Archive.org
Book New Technology 5 24 10
THE WORLD’S FUTURE
New Technologies and Revolutionary Projects
By Alexander Bolonkin
[pic]
2010
Contents
Abstract
Preface
Chapters:
Part A. New Technologies.
1. Conversion of any Matter into Nuclear Energy by AB-Generator and Photon Rocket. 7
2. Femtotechnology: Superstrong AB-Material with Fantastic Properties and its Applications
in Aerospace 23
3. Wireless Transfer of Electricity from Continent to Continent 46
4. Transparant Inflatable AB-Blanket for Cities 61
5. Live of Humans into Outer Space without Space Suit 83
6. Magnetic Space Launcher 92
7. Low Current and Plasma Magnetic Railgun 103
8. Superconductivity Space Accelerator 117
9. Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Motionless Space Stations 135
10. Artificial Explosion of Sun and AB-Criterion of Solar Detonation 153
11. Review of New Consepts, Ideas and Innovations in Space Towers 174
Part B. Projects solvable by current technology
1. Aerial Gas Pipelines 189
2. Production Fresh Water by Exhaust Gas of Electric and Heat Plants 207
3. Solar Distiller 214
4. High Altitude Long Distance Cheap Aerial Antenna 226
5. Supression of Forest Fire by Helicopter without Water 236
6. Wind AB-Wall 246
Part C. Science Research and Technical Progress 277
1. Problems of Current Researching, Patenting and Publications.
Appendixes: 293
1. System of Mechanical, Magnetic Electric Units.
2. Data useful for estimation and calculation of new technologies and projects 295
3. Non-conventional materials 305
References 310
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About the Author
Bolonkin, Alexander Alexandrovich (1933-)
Alexander A. Bolonkin was born in the former USSR. He holds doctoral degree in aviation engineering from Moscow Aviation Institute and a post-doctoral degree in aerospace engineering from Leningrad Polytechnic University. He has held the positions of senior engineer in the Antonov Aircraft Design Company and Chairman of the Reliability Department in the Clushko Rocket Design Company. He has also lectured at the Moscow Aviation Universities. Following his arrival in the United States in 1988, he lectured at the New Jersey Institute of Technology and worked as a Senior Researcher at NASA and the US Air Force Research Laboratories.
Bolonkin is the author of more than 180 scientific articles and books and has 17 inventions to his credit. His most notable books include The Development of Soviet Rocket Engines (Delphic Ass., Inc., Washington , 1991); Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight (Elsevier, 2006); New Concepts, Ideas, Innovation in Aerospace, Technology and Human Life (NOVA, 2007); Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology (NOVA, 2008); Human Immortality and Electronic Civilization, 3-rd Edition, (Lulu, 2007; Publish America, 2010).
Abstract
In recent years of the 21st Century the author of this book and other scientists as well, have instigated and described many new ideas, researches, theories, macro-projects, USA and other countries patented concepts, speculative macro-engineering ideas, projects and other general innovations in technology and environment change. These all hold the enticing promise for a true revolution in the lives of humans everywhere in the Solar System.
Here, the author includes and reviews new methods for converting of any matter into energy, getting of super strong materials, for travel in outer space without space suit, magnetic space launchers, magnetic space towers, motionless satellites and suspended structures, comfortable permanent settlements for cities and Earth’s hazardous polar regions, control of local and global weather conditions, wireless transfer of electricity to long distance, Magnetic guns, magnetic launchers, new (magnetic, electrostatic, electronic gas) space towers, space elevators and space climbers, suppression forest fires without water, aerial gas pipelines, production of fresh water from sea water, thermonuclear reactors, along with many others.
Author succinctly summarizes some of these revolutionary macro-projects, concepts, ideas, innovations, and methods for scientists, engineers, technical students, and the world public. Every Chapter has three main sections: At first section the author describes the new idea in an easily comprehensible way acceptable for the general public (no equations), the second section contains the scientific proof of the innovation acceptable for technical students, engineers and scientists, and the third section contains the applications of innovation.
Author does seek future attention from the general public, other macro-engineers, inventors, as well as scientists of all persuasions for these presented innovations. And, naturally, he fervently hopes the popular news media, various governments and the large international aerospace and other engineering-focused corporations will, as well, increase their respective observation, R&D activity in the technologies for living and the surrounding human environment.
Preface
New macro-projects, concepts, ideas, methods, and innovations are explored here, but hardly developed. There remain many problems that must be researched, modeled, and tested before these summarized research ideas can be practically designed, built, and utilized—that is, fully developed and utilized.
Most ideas in our book are described in the following way: 1) Description of current state in a given field of endeavor. A brief explanation of the idea researched, including its advantages and short comings; 2) Then methods, estimation and computations of the main system parameters are listed, and 3) A brief description of possible applications—candidate macro-projects, including estimations of the main physical parameters of such economic developmental undertakings.
The first and third parts are in a popular form accessible to the wider reading public, the second part of this book will require some mathematical and scientific knowledge, such as may be found amongst technical school graduate students.
The book gives the main physical data and technical equations in attachments which will help researchers, engineers, dedicated students and enthusiastic readers make estimations for their own macro-projects. Also, inventors will find an extensive field of inventions and innovations revealed in book.
The author have published many new ideas and articles and proposed macro-projects in recent years (see: General References). This book is useful as an archive of material from the authors’ own articles published during the last few years.
Acknowledgement
1. Some data in this work is garnered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons License. 2. The author wish to acknowledge Joseph Friedlander for help in editing of this book.
Part A. New Technology
Article Black Hole for Aerospace after Joseph 6 17 09
Chapter 1
Converting of Matter to Nuclear Energy by
AB-Generator* and Photon Rocket
Abstract
Author offers a new nuclear generator which allows to convert any matter to nuclear energy in accordance with the Einstein equation E=mc2. The method is based upon tapping the energy potential of a Micro Black Hole (MBH) and the Hawking radiation created by this MBH. As is well-known, the vacuum continuously produces virtual pairs of particles and antiparticles, in particular, the photons and anti-photons. The MBH event horizon allows separating them. Anti-photons can be moved to the MBH and be annihilated; decreasing the mass of the MBH, the resulting photons leave the MBH neighborhood as Hawking radiation. The offered nuclear generator (named by author as AB-Generator) utilizes the Hawking radiation and injects the matter into MBH and keeps MBH in a stable state with near-constant mass.
The AB-Generator can produce gigantic energy outputs and should be cheaper than a conventional electric station by a factor of hundreds of times. One also may be used in aerospace as a photon rocket or as a power source for many vehicles.
Many scientists expect the Large Hadron Collider at CERN will produce one MBH every second.
A technology to capture them may follow; than they may be used for the AB-Generator.
-------------
Key words: Production of nuclear energy, Micro Black Hole, energy AB-Generator, photon rocket.
* Presented as Paper AIAA-2009-5342 in 45 Joint Propulsion Conferences, 2–5 August, 2009, Denver, CO, USA.
Introduction
Black hole. In general relativity, a black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational field is so powerful that nothing, including light, can escape its pull. The black hole has a one-way surface, called the event horizon, into which objects can fall, but out of which nothing can come out. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits it, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect blackbody in thermodynamics.
Despite its invisible interior, a black hole can reveal its presence through interaction with other matter. A black hole can be inferred by tracking the movement of a group of stars that orbit a region in space which looks empty. Alternatively, one can see gas falling into a relatively small black hole, from a companion star. This gas spirals inward, heating up to very high temperature and emitting large amounts of radiation that can be detected from earthbound and earth-orbiting telescopes. Such observations have resulted in the general scientific consensus that, barring a breakdown in our understanding of nature, black holes do exist in our universe.
It is impossible to directly observe a black hole. However, it is possible to infer its presence by its gravitational action on the surrounding environment, particularly with microquasars and active galactic nuclei, where material falling into a nearby black hole is significantly heated and emits a large amount of X-ray radiation. This observation method allows astronomers to detect their existence. The only objects that agree with these observations and are consistent within the framework of general relativity are black holes.
A black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge and angular momentum.
In astronomy black holes are classed as:
• Supermassive - contain hundreds of thousands to billions of solar masses and are thought to exist in the center of most galaxies, including the Milky Way.
• Intermediate - contain thousands of solar masses.
• Micro (also mini black holes) - have masses much less than that of a star. At these sizes, quantum mechanics is expected to take effect. There is no known mechanism for them to form via normal processes of stellar evolution, but certain inflationary scenarios predict their production during the early stages of the evolution of the universe.
According to some theories of quantum gravity they may also be produced in the highly energetic reaction produced by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere or even in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider. The theory of Hawking radiation predicts that such black holes will evaporate in bright flashes of gamma radiation. NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite (formerly GLAST) launched in 2008 is searching for such flashes.
[pic]
Fig 1. Artist’s conception of a stellar mass black hole. Credit NASA.
[pic] [pic]
Fig.2 (left). Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a black hole and a main sequence star. The black hole is drawing matter from the main sequence star via an accretion disk around it, and some of this matter forms a gas jet.
Fig.3 (right). Ring around a suspected black hole in galaxy NGC 4261. Date: Nov.1992. Courtesy of Space Telescope Science
The defining feature of a black hole is the appearance of an event horizon; a boundary in spacetime beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer.
Since the event horizon is not a material surface but rather merely a mathematically defined demarcation boundary, nothing prevents matter or radiation from entering a black hole, only from exiting one.
For a non rotating (static) black hole, the Schwarzschild radius delimits a spherical event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to the mass. Rotating black holes have distorted, nonspherical event horizons. The description of black holes given by general relativity is known to be an approximation, and it is expected that quantum gravity effects become significant near the vicinity of the event horizon. This allows observations of matter in the vicinity of a black hole's event horizon to be used to indirectly study general relativity and proposed extensions to it.
Fig.4. Artist’s rendering showing the space-time contours around a black hole. Credit NASA.
Though black holes themselves may not radiate energy, electromagnetic radiation and matter particles may be radiated from just outside the event horizon via Hawking radiation.
At the center of a black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and spacetime has infinite curvature. This means that a black hole's mass becomes entirely compressed into a region with zero volume. This zero-volume, infinitely dense region at the center of a black hole is called a gravitational singularity.
The singularity of a non-rotating black hole has zero length, width, and height; a rotating black hole's is smeared out to form a ring shape lying in the plane of rotation. The ring still has no thickness and hence no volume.
The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness such that photons moving along tangents to the sphere will be trapped in a circular orbit. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. The orbits are dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation (such as a particle of infalling matter) will grow over time, either setting it on an outward trajectory escaping the black hole or on an inward spiral eventually crossing the event horizon.
Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. Objects and radiation (including light) can stay in orbit within the ergosphere without falling to the center.
Once a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter. Any black hole will continually absorb interstellar dust from its direct surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation.
Much larger contributions can be obtained when a black hole merges with other stars or compact objects.
Hawking radiation. In 1974, Stephen Hawking showed that black holes are not entirely black but emit small amounts of thermal radiation.[1]He got this result by applying quantum field theory in a static black hole background. The result of his calculations is that a black hole should emit particles in a perfect black body spectrum. This effect has become known as Hawking radiation. Since Hawking's result many others have verified the effect through various methods. If his theory of black hole radiation is correct then black holes are expected to emit a thermal spectrum of radiation, and thereby lose mass, because according to the theory of relativity mass is just highly condensed energy (E = mc2). Black holes will shrink and evaporate over time. The temperature of this spectrum (Hawking temperature) is proportional to the surface gravity of the black hole, which in turn is inversely proportional to the mass. Large black holes, therefore, emit less radiation than small black holes.
On the other hand if a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. A black hole the weight of a car (~10-24 m) would only take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity more than 200 times that of the sun. Lighter black holes are expected to evaporate even faster, for example a black hole of mass 1 TeV/c2 would take less than 10-88 seconds to evaporate completely. Of course, for such a small black hole quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could even – although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so – hypothetically make such a small black hole stable.
Micro Black Holes. Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could also be created in high energy collisions that create sufficient density. Since classically black holes can take any mass, one would expect micro black holes to be created in any such process no matter how low the energy. However, to date, no such events have ever been detected either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes.
Theoretically this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (~1019 GeV/c2, mp = 2.1764.10-8 kg), where quantum effects are expected to make the theory of general relativity break down completely. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high energy process occurring on or near the Earth. Certain developments in quantum gravity however suggest that this bound could be much lower. Some braneworld scenarios for example put the Planck mass much lower, maybe even as low as 1 TeV. This would make it possible for micro black holes to be created in the high energy collisions occurring when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the new Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are however very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists.
