fails because he lacks innate ability (Stevenson and Lee 1990). 5. Chinese-American kids tend to have peer groups that support achievement. Studies of adolescents in the United States suggest that some kids pay a “nerd penalty” for studying hard. When these kids perform well at school, they get rejected by their peers. Chinese-Americans are less likely to face this choice between scholastic success and social success. Lawrence Steinberg and his colleagues (1992) wonder if “pro-achievement” peer pressure protects Chinese kids from some of the negative effects of authoritarian parenting. And what about creativity? Independent thinking skills? I haven’t found any studies addressing the subject. But some educators in China have expressed concern that traditional Chinese parenting doesn’t foster creativity or divergent thinking (Tobin et al 1991; Zhao 2007). And it seems reasonable to assume that kids won’t develop skills they don’t practice. As Yong Zhao and Wei Qiu note, it’s a myth that Chinese (and other Asian-American) students are good at everything. Like everyone else, they have their strengths and weaknesses. And these are shaped by training. So there is no magic here. Just the payoffs for hard work. Is the controversy justified? It's certainly understandable. People want to know if authoritarian parenting can sometimes be a good thing. I'm inclined to say not. But in any case, it's clear that there are good things about traditional Chinese parenting--and Chinese culture--that don't have anything to do with authoritarianism. And those are lessons that can benefit us all. ................
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