Smallest possible black hole. To make a black hole one must concentrate mass or energy sufficiently that the escape velocity from the region in which it is concentrated exceeds the speed of light. This condition gives the Schwarzschild radius, ro = 2GM / c2, where G is Newton's constant and c is the speed of light, as the size of a black hole of mass M. On the other hand, the Compton wavelength, λ = h / Mc, where h is Planck's constant, represents a limit on the minimum size of the region in which a mass M at rest can be localized. For sufficiently small M, the Compton wavelength exceeds the Schwarzschild radius, and no black hole description exists. This smallest mass for a black hole is thus approximately the Planck mass, which is about 2 × 10−8 kg or 1.2 × 1019 GeV/c2.
Any primordial black holes of sufficiently low mass will Hawking evaporate to near the Planck mass within the lifetime of the universe. In this process, these small black holes radiate away matter. A rough picture of this is that pairs of virtual particles emerge from the vacuum near the event horizon, with one member of a pair being captured, and the other escaping the vicinity of the black hole. The net result is the black hole loses mass (due to conservation of energy). According to the formulae of black hole thermodynamics, the more the black hole loses mass the hotter it becomes, and the faster it evaporates, until it approaches the Planck mass. At this stage a black hole would have a Hawking temperature of TP / 8π (5.6×1032 K), which means an emitted Hawking particle would have an energy comparable to the mass of the black hole. Thus a thermodynamic description breaks down. Such a mini-black hole would also have an entropy of only 4π nats, approximately the minimum possible value.
At this point then, the object can no longer be described as a classical black hole, and Hawking's calculations also break down. Conjectures for the final fate of the black hole include total evaporation and production of a Planck mass-sized black hole remnant. If intuitions about quantum black holes are correct, then close to the Planck mass the number of possible quantum states of the black hole is expected to become so few and so quantised that its interactions are likely to be quenched out. It is possible that such Planck-mass black holes, no longer able either to absorb energy gravitationally like a classical black hole because of the quantised gaps between their allowed energy levels, nor to emit Hawking particles for the same reason, may in effect be stable objects. They would in effect be WIMPs, weakly interacting massive particles; this could explain dark matter.
Creation of micro black holes.Production of a black hole requires concentration of mass or energy within the corresponding Schwarzschild radius. In familiar three-dimensional gravity, the minimum such energy is 1019 GeV, which would have to be condensed into a region of approximate size 10-33 cm. This is far beyond the limits of any current technology; the Large hadron collider (LHC) has a design energy of 14 TeV. This is also beyond the range of known collisions of cosmic rays with Earth's atmosphere, which reach center of mass energies in the range of hundreds of TeV. It is estimated that to collide two particles to within a distance of a Planck length with currently achievable magnetic field strengths would require a ring accelerator about 1000 light years in diameter to keep the particles on track.
Some extensions of present physics posit the existence of extra dimensions of space. In higher-dimensional spacetime, the strength of gravity increases more rapidly with decreasing distance than in three dimensions. With certain special configurations of the extra dimensions, this effect can lower the Planck scale to the TeV range. Examples of such extensions include large extra dimensions, special cases of the Randall-Sundrum model, and String theory configurations. In such scenarios, black hole production could possibly be an important and observable effect at the LHC.
Virtual particles. In physics, a virtual particle is a particle that exists for a limited time and space, introducing uncertainty in their energy and momentum due to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
Vacuum energy can also be thought of in terms of virtual particles (also known as vacuum fluctuations) which are created and destroyed out of the vacuum. These particles are always created out of the vacuum in particle-antiparticle pairs, which shortly annihilate each other and disappear. However, these particles and antiparticles may interact with others before disappearing.
The net energy of the Universe remains zero so long as the particle pairs annihilate each other within Planck time.
Virtual particles are also excitations of the underlying fields, but are detectable only as forces.
The creation of these virtual particles near the event horizon of a black hole has been hypothesized by physicist Stephen Hawking to be a mechanism for the eventual "evaporation" of black holes.
Since these particles do not have a permanent existence, they are called virtual particles or vacuum fluctuations of vacuum energy.
An important example of the "presence" of virtual particles in a vacuum is the Casimir effect. Here, the explanation of the effect requires that the total energy of all of the virtual particles in a vacuum can be added together. Thus, although the virtual particles themselves are not directly observable in the laboratory, they do leave an observable effect: their zero-point energy results in forces acting on suitably arranged metal plates or dielectrics.
Thus, virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a particle and antiparticle, which can be of any kind.
[pic]
Fig.5. Hawking radiation. a. Virtual particles at even horizon.
b. Virtual particles out even horizon (in conventional space).
The evaporation of a black hole is a process dominated by photons, which are their own antiparticles and are uncharged.
The uncertainty principle in the form [pic] implies that in the vacuum one or more particles with energy ΔE above the vacuum may be created for a short time Δt. These virtual particles are included in the definition of the vacuum.
Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space even when devoid of matter (known as free space). The vacuum energy is deduced from the concept of virtual particles, which are themselves derived from the energy-time uncertainty principle. Its effects can be observed in various phenomena (such as spontaneous emission, the Casimir effect, the van der Waals bonds, or the Lamb shift), and it is thought to have consequences for the behavior of the Universe on cosmological scales.
AB-Generator of Nuclear Energy and some Innovations
Simplified explanation of MBH radiation and work of AB-Generator (Fig.5). As known, the vacuum continuously produces, virtual pairs of particles and antiparticles, in particular, photons and anti-photons. In conventional space they exist only for a very short time, then annihilate and return back to nothingness. The MBH event horizon, having very strong super-gravity, allows separation of the particles and anti particles, in particular, photons and anti-photons. Part of the anti-photons move into the MBH and annihilate with photons decreasing the mass of the MBH and return back a borrow energy to vacuum. The free photons leave from the MBH neighborhood as Hawking radiation. That way the MBH converts any conventional matter to Hawking radiation which may be converted to heat or electric energy by the AB- Generator. This AB- Generator utilizes the produced Hawking radiation and injects the matter into the MBH while maintaining the MBH in stable suspended state.
Note: The photon does NOT have rest mass. Therefore a photon can leave the MBH’s neighborhood (if it is located beyond the event horizon). All other particles having a rest mass and speed less than light speed cannot leave the Black Hole. They cannot achieve light speed because their mass at light speed equals infinity and requests infinite energy for its’ escape—an impossibility.
Description of AB- Generator. The offered nuclear energy AB- Generator is shown in fig. 6. That includes the Micro Black Hole (MBH) 1 suspended within a spherical radiation reflector and heater 5. The MBH is supported (and controlled) at the center of sphere by a fuel (plasma, proton, electron, matter) gun 7. This AB- Generator also contains the 9 – heat engine (for example, gas, vapor turbine), 10 – electric generator, 11 – coolant (heat transfer agent), an outer electric line 12, internal electric generator (5 as antenna) with customer 14.
[pic]
Fig.6. Offered nuclear-vacuum energy AB- Generator. Notations: 1- Micro Black Hole (MBH), 2 - event horizon (Schwarzschild radius), 3 - photon sphere, 4 – black hole radiation, 5 – radiation reflector, antenna and heater (cover sphere), 6 – back (reflected) radiation from radiation reflector 5, 7 – fuel (plasma, protons, electrons, ions, matter) gun (focusing accelerator), 8 – matter injected to MBH (fuel for Micro Black hole), 9 – heat engine (for example, gas, vapor turbine), 10 – electric generator connected to heat engine 9, 11 – coolant (heat transfer agent to the heat machine 9), 12 – electric line, 13 – internal vacuum, 14 – customer of electricity from antenna 5, 15 – singularity.
Work. The generator works the following way. MBH, by selective directional input of matter, is levitated in captivity and produces radiation energy 4. That radiation heats the spherical reflector-heater 5. The coolant (heat transfer agent) 11 delivers the heat to a heat machine 9 (for example, gas, vapor turbine). The heat machine rotates an electric generator 10 that produces the electricity to the outer electric line 12. Part of MBH radiation may accept by sphere 5 (as antenna) in form of electricity.
The control fuel guns inject the matter into MBH and do not allow bursting of the MBH. This action also supports the MBH in isolation, suspended from dangerous contact with conventional matter. They also control the MBH size and the energy output.
Any matter may be used as the fuel, for example, accelerated plasma, ions, protons, electrons, micro particles, etc. The MBH may be charged and rotated. In this case the MBH may has an additional suspension by control charges located at the ends of fuel guns or (in case of the rotating charged MBH) may have an additional suspension by the control electric magnets located on the ends of fuel guns or at points along the reflector-heater sphere.
Innovations, features, advantages and same research results
Some problems and solutions offered by the author include the following:
1) A practical (the MBH being obtained and levitated, details of which are beyond the scope of this paper) method and installation for converting any conventional matter to energy in accordance with Einstein’s equation E = mc2.
2) MBHs may produce gigantic energy and this energy is in the form of dangerous gamma radiation. The author shows how this dangerous gamma radiation Doppler shifts when it moves
against the MBH gravity and converts to safely tapped short radio waves.
3) The MBH of marginal mass has a tendency to explode (through quantum evaporation, very quickly radiating its mass in energy). The AB- Generator automatically injects metered amounts of matter into the MBH and keeps the MGH in a stable state or grows the MBH to a needed size, or decreases that size, or temporarily turns off the AB- Generator (decreases the MBH to a Planck Black Hole).
4) Author shows the radiation flux exposure of AB- Generator (as result of MBH exposure) is not dangerous because the generator cover sphere has a vacuum, and the MBH gravity gradient decreases the radiation energy.
5) The MBH may be supported in a levitated (non-contact) state by generator fuel injectors.
Theory of AB- Generator
Below there are main equations for computation the conventional black hole (BH) and AB-Generator.
General theory of Black Hole.
1. Power produced by BH is
[pic], W, (1)
where [pic] is reduced Planck constant, [pic]- light speed, G =
6.6743.10-11 m3/kg.s2 is gravitation constant, M – mass of BH, kg.
2. Temperature of black body corresponding to this radiation is
[pic], K , (2)
where kb = 1.38.10-23 J/k is Boltzmann constant.
3. Energy Ep [J] and frequency νo of photon at event horizon are
[pic]. (3)
where c = 3.108 m/s is light speed, λo is wavelength of photon at even radius, m. h is Planck constant.
4. Radius of BH event horizon (Schwarzschild radius) is
[pic] , m, (4)
5. Relative density (ratio of mass M to volume V of BH) is
[pic] , kg/m3. (5)
6. Maximal charge of BH is
[pic], C, (6)
where e = -1.6.10-19 is charge of electron, C.
7. Life time of BH is
[pic]2.527.10-8 M 3 , s . (7)
8. Gravitation around BH (r is distance from center) and on event horizon
[pic], m s-2 . (8)
Developed Theory of AB-Generator
Below are research and the theory developed by author for estimation and computation of facets of the AB- Generator.
9. Loss of energy of Hawking photon in BH gravitational field. It is known the theory of a redshift allows estimating the frequency of photon in central gravitational field when it moves TO the gravity center. In this case the photon increases its frequency because photon is accelerated the gravitational field (wavelength decreases). But in our case the photon moves FROM the gravitational center, the gravitational field brakes it and the photon loses its energy. That means its frequency decreases and the wavelength increases. Our photon gets double energy because the black hole annihilates two photons (photon and anti-photon). That way the equation for photon frequency at distance r > ro from center we can write in form
[pic], (9)
Where Δφ = φ – φo is difference of the gravity potential. The gravity potential is
[pic] . (10)
Let us substitute (10) in (9), we get
[pic]. (11)
It is known, the energy and mass of photon is
[pic] , (12)
The energy of photon linear depends from its frequency. Reminder: The photon does not have a rest mass.
The relative loss of the photon radiation energy ξ at distance r from BH and the power Pr of Hawking radiation at radius r from the BH center is
[pic]. (13)
The ro is very small and ξ is also very small and ν 1), the required cooling is decreased.
3) When we use the conventional heat protection, the heat flow is computed by equations
[pic], (22)
where k is heat transmission coefficient, W/m2K; ( - heat conductivity coefficient, W/m.K. For air ( = 0.0244, for glass-wool ( = 0.037; ( - thickness of heat protection, m.
The vacuum screening is strong efficiency and light (mass) than the conventional cooling protection.
Table 2. Boiling temperature and heat of evaporation of some relevant liquids [29], p.68; [28] p.57.
|Liquid |Boilng temperature, |Heat varoparation, ( |Specific |
| |K |kJ/kg |density, |
| | | |kg/m3 |
|Hydrogen | 20.4 |472 | 67.2 |
|Nitrogen | 77.3 |197.5 | 804.3 |
|Air | 81 |217 | 980 |
|Oxygen | 90.2 |213.7 |1140 |
|Carbonic acid |194.7 |375 |1190 |
These data are sufficient for a quick computation of the cooling systems characteristics.
Using the correct design of multi-screens, high-reflectivity mirror or the solar and planetary energy screen, and assuming a hard outer space vacuum between screens, we get a very small heat flow and a very small expenditure for refrigerant (some gram/m2 per day in Earth). In outer space the protected body can have low temperature without special liquid cooling system (Fig.3).
For example, the space body (Fig. 4a) with innovative prism reflector [23] Ch. 3A (( = 10(6, (a = 0.9) will have temperature about 12 K in outer space. The protection Fig.3b gives more low temperature. The usual multi-screen protection of Fig. 4c gives the temperature: the first screen - 160 K, the second – 75 K, the third – 35 K, the fourth – 16 K.
14. Cable material. Let us consider the following experimental and industrial fibers, whiskers,
and nanotubes:
1. Experimental nanotubes CNT (carbon nanotubes) have a tensile strength of 200 Giga-Pascals (20,000 kg/mm2). Theoretical limit of nanotubes is 30,000 kg/mm2. Young’s modulus exceeds a Tera Pascal, specific density ( = 1800 kg/m3 (1.8 g/cc) (year 2000).
For safety factor n = 2.4, ( = 8300 kg/mm2 = 8.3×1010 N/m2, ( =1800 kg/m3, ((/()=46×106. The SWNTs nanotubes have a density of 0.8 g/cm3, and MWNTs have a density of 1.8 g/cm3 (average 1.34 g/cm3). Unfortunately, even in 2010 CE, nanotubes are very expensive to manufacture.
2. For whiskers CD ( = 8000 kg/mm2, ( = 3500 kg/m3 (1989) [27, p. 33]. Cost about $400/kg (2001).
3. For industrial fibers ( = 500 – 600 kg/mm2, ( = 1800 kg/m3, ((( = 2,78×106. Cost about 2 – 5 $/kg (2003).
Relevant statistics for some other experimental whiskers and industrial fibers are given in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Tensile strength and density of whiskers and fibers
|Material |Tensile |Density | |Tensile |Density |
| |strength | | |strength | |
|Whiskers |kg/mm2 |g/cm3 |Fibers |kg/mm2 |g/cm3 |
|AlB12 |2650 |2.6 |QC-8805 |620 |1.95 |
|B |2500 |2.3 |TM9 |600 |1.79 |
|B4C |2800 |2.5 |Thorael |565 |1.81 |
|TiB2 |3370 |4.5 |Alien 1 |580 |1.56 |
|SiC |2100-4140 |3.22 |Alien 2 |300 |0.97 |
|Al oxide |2800-4200 |3.96 |Kevlar |362 |1.44 |
See Reference [23] p. 33.
15. Balancing of wire by voltage. If top station or climber spends energy, the vertical wire has voltage. That means they have the different linear electric charges and attract one to other. Let us find the required voltage between them and consumed power.
[pic], (23)
where R3 is a repel magnetic force, N/m; F4 is an attractive electrostatic force, N/m; τ is a linear electric charge, C/m; εo = 8.85∙10–12 is electrostatic constant, F/m; I is electric current in vertical wire, A.
For equilibrium the voltage U between the vertical wires and consumed power P must be
[pic].
Example: For I = 103 A, b = 3 the U = 1.8·105 V and P = 1.8·105 kW. That value is big and this method of compensation is less suitable.
Projects
The most suitable computation for the proposed projects is made in Examples in Theoretical section.
That way muc data it is given without detailed explanation. Our design is not optimal but merely for estimation of the main data.
Note about using conventional conductors. The magnetic AB-column requires the high density electric current (about 104 – 106 A/mm2) and very low electric resistance. This condition is satisfied only by superconductive wire at the present time. In other cases (with non-superconductive wire) the lift force is less than the wire and AB-spool weight and construction spends very much energy. Unfortunately, the current superconductive material requires a low temperature. Their cooling is made by cheap liquid nitrogen. However the conventional conductor may be used for modeling, research and testing the suspended (levitated) constructions in the development period before a ‘flight article’ is ready.
1. Motionless 100 km Suspended Magnetic AB-satellite (AB-Magnetic Tower)
(one-stage two wire magnetic tower)
Lift Force and repulsive force. For I = 104 A, n = 103, b = 10 the lift force is F = 4·105 N = 40 tons (Eq. (5)). If I = 2∙104 A, the lift force will be 160 tons. For d = 2 m, the repulse force between the vertical wire is F3 = 10 N/m = 1 kgf/m (Eq. (5)).
Mass of film. For the current cheap artificial fiber having γ = 1800 kg/m3, safety σ = 2·109 N/m2 (σ = 200 kgf/mm2) (see Table 3), I = 104 A the film (horizontal fiber) mass mf ≈ 2·10-5 kg/m (Eq. (6)). That is only 2 kg for 100 km of tower height.
For superconductive wire having safety electric current density j = 1012 A/m2 , γw ≈ 104 kg/m3 , I = 104 a the liner mass of superconductive wire is mw = 2∙10-4 kg/m or 20 kg for 100 km of a tower height, cross section wire area is s = 10-2 mm2 (Eq.7)) For n = 1000, d = 1 m, γw ≈ 104 kg/m3 , s = 10-8 m2 the mass one spool is 0.3 kg (Eq.(8)).
For specific linear density of double support and cooling cables q = 0.05 kg/m and H = 105 m = 100 km the support mass is 5 tons. This mass includes the tube cooling system by nitrogen (nitrogen does not need support). We need cooling tubes only until the altitude 70 – 100 km. Over this altitude no conventional (to air) heat transfer practically occurs and the cooling super reflective layer has q ≈ 0.002 kg/m or 200 kg per 100 km.
Climber. For climber having mass m = 10,000 kg and an acceleration g = go (1 G vertical) the force (11) is Fc = 2∙105 N and requires an electric current i = 5·103 A (Eq. (2) for n = 1000, b = 10). For altitude H = 100 km, acceleration aa = 10 m/s2 the trip time is t = 200 sec, Vmax = 103 m/s. For mass of climber m = 10 tons, the electric current i = 5·103 A, n = 1000, b = 10, maximal velocity Vmax = 103 m/s the maximum voltage is Emax = 2∙104 V; maximal electric power is Nmax = 108 W. This power drain may be greatly reduced by accepting less rocket like accelerations, at the expense of less throughput and longer transit times. It is noteworthy, however, that by using high G forces at less than geostationary heights, in effect we have a ‘mass driver’ of the G.K. O’Neill sort, that can send (for example) lunar landers to escape velocity, and then slow down the ‘bucket’ (climber) for recovery and relaunch. This is one way to support a massive space program.
Minimal energy is needed for building (unrolling) of the magnetic tower. For I = 104 A, b = 10, H = 100 km, the inductance is Li = 0.66 H, and the required energy is Ei = 3.3∙107 J (Eq. (14)).
Cooling consumption for support of the superconductive wire in lower (up 100 km) atmospheric part of magnetic tower is about 2 – 4 tons of liquid nitrogen in one day.
Summary. As you see the suggested 100 km magnetic tower (suspended or levitated space station) can keep 34 tons (and in beefed up versions up to 155 tons and more) useful load and has mass of 5022 kg. If this 100 km section is located in vacuum space (over altitude 100 km) it does not need active cooling and has mass of only 222 kg.
2. Geosynchronous Magnetic AB-Satellite (AB-Tower)
(multi-stage, two fires tower)
In my opinion the geosynchronous tower must be multi-staged for current material. When we will get the cheap nanotubes and room temperature superconductor we can build the one-stage high altitude magnetic tower.
For estimation the data we assume that one stage has length 100 km. That means the geosynchronous 37000 km tower will has 370 stages. The 100 km stage is not optimal but that allows using the previous computation and data. It is very important that every stage is held by its SELF (its, inherent) magnetic column and doesn’t press on lower stage. If stage has enough safety coefficient (>2) that can hold the lower stage when it will be out of order or damaged. The stages do not hold the space climber because the space climber is supported by its magnetic column. The top stage located on geosynchronous orbit can hold a big useful mass because this mass has zero weight at GEO (and extending beyond GEO, useful tension may be added to the tower as a whole, lowering the weight of many stages far toward the ground within the limits of current material strengths.) Thus the payloads can be far bigger, over time, than a simple linear calculation might suggest.
In previous computation we compute that the atmospheric stage has mass mo = 5022 kg and space stage has mi = 222 kg. Let us take for reliability mo = 6000 kg and mi = 300 kg then total mass of the geosynchronous magnetic tower will be M = mo + ∑ mi = 16800 kg.
The required electric current in every stage is ii = 870 A (see example in Eq. (2)), the maximal electric current is about J = ∑ ii ≈ 370·8.7·102 ≈ 3.3·104 A.
Conclusion
The research shows that inexpensive levitated magnetic AB-Structures (include LEO motionless and geosynchronous satellites) can be built by the current technology. This significantly (by a thousand times) decreases the cost of space launches. The offered magnetic space tower is a thousand times cheaper than the well-known cable space elevator. NASA is spending for research of space elevator hundreds of millions of dollars. A small part of this sum is enough for R&D of the magnetic tower and make a working model.
The proposed innovation (upper electric AB-spool) allows also solving the problem of the conventional railgun (having projectile speed is 3 -5 km/s). The current conventional railgun uses a very high ampere electric current (millions A) and low voltage. As the result the rails burn. The temporary cooled superconductive AB-spool allows decreases the required electric current by thousands of times (simultaneously the required voltage is increased by the same factor). The damage of rails is decreased.
The same idea may be used in space railgun [27] and space magnetic AB-Launcher without rails, in the suspended structures for communication and so on. The magnetic column may be applied to the suspending houses, buildings, towns, multi-floor cities, to a small state located over ocean in international waters, to the motionless (geostationary or levitating) space stations, to the communication masts and towers. The may be easily tested in small cheap magnetic prototypes with easily available materials on the ground before building the actual article with superconductors . And the entire assembly can be built on Earth, unlike ‘conventional’ space elevators, for much cheaper deployment.
The climber’s power drain may be greatly reduced by accepting less rocket like accelerations, at the expense of less throughput and longer transit times. It is noteworthy, however, that by using high G forces at less than geostationary heights, that can send (for example) lunar landers or planetary probes to escape velocity, and then slow down the ‘bucket’ (climber) for recovery and relaunch. This is one way to support a massive space program.
The reader can recalculate the levitated installations for his own scenarios. See also [6]-[22],[23],[27]. .
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge Joseph Friedlander (Israel) for correcting the author’s English and for useful technical suggestions.
References
(Part of these articles the reader can find in author WEB page: , , , search term "Bolonkin", and in the books: "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs., “New Concepts, Ideas, and Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Sciences” , NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs., “Macro-projects: Environment and Technology”, NOVA, 2008, 536, pgs.)
1. Smitherman D.V., Jr., “Space Elevators”, NASA/CP-2000-210429.
2. Tsiolkovski K.E.,”Speculations about Earth and Sky on Vesta”, Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1959;
Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR., Moscow, p. 35, 1999.
3. Geoffrey A. Landis, Craig Cafarelli, The Tsiolkovski Tower Re-Examined, JBIS, Vol. 32, p. 176–180, 1999.
4. Artsutanov Y.. Space Elevator, .
5. Clarke A.C.: Fountains of Paradise, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1978.
6. Bolonkin A.A., Optimal Solid Space Tower, Paper AIAA-2006-7717, ATIO Conference, 25-
27 Sept.,2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA, .
See also paper AIAA-2006-4235 by A. Bolonkin. search “Bolonkin”.
7. Bolonkin A.A., Optimal Rigid Space Tower, Paper AIAA-2007-367, 45th Aerospace Science
Meeting, Reno, Nevada, 8-11 Jan.,2007, USA. search term "Bolonkin".
8. Bolonkin A.A., "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch.9, “Optimal Solid
Space Tower”, pp.161-172. ,
9. Bolonkin A.A., "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers of High Height", COSPAR-02 C1.
10035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The Wold Space Congress - 2002, 10 -19 Oct. 2002, Houston, Texas, USA.
10. Bolonkin A.A., Optimal Inflatable Space Towers with 3 -100 km Height", JBIS, Vol.56,No.3/4, pp.87-97,
2003. .
11. Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch.4 “Optimal Inflatable Space
Towers”, pp.83-106; ,
12. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., "Macro-Engineering",: Environment and Technology", Ch.1E
“Artificial Mountains”, pp. 299-334, NOVA, 2008. ,
13. Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch. 9 “Kinetic Anti-Gravotator”, pp. 165-186, High reflective layer Ch. 12, pp. 223 -244, Ch. 3A, pp. 371-382 ; , . Main idea of this Chapter was presented as papers COSPAR-02, C1.1-0035-02 and IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03, 53rd International Astronautical Congress. The World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October 2002, Houston, TX, USA, and the full manuscript was accepted as AIAA-2005-4504, 41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA, search term "Bolonkin".
14. Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch.5 “Kinetic Space Towers”, pp. 107-124, Springer, 2006. or .
15. Bolonkin A.A., “Transport System for Delivery Tourists at Altitude 140 km”, manuscript was presented as Bolonkin’s paper IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03 at the World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October, Houston, TX, USA. , search term "Bolonkin".
16. Bolonkin A.A., “Centrifugal Keeper for Space Station and Satellites”, JBIS, Vol.56, No. 9/10, 2003, pp. 314-327. . See also 14 Ch.10, 187 – 208.
17. Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch.3 ”Circle Launcher and Space Keeper”, pp.59-82. , .
18. Bolonkin A.A., “Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower”, Presented as Paper AIAA-2007-6201 to 43rd AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference, 8-11 July 2007, Cincinnati, OH, USA. search term "Bolonkin".
See also “Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower” in: .
19. Bolonkin A.A., "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch. 11 “Optimal
Electrostatic Space Tower (Mast, New Space Elevator)”, pp.189-204. ,
.
20. Bolonkin A.A., "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch.12, pp.205-220
“AB Levitrons and Their Applications to Earth’s Motionless Satellites”. (About Electromagnetic Tower).
.
21. Book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology”, NOVA, 2008, Ch.12, pp.251-270,
“Electronic Tubes and Quasi-Superconductivity at Room Temperature”, (about Electronic Towers).
,
22. BolonkinA.A., Krinker M., Rail Space Gun.
23. Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs.
24. Bolonkin A., Krinker M., Magnetic Space Launcher. Presented as paper AIAA-2009-5261 to 45th AIAA
Joint Propulsion Conference, 2-5 August 2009, Denver, CO, USA.
or search “Bolonkin”.
25. AIP. Physics Desk References, 3-rd Edition. Springer. 2003.
26. Krinker M., Review of New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in Space Towers.
search “Krinker”.
27. Galasso F.S., Advanced Fibers and Composite. Gordon and Branch Science Publisher, 1989.
28. Kikoin I.K., Editor. Table of Physical Values, Moscow, 1976, 1007 ps. (in Russian).
29. Koshkin H.I., Shirkevich M.G.,Directory of Elementary Physics, Nauka, 1982.
Current suspended structures
[pic]
[pic]
Possible suspended structure in space
[pic]
Article Criterion for Solar Detonation 1 27 10
Chapter 10
Artificial Explosion of Sun
and AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation
Abstract
The Sun contains ~74% hydrogen by weight. The isotope hydrogen-1 (99.985% of hydrogen in nature) is a usable fuel for fusion thermonuclear reactions.
This reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the needs of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting detonation thermonuclear reactions that spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, then spread to a larger area, allowing producing a hydrogen bomb of any power. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
The reader naturally asks: Why even contemplate such a horrible scenario? It is necessary because as thermonuclear and space technology spreads to even the least powerful nations in the centuries ahead, a dying dictator having thermonuclear missile weapons can produce (with some considerable mobilization of his military/industrial complex)— an artificial explosion of the Sun and take into his grave the whole of humanity. It might take tens of thousands of people to make and launch the hardware, but only a very few need know the final targeting data of what might be otherwise a weapon purely thought of (within the dictator’s defense industry) as being built for peaceful, deterrent use.
Those concerned about Man’s future must know about this possibility and create some protective system—or ascertain on theoretical grounds that it is entirely impossible.
Humanity has fears, justified to greater or lesser degrees, about asteroids, warming of Earthly climate, extinctions, etc. which have very small probability. But all these would leave survivors --nobody thinks that the terrible annihilation of the Solar System would leave a single person alive. That explosion appears possible at the present time. In this paper is derived the ‘AB-Criterion’ which shows conditions wherein the artificial explosion of Sun is possible. The author urges detailed investigation and proving or disproving of this rather horrifying possibility, so that it may be dismissed from mind—or defended against.
Key words: Artificial explosion of Sun, annihilation of solar system, criterion of nuclear detonation, nuclear detonation wave, detonate Sun, artificial supernova.
* This work is written together J. Friedlander. He corrected the author’s English, wrote together with author Abstract, Sections 8, 10 (“Penetration into Sun” and “Results”), and wrote Section 11 “Discussion” as the solo author.
1. Introduction
Information about Sun. The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. The Earth and other matter (including other planets, asteroids, meteoroids, comets and dust) orbit the Sun, which by itself accounts for about 99.8% of the solar system's mass. Energy from the Sun—in the form of sunlight—supports almost all life on Earth via photosynthesis, and drives the Earth's climate and weather.
The Sun is composed of hydrogen (about 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (about 25% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements. The Sun has a spectral class of G2V. G2 implies that it has a surface temperature of approximately 5,500 K (or approximately 9,600 degrees Fahrenheit / 5,315 Celsius).
[pic]
Fig.1. Structure of Sun
Sunlight is the main source of energy to the surface of Earth. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,370 watts per square meter of area at a distance of one AU from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surface—closer to 1,000 watts per directly exposed square meter in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith.
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence evolution, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4 million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation; at this rate, the sun will have so far converted around 100 earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main sequence star.
The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 solar radii. It has a density of up to 150,000 kg/m3 (150 times the density of water on Earth) and a temperature of close to 13,600,000 kelvins (by contrast, the surface of the Sun is close to 5,785 kelvins (1/2350th of the core)). Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the p-p (proton-proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. The core is the only location in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward from the core. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles.
About 3.4×1038 protons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted into helium nuclei every second (out of about ~8.9×1056 total amount of free protons in Sun), releasing energy at the matter-energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second, 383 yottawatts (383×1024 W) or 9.15×1010 megatons of TNT per second. This corresponds to extremely low rate of energy production in the Sun's core - about 0.3 μW/cm³, or about 6 μW/kg. For comparison, an ordinary candle produces heat at the rate 1 W/cm³, and human body - at the rate of 1.2 W/kg. Use of plasma with similar parameters as solar interior plasma for energy production on Earth is completely impractical - as even a modest 1 GW fusion power plant would require about 170 billion tonnes of plasma occupying almost one cubic mile. Thus all terrestrial fusion reactors require much higher plasma temperatures than those in Sun's interior to be viable.
The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density (and particularly on temperature), so the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.
The high-energy photons (gamma and X-rays) released in fusion reactions are absorbed in only few millimeters of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction (and at slightly lower energy) - so it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the "photon travel time" range from as much as 50 million years to as little as 17,000 years. After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent "surface" of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they very rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.
This reaction is very slowly because the solar temperatute is very lower of Coulomb barrier.
The Sun's current age, determined using computer models of stellar evolution and nucleocosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.57 billion years.
Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) stars in the observable universe. That is 230 billion times as many as the 300 billion in the Milky Way.
Atmosphere of Sun. The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the solar atmosphere. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the temperature minimum, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere.
The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun; the reason why is not yet known. But their density is low.
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,000 K.
Above the temperature minimum layer is a thin layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total eclipses of the Sun. The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 100,000 K near the top.
Above the chromosphere is a transition region in which the temperature rises rapidly from around 100,000 K to coronal temperatures closer to one million K. The increase is because of a phase transition as helium within the region becomes fully ionized by the high temperatures. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the far ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.
The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona merges smoothly with the solar wind that fills the solar system and heliosphere. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density of 1014 m−3–1016 m−3. (Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2×1025 m−3.) The temperature of the corona is several million kelvin. While no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.
Physical characteristics of Sun: Mean diameter is 1.392×106 km (109 Earths). Volume is 1.41×1018 km³ (1,300,000 Earths). Mass is 1.988 435×1030 kg (332,946 Earths). Average density is 1,408 kg/m³. Surface temperature is 5785 K (0.5 eV). Temperature of corona is 5 MK (0.43 keV). Core temperature is ~13.6 MK (1.18 keV). Sun radius is R = 696×103 km, solar gravity gc = 274 m/s2. Photospheric composition of Sun (by mass): Hydrogen 73.46 %; Helium 24.85 %; Oxygen 0.77 %; Carbon 0.29 %; Iron 0.16 %; Sulphur 0.12 %; Neon 0.12 %; Nitrogen 0.09 %; Silicon 0.07 %; Magnesium 0.05 %.
Sun photosphere has thickness about 7(10-4 R (490 km) of Sun radius R, average temperature 5.4(103 K, and average density 2(10-7 g/cm3 (n = 1.2(1023 m-3). Sun convection zone has thickness about 0.15 R, average temperature 0.25(106 K, and average density 5(10-7 g/cm3 . Sun intermediate (radiation) zone has thickness about 0.6 R, average temperature 4(106 K, and average density 10 g/cm3 . Sun core has thickness about 0.25 R, average temperature 11(106 K, and average density 89 g/cm3 .
Detonation is a process of combustion in which a supersonic shock wave is propagated through a fluid due to an energy release in a reaction zone. This self-sustained detonation wave is different from a deflagration, which propagates at a subsonic rate (i.e., slower than the sound speed in the material itself).
Detonations can be produced by explosives, reactive gaseous mixtures, certain dusts and aerosols.
The simplest theory to predict the behavior of detonations in gases is known as Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) theory, developed around the turn of the 20th century. This theory, described by a relatively simple set of algebraic equations, models the detonation as a propagating shock wave accompanied by exothermic heat release. Such a theory confines the chemistry and diffusive transport processes to an infinitely thin zone.
A more complex theory was advanced during World War II independently by Zel'dovich, von Neumann, and Doering. This theory, now known as ZND theory, admits finite-rate chemical reactions and thus describes a detonation as an infinitely thin shock wave followed by a zone of exothermic chemical reaction. In the reference frame in which the shock is stationary, the flow following the shock is subsonic. Because of this, energy release behind the shock is able to be transported acoustically to the shock for its support. For a self-propagating detonation, the shock relaxes to a speed given by the Chapman-Jouguet condition, which induces the material at the end of the reaction zone to have a locally sonic speed in the reference frame in which the shock is stationary. In effect, all of the chemical energy is harnessed to propagate the shock wave forward.
Both CJ and ZND theories are one-dimensional and steady. However, in the 1960s experiments revealed that gas-phase detonations were most often characterized by unsteady, three-dimensional structures, which can only in an averaged sense be predicted by one-dimensional steady theories. Modern computations are presently making progress in predicting these complex flow fields. Many features can be qualitatively predicted, but the multi-scale nature of the problem makes detailed quantitative predictions very difficult.
2. Statement of Problem, Main Idea and Our Aim
The present solar temperature is far lower than needed for propagating a runaway thermonuclear reaction. In Sun core the temperature is only ~13.6 MK (0.0012 MeV). The Coulomb barrier for protons (hydrogen) is more then 0.4 MeV. Only very small proportions of core protons take part in the thermonuclear reaction (they use a tunnelling effect). Their energy is in balance with energy emitted by Sun for the Sun surface temperature 5785 K (0.5 eV).
We want to clarify: If we create a zone of limited size with a high temperature capable of overcoming the Coulomb barrier (for example by insertion of a thermonuclear warhead) into the solar photosphere (or lower), can this zone ignite the Sun’s photosphere (ignite the Sun’s full load of thermonuclear fuel)? Can this zone self-support progressive runaway reaction propagation for a significant proportion of the available thermonuclear fuel?
If it is possible, researchers can investigate the problems: What will be the new solar temperature? Will this be metastable, decay or runaway? How long will the transformed Sun live, if only a minor change? What the conditions will be on the Earth?
Why is this needed?
As thermonuclear and space technology spreads to even the least powerful nations in the decades and centuries ahead, a dying dictator having thermonuclear weapons and space launchers can produce (with some considerable mobilization of his military/industrial complex)— the artificial explosion of the Sun and take into his grave the whole of humanity.
It might take tens of thousands of people to make and launch the hardware, but only a very few need know the final targeting data of what might be otherwise a weapon purely thought of (within the dictator’s defense industry) as being built for peaceful, ‘business as usual’ deterrent use. Given the hideous history of dictators in the twentieth century and their ability to kill technicians who had outlived their use (as well as major sections of entire populations also no longer deemed useful) we may assume that such ruthlessness is possible.
Given the spread of suicide warfare and self-immolation as a desired value in many states, (in several cultures—think Berlin or Tokyo 1945, New York 2001, Tamil regions of Sri Lanka 2006) what might obtain a century hence? All that is needed is a supportive, obedient defense complex, a ‘romantic’ conception of mass death as an ideal—even a religious ideal—and the realization that his own days at power are at a likely end. It might even be launched as a trump card in some (to us) crazy internal power struggle, and plunged into the Sun and detonated in a mood of spite by the losing side. ‘Burn baby burn’!
A small increase of the average Earth's temperature over 0.4 K in the course of a century created a panic in humanity over the future temperature of the Earth, resulting in the Kyoto Protocol. Some stars with active thermonuclear reactions have temperatures of up to 30,000 K. If not an explosion but an enchanced burn results the Sun might radically increase in luminosity for –say--a few hundred years. This would suffice for an average Earth temperature of hundreds of degrees over 0 C. The oceans would evaporate and Earth would bake in a Venus like greenhouse, or even lose its’ atmosphere entirely.
Thus we must study this problem to find methods of defense from human induced Armageddon.
The interested reader may find needed information in [1]-[4].
3. Theory and estimations
1. Coulomb barrier (repulsion). Energy is needed for thermonuclear reaction may be computed by equations
[pic], (1)
where E is energy needed for forcing contact between two nuclei, J or eV; k = 9(109 is electrostatic constant, Nm2/C2; Z is charge state; e = 1.6(10-19 is charge of proton, C; r is distance between nucleus centers, m; ri is radius of nucleus, m; A = Z + N is nuclei number, N is number neutrons into given (i = 1, 2) nucleus.
The computations of average temperature (energy) for some nucleus are presented in Table #1 below. We assume that the first nucleus is moving; the second (target) nucleus is motionless.
Table 1. Columb barrier of some nuclei pairs.
|React|E, MeV |Rea|E, MeV |
|ion | |cti| |
| | |on | |
| |7Be + e− |→ |7Li + νe |
| | | | |
| |7Li + 1H |→ |4He + 4He |
| | | | |
The pp II branch is dominant at temperatures of 14 to 23 MK. 90% of the neutrinos produced in the reaction 7Be(e−,νe)7Li* carry an energy of 0.861 MeV, while the remaining 10% carry 0.383 MeV (depending on whether lithium-7 is in the ground state or an excited state, respectively).
The pp III branch
| |3He + 4He |→ |7Be + γ |
| | | | |
| |7Be + 1H |→ |8B + γ |
| | | | |
| |8B |→ |8Be + e+ + νe |
| | | | |
| |8Be |↔ |4He + 4He |
| | | | |
The pp III chain is dominant if the temperature exceeds 23 MK.
The pp III chain is not a major source of energy in the Sun (only 0.11%), but was very important in the solar neutrino problem because it generates very high energy neutrinos (up to 14.06 MeV).
The pp IV or Hep
This reaction is predicted but has never been observed due to its great rarity (about 0.3 parts per million in the Sun). In this reaction, Helium-3 reacts directly with a proton to give helium-4, with an even higher possible neutrino energy (up to 18.8 MeV).
3He + 1H → 4He + νe + e+
Energy release.
Comparing the mass of the final helium-4 atom with the masses of the four protons reveals that 0.007 or 0.7% of the mass of the original protons has been lost. This mass has been converted into energy, in the form of gamma rays and neutrinos released during each of the individual reactions.
The total energy we get in one whole chain is
41H ( 4He + 26.73 MeV.
Only energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. This heating supports the Sun and prevents it from collapsing under its own weight. Neutrinos do not interact significantly with matter and do not help support the Sun against gravitational collapse. The neutrinos in the ppI, ppII and ppIII chains carry away the 2.0%, 4.0% and 28.3% of the energy respectively.
This creates a situation in which stellar nucleosynthesis produces large amounts of carbon and oxygen but only a small fraction of these elements is converted into neon and heavier elements. Both oxygen and carbon make up the ash of helium burning. Those nuclear resonances sensitively are arranged to create large amounts of carbon and oxygen, has been controversially cited as evidence of the anthropic principle.
About 34% of this energy is carried away by neutrinos. That reaction is part of solar reaction, but if initial temperature is high, the reaction becomes an explosion.
The detonation wave works a short time. That supports the reactions (12) – (13). They produce energy up to 1.44 MeV. The reactions (12) – (14) produce energy up to 5.8 MeV. But after detonation wave and the full range of reactions the temperature of plasma is more than the temperature needed to pass the Coulomb barrier and the energy of explosion increases by 20 times.
5. Detonation theory
The one dimensional detonation wave may be computed by equations (see Fig.2):
1) Law of mass
[pic], (15)
where D – speed of detonation, m/s; v – speed of ion sound, m/s about the front of detonation wave (eq.(11)); V1, V3 specific density of plasma in points 1, 3 respectively, kg/m3.
2) Law of momentum
[pic], (16)
where p1, p3 are pressures, N/m2, in point 1, 3 respectively.
3) Law of energy
[pic], (17)
where E3, E1 – internal energy, J/kg, of mass unit in point 3, 1 respectively, Q is
nuclear energy, J/kg.
4) Speed of detonation is
[pic], (18)
γ ≈ 1.2 ÷ 1.4 is adiabatic coefficient.
[pic]
Fig. 3. Pressure in detonation wave. I – plasma, II – front of detonation wave, III – zone of the initial thermonuclear fusion reaction, IV – products of reaction and next reaction, po – initial pressure, x – distance.
6. Model of artificial Sun explosion and estimation of ignition
Thermonuclear reactions proceeding in the Sun’s core are under high temperature and pressure. However the core temperature is substantially lower than that needed to overcome the Columb barrier. That way the thermonuclear reaction is very slow and the Sun’s life cycle is about 10 billion years. But that is enough output to keep the Sun a plasma ball, hot enough for life on Earth to exist. Now we are located in the middle of the Sun’s life and have about 5 billions years until the Sun becomes a Red Giant.
However, this presumes that the Sun is stable against deliberate tampering. Supposing our postulations are correct, the danger exists that introducing a strong thermonuclear explosion into the Sun which is a container of fuel for thermonuclear reactions, the situation can be cardinally changed. For correct computations it is necessary to have a comprehensive set of full initial data (for example, all cross-section areas of all nuclear reactions) and supercomputer time. The author does not have access to such resources. That way he can only estimate probability of these reactions, their increasing or decreasing. Supportive investigations are welcome in order to restore confidence in humanity’s long term future.
7. AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation
A self-supporting detonation wave is possible if the speed of detonation wave is greater or equals the ion sound speed:
[pic]. (19)
Here Q is a nuclear specific heat [J/kg], γ = 1.2 ÷ 1.4 is adiabatic coefficient (they are noted in (17)-(18)); z is number of the charge of particle after fusion reaction (z =1 for 2H) , k = 1.36×10-23 is Boltzmann constant, J/K; Tk is temperature of plasma after fusion reaction in Kelvin degrees; mi = μmp is mass of ion after fusion reaction, kg; mp = 1.67×10-27 kg is mass of proton; μ is relative mass, μ =2 for 2H.
When we have sign “>” the power of the detonation wave increases, when we have the sign “ Wloss .
In our case no the reactor walls and plasma reflects the any radiation.
The offered AB-Criterion is received from the condition (19): Speed of self-supporting detonation wave must be greater than the speed of sound where
D > v .
For main reaction p + p the AB-Criterion (21) has a form
[pic] . (21a)
Estimation. Let us take the first step of the reaction 1H + 1H (12)-(13) having in point 3 (fig.2) Te = 105 eV, E ≈ 1.44×106 eV, ≈ ×10-22. Substituting them in equation (21) we receive
nτ > 0.7×1021 . (22)
The Sun surface (photosphere) has density n = 1023 1/m3, the encounter time of protons in the hypothetical detonation wave III (fig.2) may be over 0.01 sec. The values in left and right sides of (22) have the same order. That means a thermonuclear bomb exploded within the Sun may convceivably be able to serve as a detonator which produces a self-supported nuclear reaction and initiates the artificial explosion of the Sun.
After the initial reaction the temperature of plasma is very high (>1 MeV) and time of next reaction may be very large (hundreds of seconds), the additional energy might in these conditions increase up to 26 MeV.
A more accurate computation is possible but will require cooperation of an interested supercomputer team with the author, or independent investigations with similar interests.
8. Penetration of Thermonuclear Bomb Into Sun
The Sun is a ball of plasma (ionized gases), not a solid body. A properly shielded thermonuclear bomb can permeate deep into the Sun. The warhead may be protected on its’ way down by a special high reflectivity mirror offered, among others, by author A.A. Bolonkin in 1983 [12] and described in [7] Chapters 12, 3A, [8] Ch.5, [9]-[12]. This mirror allows to maintain a low temperature of the warhead up to the very boundary of the solar photosphere. At that point its’ velocity is gigantic, about 617.6 km/s, assuring a rapid penetration for as far as it goes.
The top solar atmosphere is very rarefied; a milliard (US billion) times less than the Earth’s atmosphere. The Sun’s photosphere has a density approximately 200 times less than the Earth’s atmosphere. Some references give a value of only 0.0000002 gm/cm³ (.1 millibar) at the photosphere surface. Since present day ICBM warheads can penetrate down (by definition) to the 1 bar level (Earth’s surface) and that is by no means the boundary of the feasible, the 10 bar level may be speculated to be near-term achievable. The most difficult entry yet was that of the Galileo atmospheric probe on Dec. 7, 1995 [17]. The Galileo Probe was a 45° sphere-cone that entered Jupiter's atmosphere at 47.4 km/s (atmosphere relative speed at 450 km above the 1 bar reference altitude). The peak deceleration experienced was 230 g (2.3 km/s²). Peak stagnation point pressure before aeroshell jettison was 9 bars (900 kPa). The peak shock layer temperature was approximately 16000 K (and remember this is into hydrogen (mostly) the solar photosphere is merely 5800 K). Approximately 26% of the Galileo Probe's original entry mass of 338.93 kg was vaporized during the 70 second heat pulse. Total blocked heat flux peaked at approximately 15000 W/cm² (hotter than the surface of the Sun).
If the entry vehicle was not optimized for slowdown as the Galileo Probe but for penetration like a modern ICBM warhead, with extra ablatives and a sharper cone half-angle, achievable penetration would be deeper and faster. If 70 seconds atmospheric penetration time could be achieved, (with minimal slowdown) perhaps up to 6 % of the way to the center might be achieved by near term technology.
The outer penetration shield of the warhead may be made from carbon (which is an excellent ablative heat protector). The carbon is also an excellent nuclear catalyst of the nuclear reactions in the CNO solar thermonuclear cycle and may significantly increase the power of the initial explosion.
A century hence, what level of penetration of the solar interior is possible? This depth is unknown to the author, exceeding plausible engineering in the near term. Let us consider a hypothetical point (top of the radiation layer) 30 percent of the way from the surface to the core, at the density of 0.2 g/cm³ with a temperature of 2,000,000° C. No material substance can withstand such heat—for extended periods.
We may imagine however hypothetical penetration aids, analogous to ICBM techniques of a half century ago. Shock waves bearing the brunt of the encountered heat and forcing it aside, the opacity shielding the penetrator. A form of multiple disposable shock cones may be employed to give the last in line a chance to survive; indeed the destruction of the next to last may arm the trigger.
If the heat isolation shield and multiple penetration aids can protect the bomb at near entry velocity for a hellish 10 minute interval, (which to many may seem impossible but which cannot be excluded without definitive study—remember we are speaking now of centuries hence, not the near term case above—see reference 14) that means the bomb may reach the depth of 350 thousands kilometers or 0.5R, where R = 696×103 km is Sun’s radius.
The Sun density via relative Sun depth may be estimated by the equation
[pic] , (23)
where ns ≈ 1023 1/m3 is the plasma density on the photosphere surface; h is deep, km; R = 696×103 is solar radius, km. At a solar interior depth of h = 0,5R the relative density is greater by 27 thousand times than on the Sun’s surface.
Here the density and temperature are significantly more than on the photosphere’s surface. And conditions for the detonation wave and thermonuclear reaction are ‘better’—from the point of view of the attacker.
9. Estimation of nuclear bomb needed for Sun explosion
Sound speed into plasma headed up T = 100 K million degrees is about
v ≈ 102T0.5 m/s = 106 m/s . (24)
Time of nuclear explosion (a full nuclear reaction of bomb) is less t = 10-4 sec. Therefore the radius of heated Sun photosphere is about R = vt = 100 m, volume V is about
[pic]. (25)
Density of Sun photosphere is p = 2×10-4 kg/m3. Consequently the mass of the heated photosphere is about m = pV = 1000 kg.
The requested power of the nuclear bomb for heating this mass for temperature T = 104 eV (100 K million degrees) is approximately
E = 103×104/1.67×10-27 eV ≈ 0.6·1034 eV ≈ 2·1015 J ≈ 0.5 Mt . (26)
The requested power of nuclear bomb is about 0.5 Megatons. The average power of the current thermonuclear bomb is 5 – 10 Mt. That means the current thermonuclear bomb may be used as a fuse of Sun explosion. That estimation needs in a more complex computation by a power computer.
10. Results of research
The Sun contains 73.46 % hydrogen by weight. The isotope hydrogen-1 (99.985% of hydrogen in nature) is usable fuel for a fusion thermonuclear reaction.
The p-p reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the temperatures of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting, more rapid detonation thermonuclear reactions that may spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, build a spreading reaction and then feed it into a larger area, allowing producing a ‘solar hydrogen bomb’ of any power—but not necessarily one whose power can be limited. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the entire Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
Author A.A. Bolonkin has researched this problem and shown that an artificial explosion of Sun cannot be precluded. In the Sun’s case this lacks only an initial fuse, which induces the self-supporting detonation wave. This research has shown that a thermonuclear bomb exploded within the solar photosphere surface may be the fuse for an accelerated series of hydrogen fusion reactions.
The temperature and pressure in this solar plasma may achieve a temperature that rises to billions of degrees in which all thermonuclear reactions are accelerated by many thousands of times. This power output would further heat the solar plasma. Further increasing of the plasma temperature would, in the worst case, climax in a solar explosion.
The possibility of initial ignition of the Sun significantly increases if the thermonuclear bomb is exploded under the solar photosphere surface. The incoming bomb has a diving speed near the Sun of about 617 km/sec. Warhead protection to various depths may be feasible –ablative cooling which evaporates and protects the warhead some minutes from the solar temperatures. The deeper the penetration before detonation the temperature and density achieved greatly increase the probability of beginning thermonuclear reactions which can achieve explosive breakout from the current stable solar condition.
Compared to actually penetrating the solar interior, the flight of the bomb to the Sun, (with current technology requiring a gravity assist flyby of Jupiter to cancel the solar orbit velocity) will be easy to shield from both radiation and heating and melting. Numerous authors, including A.A. Bolonkin in works [7]-[12] offered and showed the high reflectivity mirrors which can protect the flight article within the orbit of Mercury down to the solar surface.
The author A.A. Bolonkin originated the AB Criterion, which allows estimating the condition required for the artificial explosion of the Sun.
11. Discussion
If we (humanity—unfortunately in this context, an insane dictator representing humanity for us) create a zone of limited size with a high temperature capable of overcoming the Coulomb barrier (for example by insertion of a specialized thermonuclear warhead) into the solar photosphere (or lower), can this zone ignite the Sun’s photosphere (ignite the Sun’s full load of thermonuclear fuel)? Can this zone self-support progressive runaway reaction propagation for a significant proportion of the available thermonuclear fuel?
If it is possible, researchers can investigate the problems: What will be the new solar temperature? Will this be metastable, decay or runaway? How long will the transformed Sun live, if only a minor change? What the conditions will be on the Earth during the interval, if only temporary? If not an explosion but an enhanced burn results the Sun might radically increase in luminosity for –say--a few hundred years. This would suffice for an average Earth temperature of hundreds of degrees over 0 oC. The oceans would evaporate and Earth would bake in a Venus like greenhouse, or even lose its’ atmosphere entirely.
It would not take a full scale solar explosion, to annihilate the Earth as a planet for Man. (For a classic report on what makes a planet habitable, co-authored by Issac Asimov, see .
Converting the sun even temporarily into a ‘superflare’ star, (which may hugely vary its output by many percent, even many times) over very short intervals, not merely in heat but in powerful bursts of shorter wavelengths) could kill by many ways, notably ozone depletion—thermal stress and atmospheric changes and hundreds of others of possible scenarios—in many of them, human civilization would be annihilated. And in many more, humanity as a species would come to an end.
[pic]
Fig. 4. Sun explosion
[pic] [pic]
Fig. 5. Sun explosion. Result on the Earth.
The reader naturally asks: Why even contemplate such a horrible scenario? It is necessary because as thermonuclear and space technology spreads to even the least powerful nations in the centuries ahead, a dying dictator having thermonuclear missile weapons can produce (with some considerable mobilization of his military/industrial complex)— the artificial explosion of the Sun and take into his grave the whole of humanity. It might take tens of thousands of people to make and launch the hardware, but only a very few need know the final targeting data of what might be otherwise a weapon purely thought of (within the dictator’s defense industry) as being built for peaceful, deterrent use.
Those concerned about Man’s future must know about this possibility and create some protective system—or ascertain on theoretical grounds that it is entirely impossible, which would be comforting.
Suppose, however that some variation of the following is possible, as determined by other researchers with access to good supercomputer simulation teams. What, then is to be done?
The action proposed depends on what is shown to be possible.
Suppose that no such reaction is possible—it dampens out unnoticeably in the solar background, just as no fission bomb triggered fusion of the deuterium in the oceans proved to be possible in the Bikini test of 1946. This would be the happiest outcome.
Suppose that an irruption of the Sun’s upper layers enough to cause something operationally similar to a targeted ‘coronal mass ejection’ – CME-- of huge size targeted at Earth or another planet? Such a CME like weapon could have the effect of a huge electromagnetic pulse. Those interested should look up data on the 1859 solar superstorm, the Carrington event, and the Stewart Super Flare. Such a CME/EMP weapon might target one hemisphere while leaving the other intact as the world turns. Such a disaster could be surpassed by another step up the escalation ladder-- by a huge hemisphere killing thermal event of ~12 hours duration such as postulated by science fiction writer Larry Niven in his 1971 story "Inconstant Moon"—apparently based on the Thomas Gold theory (ca. 1969-70) of rare solar superflares of 100 times normal luminosity. Subsequent research18 (Wdowczyk and Wolfendale, 1977) postulated horrific levels of solar activity, ozone depletion and other such consequences might cause mass extinctions. Such an improbable event might not occur naturally, but could it be triggered by an interested party? A triplet of satellites monitoring at all times both the sun from Earth orbit and the ‘far side’ of the Sun from Earth would be a good investment both scientifically and for purposes of making sure no ‘creative’ souls were conducting trial CME eruption tests!
Might there be peaceful uses for such a capability? In the extremely hypothetical case that a yet greater super-scale CME could be triggered towards a given target in space, such a pulse of denser than naturally possible gas might be captured by a giant braking array designed for such a purpose to provide huge stocks of hydrogen and helium at an asteroid or moon lacking these materials for purposes of future colonization.
A worse weapon on the scale we postulate might be an asymmetric eruption (a form of directed thermonuclear blast using solar hydrogen as thermonuclear fuel), which shoots out a coherent (in the sense of remaining together) burst of plasma at a given target without going runaway and consuming the outer layers of the Sun. If this quite unlikely capability were possible at all (dispersion issues argue against it—but before CMEs were discovered, they too would have seemed unlikely), such an apocalyptic ‘demo’ would certainly be sufficient emphasis on a threat, or a means of warfare against a colonized solar system. With a sufficient thermonuclear burn –and if the condition of nondispersion is fulfilled—might it be possible to literally strip a planet—Venus, say—of its’ atmosphere? (It might require a mass of fusion fuel— and a hugely greater non-fused expelled mass comparable in total to the mass to be stripped away on the target planet.)
It is not beyond the limit of extreme speculation to imagine an expulsion of this order sufficient to strip Jupiter’s gas layers off the ‘Super-Earth’ within. —To strip away 90% or more of Jupiter’s mass (which otherwise would take perhaps ~400 Earth years of total solar output to disassemble with perfect efficiency and neglecting waste heat issues). It would probably waste a couple Jupiter masses of material (dispersed hydrogen and helium). It would be an amazing engineering capability for long term space colonization, enabling substantial uses of materials otherwise unobtainable in nearly all scenarios of long term space civilization.
Moving up on the energy scale-- “boosting” or “damping” a star, pushing it into a new metastable state of greater or lesser energy output for times not short compared with the history of civilization, might be a very welcome capability to colonize another star system—and a terrifying reason to have to make the trip.
And of course, in the uncontrollable case of an induced star explosion, in a barren star system it could provide a nebula for massive mining of materials to some future super-civilization. It is worth noting in this connection that the Sun constitutes 99.86 percent of the material in the Solar System, and Jupiter another .1 percent. Literally a thousand Earth masses of solid (iron, carbon) building materials might be possible, as well as thousands of oceans of water to put inside space colonies in some as yet barren star system.
But here in the short-term future, in our home solar system, such a capability would present a terrible threat to the survival of humanity, which could make our own solar system completely barren.
The list of possible countermeasures does not inspire confidence. A way to interfere with the reaction (dampen it once it starts)? It depends on the spread time, but seems most improbable. We cannot even stop nuclear reactions once they take hold on Earth—the time scales are too short.
Is defense of the Sun possible? Unlikely—such a task makes missile defense of the Earth look easy. Once a gravity assist Jupiter flyby nearly stills the velocity with which a flight article orbits the Sun, it will hang relatively motionless in space and then begin the long fall to fiery doom. A rough estimate yields only one or two weeks to intercept it within the orbit of Mercury, and the farther it falls the faster it goes, to science fiction-like velocities sufficient to reach Pluto in under six weeks before it hits.
A perimeter defense around the Sun? The idea seems impractical with near term technology.
The Sun is a hundred times bigger sphere than Earth in every dimension. If we have 10,000 ready to go interceptor satellites with extreme sunshields that function a few solar radii out each one must be able to intercept with 99% probability the brightening light heading toward its’ sector of the Sun over a circle the size of Earth, an incoming warhead at around 600 km/sec.
If practical radar range from a small set is considered (4th power decline of echo and return) as 40,000 km then only 66 seconds would be available to plot a firing solution and arm for a destruct attempt. More time would be available by a telescope looking up for brightening, infalling objects—but there are many natural incoming objects such as meteors, comets, etc. A radar might be needed just to confirm the artificial nature of the in-falling object (given the short actuation time and the limitations of rapid storable rocket delta-v some form of directed nuclear charge might be the only feasible countermeasure) and any leader would be reluctant to authorize dozens of nuclear explosions per year automatically (there would be no time to consult with Earth, eight light-minutes away—and eight more back, plus decision time). But the cost of such a system, the reliability required to function endlessly in an area in which there can presumably be no human visits and the price of its’ failure, staggers the mind. And such a 'thin' system would be not difficult to defeat by a competent aggressor...
A satellite system near Earth for destroying the rockets moving to the Sun may be a better solution, but with more complications, especially since it would by definition also constitute an effective missile defense and space blockade. Its’ very presence may help spark a war. Or if only partially complete but under construction, it may invite preemption, perhaps on the insane scale that we here discuss…
Astronomers see the explosion of stars. They name these stars novae and supernovae—“New Stars” and try to explain (correctly, we are sure, in nearly all cases) their explosion by natural causes. But some few of them, from unlikely spectral classifications, may be result of war between civilizations or fanatic dictators inflicting their final indignity upon those living on planets of the given star. We have enough disturbed people, some in positions of influence in their respective nations and organizations and suicide oriented violent people on Earth. But a nuclear bomb can destroy only one city. A dictator having possibility to destroy the Solar System as well as Earth can blackmail all countries—even those of a future Kardashev scale 2 star-system wide civilization-- and dictate his will/demands on any civilized country and government. It would be the reign of the crazy over the sane.
Author A.A. Bolonkin already warned about this possibility in 2007 (see his interview [15] (in Russian) (A translation of this is appended at the end of this article) and called upon scientists and governments to research and develop defenses against this possibility. But some people think the artificial explosion of Sun impossible. This led to this current research to give the conditions where such detonations are indeed possible. That shows that is conceivably possible even at the present time using current rockets and nuclear bombs—and only more so as the centuries pass. Let us take heed, and know the risks we face—or disprove them.
The first information about this work was published in [15]. This work produced the active Internet discussion in [19]. Among the raised questions were the following:
1) It is very difficult to deliver a warhead to the Sun. The Earth moves relative to the Sun with a orbital velocity of 30 km/s, and this speed should be cancelled to fall to the Sun. Current rockets do not suffice, and it is necessary to use gravitational maneuvers around planets. For this reason (high delta-V (velocity changes required) for close solar encounters, the planet Mercury is so badly investigated (probes there are expensive to send).
Answer: The Earth has a speed of 29 km/s around the Sun and an escape velocity of only 11 km/s. But Jupiter has an orbital velocity of only 13 km/sec and an escape velocity of 59.2 km/s. Thus, the gravity assist Jupiter can provide is more than the Earth can provide, and the required delta-v at that distance from the Sun far less—enough to entirely cancel the sun-orbiting velocity around the Sun, and let it begin the long plunge to the Solar orb at terminal velocity achieving Sun escape speed 617.6 km/s. Notice that for many space exploration maneuvers, we require a flyby of Jupiter, exactly to achieve such a gravity assist, so simply guarding against direct launches to the Sun from Earth would be futile!
2) Solar radiation will destroy any a probe on approach to the Sun or in the upper layers of its photosphere.
Answer: It is easily shown, the high efficiency AB-reflector can full protection the apparatus. See [7] Chapters 12, 3A, [8] Ch.5, [9]-[12].
3) The hydrogen density in the upper layers of the photosphere of the Sun is insignificant, and it would be much easier to ignite hydrogen at Earth oceans if it in general is possible.
Answer: The hydrogen density is enough known. The Sun has gigantic advantage – that is PLASMA. Plasma of sufficient density reflects or blocks radiation—it has opacity. That means: no radiation losses in detonation. It is very important for heating. The AB Criterion in this paper is received for PLASMA. Other planets of Solar system have MOLECULAR atmospheres which passes radiation. No sufficient heating – no detonation! The water has higher density, but water passes the high radiation (for example γ-radiation) and contains a lot of oxygen (89%), which may be bad for the thermonuclear reaction. This problem needs more research.
12. Summary
This is only an initial investigation. Detailed supercomputer modeling which allows more accuracy would greatly aid prediction of the end results of a thermonuclear explosion on the solar photosphere.
Author invites the attention of scientific society to detailed research of this problem and devising of protection systems if it proves a feasible danger that must be taken seriously. The other related ideas author Bolonkin offers in [5]-[15].
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to acknowledge Alexei Turchin (Russia) for discussing the problems in this article.
References
(The reader find some author's works in , search “Bolonkin; Search: “Bolonkin”, in search “Bolonkin” and books: Bolonkin A.A., “Non-Rocket Space Launch and flight”, Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs.; Bolonkin A.A., “New Concepts, ideas, and Innovations in Technology and Human life”, NOVA, 2008, 502 pg.; Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., “Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology”, NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs).
1. AIP Physics desk reference, 3rd Ed., Spring, 888 pgs.
2. Handbook of Physical Quantities, Ed. Igor Grigoriev, CRC Press, 1997, USA.
3. I.K. Kikoin (Ed.), Tables of physical values, Atomizdat, Moscow, 1975, 1006 pgs, (in Russian).
4. Nishikawa K., Wakatani M., Plasma Physics, Spring, 2000.
5. Bolonkin A.A., New AB-Thermonuclear Reactor for Aerospace, Presented as AIAA-2006-7225 to Space-2006 Conference, 19-21 September, 2006, San Jose, CA, USA (see also search "Bolonkin"). ,
.
6. Bolonkin A.A., Simplest AB-Thermonuclear Space Propulsion and Electric Generator,
search "Bolonkin". .
7. Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs. , or . The book contains theories of the more then 20 new revolutionary author ideas in space and technology.
8. Bolonkin A.A., New concepts, ideas and innovations in aerospace and technology, Nova, 2007.
The book contains theories of the more then 20 new revolutionary author ideas in space and technology. , or .
9. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., “Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology”, NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs. . . Book contains many new revolutionary ideas and projects.
10. Bolonkin A.A., High Speed AB Solar Sail. This work is presented as paper AIAA-2006-4806 for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, USA, 9-12 July, 2006, USA (see also search "Bolonkin"). .
11. Bolonkin A.A., Light Multi-reflex Engine, Journal of British Interplanetary Society, Vol 57, No.9/10, 2004, pp. 353-359.
12. Bolonkin, A.A., Light Pressure Engine, Patent (Author Certificate) # 1183421, 1985, USSR
(priority on 5 January 1983).
13. Bolonkin A.A., Converting of Matter to Nuclear Energy by AB-Generator. American Journal of Enginering and Applied Sciences. 2 (2), 2009, p.683-693. [on line] or
14. Bolonkin A.A., Femtotechnology. Nuclear AB-Matter with Fantastic Properties, American Journal of Enginering and Applied Sciences. 2 (2), 2009, p.501-514. [On line]: or
15. Bolonkin A.A., Artificial Explosion of Sun. Interview for newspaper PravdaRu.ru of 5
January 2007.
(in Russian).
16. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons license. .
17. Solar Physics Group at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center website for solar facts
18. Wdowczyk J and Wolfendale A W, Cosmic rays and ancient catastrophes, Nature, 268 (1977) 510. Abstract available at:
19. Turchin A.V., The possibility of artificial fusion explosion of giant planets and other objects
of Solar system, 2009.
Possible form of the sun explosion apparatus (credit NASA)
[pic]
Chapter 11
Review of New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in
Space Towers*
Abstract
Under Space Tower the author understands structures having height from 100 km to the geosynchronous orbit and supported by Earth’s surface. The classical Space Elevator is not included in space towers. That has three main identifiers which distingue from Space Tower: Space Elevator has part over Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO) and all installation supported only the Earth’s centrifugal force, immobile cable connected to Earth’s surface, no pressure on Earth’s surface.
A lot of new concepts, ideas and innovation in space towers were offered, developed and researched in last years especially after 2000. For example: optimal solid space towers, inflatable space towers (include optimal space tower), circle and centrifugal space towers, kinetic space towers, electrostatic space towers, electromagnetic space towers, and so on.
Given review shortly summarizes there researches and gives a brief description them, note some their main advantages, shortcomings, defects and limitations.
---------------
Key words: Space tower, optimal space mast, inflatable space tower, kinetic space tower, electrostatic space tower,
magnetic space tower.
* This Chapter are written together with Mark Krinker.
Introduction
Brief History [6]. The idea of building a tower high above the Earth into the heavens is very old [1],[6]. The Greed Pyramid of Gaza in Egypt constructed c.2570 BCE has a height 146 m. The writings of Moses, about 1450 BC, in Genesis, Chapter 11, refer to an early civilization that in about 2100 BC tried to build a tower to heaven out of brick and tar. This construction was called the Tower of Babel, and was reported to be located in Babylon in ancient Mesopotamia. Later in chapter 28, about 1900 BC, Jacob had a dream about a staircase or ladder built to heaven. This construction was called Jacob’s Ladder. More contemporary writings on the subject date back to K.E. Tsiolkovski in his manuscript “Speculation about Earth and Sky and on Vesta,” published in 1895 [2-3]. Idea of Space Elevator was suggested and developed Russian scientist Yuri Artsutanov and was published in the Sunday supplement of newspaper “Komsomolskaya Pravda” in 1960 [4]. This idea inspired Sir Arthur Clarke to write his novel, The Fountains of Paradise, about a Space Elevator located on a fictionalized Sri Lanka, which brought the concept to the attention of the entire world [5].
Tallest structures. This category does not require the structure be "officially" opened. The tallest man-made structure is Burj Khalifa, a skyscraper in Dubai that reached 828 m (2,717 ft) in height on 17 January 2009. By 7 April 2008 it had been built higher than the KVLY-TV mast in North Dakota, USA. That September it officially surpassed Poland's 646.38 m (2,120.7 ft) Warsaw radio mast, which stood from 1974 to 1991, to become the tallest structure ever built. Guyed lattice towers such as these masts had held the world height record since 1954.
The CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, standing at 553.3 m (1,815 ft), was formerly the world's tallest completed freestanding structure on land. Opened in 1976, it was surpassed in height by the rising Burj Khalifa on 12 September 2007. It has the world's second highest public observation deck at 446.5 m (1,465 ft).
Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, was the world's tallest inhabited building in only one of the four main categories that are commonly measured: at 509.2 m (1,671 ft) as measured to its architectural height (spire). The height of its roof, 449.2 m (1,474 ft), and highest occupied floor, 439.2 m (1,441 ft), had been overtaken by the Shanghai World Financial Center with corresponding heights of 487 m (1,598 ft) and 474 m (1,555 ft) respectively. Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) was highest in the final category: the greatest height to top of antenna of any building in the world at 527.3 m (1,730 ft).
Burj Khalifa broke the height record in all four categories for completed buildings by a wide margin. The Shanghai World Financial Center had the world's highest roof, highest occupied floor, and the world's highest public observation deck at 474.2 m (1,556 ft). It retains the latter record, as Burj Khalifa's official observation deck will be at 442 m (1,450 ft).
Current materials make it possible even today to construct towers many kilometers in height. However, conventional towers are very expensive, costing tens of billions of dollars. When considering how high a tower can be built, it is important to remember that it can be built to many kilometers of height if the base is large enough.
The tower applications. The high towers (3–100 km) have numerous applications for government and commercial purposes:
• Entertainment and observation desk for tourists. Tourists could see over a huge area, including the darkness of space and the curvature of the Earth’s horizon.
• Communication boost: A tower tens of kilometers in height near metropolitan areas could provide much higher signal strength than orbital satellites.
• Low Earth orbit (LEO) communication satellite replacement: Approximately six to ten 100-km-tall towers could provide the coverage of a LEO satellite constellation with higher power, permanence, and easy upgrade capabilities.
• Drop tower: tourists could experience several minutes of free-fall time. The drop tower could provide a facility for experiments.
• A permanent observatory on a tall tower would be competitive with airborne and orbital platforms for Earth and space observations.
• Solar power receivers: Receivers located on tall towers for future space solar power systems would permit use of higher frequency, wireless, power transmission systems (e.g. lasers).
Main types of space towers
1. Solid towers [6]-[8].
The review of conventional solid high altitude and space towers is in [1]. The first solid space tower was offered in [2-3].The optimal solid towers are detail researched in series works presented in [6-8]. Works contain computation the optimal (minimum weight) sold space towers up 40,000 km. Particularly, authors considered solid space tower having the rods filled by light gas as hydrogen or helium. It is shown the solid space tower from conventional material (steel, plastic) can be built up 100-200 km. The GEO tower requests the diamond.
The computation of the optimal solid space towers presented in [6-8] give the following results:
Project 1. Steel tower 100 km height. The optimal steel tower (mast) having the height 100 km, safety pressure stress K = 0.02 (158 kg/mm2)(K is ratio pressure stress to density of material divided by 107) must have the bottom cross-section area approximately in 100 times more then top cross-section area and weight is 135 times more then top load. For example, if full top load equals 100 tons (30 tons support extension cable + 70 tons useful load), the total weight of main columns 100 km tower-mast (without extension cable) will be 13,500 tons. It is less that a weight of current sky-scrapers (compare with 3,000,000 tons of Toronto tower having the 553 m height). In reality if the safety stress coefficient K = 0.015, the relative cross-section area and weight will sometimes be more but it is a possibility of current building technology.
Project 2. GEO 37,000 km Space Tower (Mast). The research shows the building of the geosynchronous tower-mast (include the optimal tower-mast) is very difficult. For K = 0.3 (it is over the top limit margin of safety for quartz, corundum) the tower mass is ten millions of times more than load, the extensions must be made from nanotubes and they weakly help. The problems of stability and flexibility then appear. The situation is strongly improved if tower-mast built from diamonds (relative tower mass decreases up 100). But it is not known when we will receive the cheap artificial diamond in unlimited amount and can create from it building units.
Note: Using the compressive rods [8]. The rod compressed by gas can keep more compressive force because internal gas makes a tensile stress in a rod material. That longitudinal stress cannot be more then a half safety tensile stress of road material because the compressed gas creates also a tensile radial rod force (stress) which is two times more than longitudinal tensile stress. As the result the rod material has a complex stress (compression in a longitudinal direction and a tensile in the radial direction). Assume these stress is independent. The gas has a weight which must be added to total steel weight. Safety pressure for steel and duralumin from the internal gas increases K in 35 - 45%.
Unfortunately, the gas support depends on temperature. That means the mast can loss this support at night. Moreover, the construction will contain the thousands of rods and some of them may be not enough leakproof or lose the gas during of a design lifetime. I think it is a danger to use the gas pressure rods in space tower.
2. Inflatable tower [9]-[12].
The optimal (minimum weight of cover) inflatable towers were researched and computed in [9-12].
The proposed inflatable towers are cheaper by factors of hundreds. They can be built on the Earth’s surface and their height can be increased as necessary. Their base is not large. The main innovations in this project are the application of helium, hydrogen, or warm air for filling inflatable structures at high altitude and the solution of a safety and stability problem for tall (thin) inflatable columns, and utilization of new artificial materials, as artificial fiber, whisker and nanotubes.
The results of computation for optimal inflatable space towers taken from [11] are below.
Project 1. Inflatable 3 km tower-mast. (Base radius 5 m, 15 ft, K = 0.1). This inexpensive project provides experience in design and construction of a tall inflatable tower, and of its stability. The project also provides funds from tourism, radio and television. The inflatable tower has a height of 3 km (10,000 ft). Tourists will not need a special suit or breathing device at this altitude. They can enjoy an Earth panorama of a radius of up 200 km. The bravest of them could experience 20 seconds of free-fall time followed by 2g overload.
Results of computations. Assume the additional air pressure is 0.1 atm, air temperature is 288 oK (15 oC, 60 oF), base radius of tower is 5 m, K = 0.1. If the tower cone is optimal, the tower top radius must be 4.55 m. The maximum useful tower top lift is 46 tons. The cover thickness is 0.087 mm at the base and 0.057 mm at the top. The outer cover mass is only 11.5 tons.
If we add light internal partitions, the total cover weight will be about 16 – 18 tons (compared to 3 million tons for the 553 m tower in Toronto). Maximum safe bending moment versus altitude ranges from 390 ton×meter (at the base) to 210 ton×meter at the tower top.
[pic]
Fig. 1. Inflatable tower.
Notations: 1 - Inflatable column, 2 - observation desk, 3 - load cable elevator, 4 - passenger cabin, 5 - expansion, 6 - engine, 7 - radio and TV antenna, 8 - rollers of cable transport system, 9 - control.
[pic]
Fig.2. Section of inflatable tower. Notations: 10 – horizontal film partitions; 11 – light second film (internal cover); 12 – air balls-- special devices like floating balloons to track leaks (will migrate to leak site and will temporarily seal a hole); 13 – entrance line of compression air and pressure control; 14 – exit line of air and control; 15 – control laser beam; 16 – sensors of laser beam location; 17 – control cables and devices; 18 – section volume.
Project 2. Helium tower 30 km (Base radius is 5 m, 15 ft, K = 0.1)
Results of computation. Let us take the additional pressure over atmospheric pressure as 0.1 atm. For K = 0.1 the radius is 2 m at an altitude of 30 km. For K = 0.1 useful lift force is about 75 tons at an altitude of 30 km, thus it is a factor of two times greater than the 3 km air tower. It is not surprising, because the helium is lighter than air and it provides a lift force. The cover thickness changes from 0.08 mm (at the base) to 0.42 mm at an altitude of 9 km and decreases to 0.2 mm at 30 km. The outer cover mass is about 370 tons. Required helium mass is 190 tons.
Project 3. Air-hydrogen tower 100 km. (Base radius of air part is 25 m, the hydrogen part has base radius 5 m). This tower is in two parts. The lower part (0–15 km) is filled with air. The top part (15–100 km) is filled with hydrogen. It makes this tower safer, because the low atmospheric pressure at high altitude decreases the probability of fire. Both parts may be used for tourists.
Air part, 0–15 km. The base radius is 25 m, the additional pressure is 0.1 atm, average temperature is 240 oK, and the stress coefficient K = 0.1. Change of radius is 25 ÷16 m, the useful tower lift force is 90 tons, and the tower outer tower cover thickness is 0.43 ÷ 0.03 mm; maximum safe bending moment is (0.5 ÷ 0.03)×104 ton×meter; the cover mass is 570 tons. This tower can be used for tourism and as an astronomy observatory. For K = 0.1, the lower (0÷15 km) part of the project requires 570 tons of outer cover and provides 90 tons of useful top lift force.
Hydrogen part, 15–100 km. This part has base radius 5 m, additional gas pressure 0.1 atm, and requires a stronger cover, with K = 0.2.
The results of computation are presented in the following figures: the tower radius versus altitude is 5 ÷ 1.4 m; the tower thickness is 0.06 ÷ 0.013 mm; the cover mass is 112 tons; the lift force is 5 ton; hydrogen mass is 40 tons.
The useful top tower load can be about 5 tons, maximum, for K = 0.2. The cover mass is 112 tons, the hydrogen lift force is 37 tons. The top tower will press on the lower part with a force of only 112 – 37 + 5 = 80 tons. The lower part can support 90 tons.
The proposed projects use the optimal change of radius, but designers must find the optimal combination of the air and gas parts and gas pressure.
3. Circle (centrifugal) Space Towers [16 - 17]
Description of Circle (centrifugal) Tower (Space Keeper).
The installation includes (Fig.3): a closed-loop cable made from light, strong material (such as artificial fibers, whiskers, filaments, nanotubes, composite material) and a main engine, which rotates the cable at a fast speed in a vertical plane. The centrifugal force makes the closed-loop cable a circle. The cable circle is supported by two pairs (or more) of guide cables, which connect at one end to the cable circle by a sliding connection and at the other end to the planet’s surface. The installation has a transport (delivery) system comprising the closed-loop load cables (chains), two end rollers at the top and bottom that can have medium rollers, a load engine and a load. The top end of the transport system is connected to the cable circle by a sliding connection; the lower end is connected to a load motor. The load is connected to the load cable by a sliding control connection.
[pic]
Fig.3. Circle launcher (space station keeper) and space transport system. Notations: 1 – cable circle, 2 – main engine, 3 – transport system, 4 – top roller, 5 – additional cable, 6 – the load (space station), 7 – mobile cabin, 8 – lower roller, 9 – engine of the transport system.
The installation can have the additional cables to increase the stability of the main circle, and the transport system can have an additional cable in case the load cable is damaged.
The installation works in the following way. The main engine rotates the cable circle in the vertical plane at a sufficiently high speed so the centrifugal force becomes large enough to it lifts the cable and transport system. After this, the transport system lifts the space station into space.
The first modification of the installation is shown in Fig. 4. There are two main rollers 20, 21. These rollers change the direction of the cable by 90 degrees so that the cable travels along the diameter of the circle, thus creating the form of a semi-circle. It can also have two engines. The other parts are same.
[pic]
Fig. 4. Semi-circle launcher (space station keeper) and transport system. Notation is the same with Fig. 3.1 with the additional 20 and 21 – rollers. The semi-circles are same.
Project 1. Space Station for Tourists or a Scientific Laboratory at an Altitude of 140 km (Figs.4).The closed-loop cable is a semi-circle. The radius of the circle is 150 km. The space station is a cabin with a weight of 4 tons (9000 lb) at an altitude of 150 km (94 miles). This altitude is 140 km under load.
The results of computations for three versions (different cable strengths) of this project are in Table 1.
Table 1. Results of computation of Project 1.
Variant s, kg/mm2 g, kg/m3 K = s¤g /107 Vmax , km/s Hmax , km S, mm2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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1 8300 1800 4.6 6.8 2945 1
2 7000 3500 2.0 4.47 1300 1
3 500 1800 0.28 1.67 180 100
Pmax[tons] G, kg Lift force, kg/m Loc. Load, kg L, km a0 DH, km
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
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30 1696 0.0634 4000 63 13.9 5.0
12.5 3282 0.0265 4000 151 16.6 7.2
30.4 170x103 0.0645 4000 62 4.6 0.83
Cable Thrust Cable drag Cable drag Power MW PowerMW Max.Tourists
Tmax, kg, H = 0 km, kg H = 4 km, kg H = 0 km H = 4 km men/day
15 16 17 18 19 20
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8300 2150 1500 146 102 800
7000 1700 1100 76 49 400
50000 7000 5000 117 83.5 800
The column numbers are: 1) the number of the variant; 2) the permitted maximum tensile strength [kg/mm2]; 3) the cable density [kg/m3]; 4) the ratio K = s/g 10–7; 5) the maximum cable speed [km/s] for a given tensile strength; 6) the maximum altitude [km] for a given tensile strength; 7) the cross-sectional area of the cable [mm2]; 8) the maximum lift force of one semi-circle [ton]; 9) the weight of the two semi-circle cable [kg]; 10) the lift force of one meter of cable [kg/m]; 11) the local load (4 tons or 8889 lb); 12) the length of the cable required to support the given (4 tons) load [km]; 13) the cable angle to the horizon near the local load [degrees]; 14) the change of altitude near the local load; 15) the maximum cable thrust [kg]; 16) the air drag on one semi-circle cable if the driving (motor) station is located on the ground (at altitude H = 0) for a half turbulent boundary layer; 17) the air drag of the cable if the drive station is located on a mountain at H = 4 km; 18) the power of the drive stations [MW] (two semi-circles) if located at H = 0; 19) the power of the drive stations [MW] if located at H = 4 km; 20) the number of tourists (tourist capacity) per day (0.35 hour in station) for double semi-circles.
Discussion of Project 1.
1) The first variant has a cable diameter of 1.13 mm (0.045 inches) and a general cable weight of 1696 kg (3658 lb). It needs a power (engine) station to provide from 102 to a maximum of 146 MW (the maximum amount is needed for additional research).
2) The second variant needs the engine power from 49 to 76 MW.
3) The third variant uses a cable with tensile strength near that of current fibers. The cable has a diameter of 11.3 mm (0.45 inches) and a weight of 170 tons. It needs an engine to provide from 83.5 to 117 MW.
The systems may be used for launching (up to 1 ton daily) satellites and interplanetary probes. The installation may be used as a relay station for TV, radio, and telephones.
4. Kinetic and Cable Space Tower [13-15].
The installation includes (see notations in Fig.5): a strong closed-loop cable, rollers, any conventional engine, a space station (top platform), a load elevator, and support stabilization cables (expansions).
The installation works in the following way. The engine rotates the bottom roller and permanently moves the closed-loop cable at high speed. The cable reaches a top roller at high altitude, turns back and moves to the bottom roller. When the cable turns back it creates a reflected (centrifugal) force. This force can easily be calculated using centrifugal theory, or as reflected mass using a reflection (momentum) theory. The force keeps the space station suspended at the top roller; and the cable (or special cabin) allows the delivery of a load to the space station. The station has a parachute that saves people if the cable or engine fails.
[pic]
Fig.5. a. Offered kinetic tower: 1 – mobile closed loop cable, 2 – top roller of the tower, 3 – bottom roller of the tower, 4 – engine, 5 – space station, 6 – elevator, 7 – load cabin, 8 – tensile element (stabilizing rope).
b. Design of top roller.
The theory shows, that current widely produced artificial fibers allow the cable to reach altitudes up to 100 km (see Projects 1 and 2 in [14]). If more altitude is required a multi-stage tower must be used (see Project 3 in [14]). If a very high altitude is needed (geosynchronous orbit or more), a very strong cable made from nanotubes must be used (see Project 4 in [14]).
The tower may be used for a horizon launch of the space apparatus. The vertical kinetic towers support horizontal closed-loop cables rotated by the vertical cables. The space apparatus is lifted by the vertical cable, connected to horizontal cable and accelerated to the required velocity.
The closed-loop cable can have variable length. This allows the system to start from zero altitude, and gives its workers/users the ability to increase the station altitude to a required value, and to spool the cable for repair. The innovation device for this action is shown in Fig. 8-6 [14]. The spool can reel up and unreel in the left and right branches of the cable at different speeds and can alter the length of the cable.
The safety speed of the cable spool is same with the safety speed of cable because the spool operates as a free roller. The conventional rollers made from the composite cable material have same safety speed with cable. The suggested spool is an innovation because it is made only from cable (no core) and it allows reeling up and unreeling simultaneously with different speed. That is necessary for change the tower altitude.
The small drive rollers press the cable to main (large) drive roller, provide a high friction force between the cable and the drive rollers and pull (rotate) the cable loop.
Project 1. Kinetic Tower of Height 4 km. For this project is taken a conventional artificial fiber widely produced by industry with the following cable performances: safety stress is ( = 180 kg/mm2 (maximum ( = 600 kg/mm2, safety coefficient n = 600/180 = 3.33), density is ( = 1800 kg/m3, cable diameter d = 10 mm.
The special stress is k = ((( = 106 m2/s2 (K = k/107 = 0.1), safe cable speed is V = k0.5 = 1000 m/s, the cable cross-section area is S = (d2/4 = 78.5 mm2, useful lift force is F = 2S((k-gH) = 27.13 tons. Requested engine power is P = 16 MW (Eq. (10), [15]), cable mass is M = 2S(H = 2.78.5.10–6 .1800.4000 = 1130 kg.
5. Electrostatic Space Tower [18]-[19].
1. Description of Electrostatic Tower. The offered electrostatic space tower (or mast, or space elevator) is shown in fig.6. That is inflatable cylinder (tube) from strong thin dielectric film having variable radius. The film has inside the sectional thin conductive layer 9. Each section is connected with issue of control electric voltage. In inside the tube there is the electron gas from free electrons. The electron gas is separated by in sections by a thin partition 11. The layer 9 has a positive charge equals a summary negative charge of the inside electrons. The tube (mast) can have the length (height) up Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO, about 36,000 km) or up 120,000 km (and more) as in project (see below). The very high tower allows to launch free (without spend energy in launch stage) the interplanetary space ships. The offered optimal tower is design so that the electron gas in any cross-section area compensates the tube weight and tube does not have compressing longitudinal force from weight. More over the tower has tensile longitudinal (lift) force which allows the tower has a vertical position. When the tower has height more GEO the additional centrifugal force of the rotate Earth provided the vertical position and natural stability of tower.
The bottom part of tower located in troposphere has the bracing wires 4 which help the tower to resist the troposphere wind.
The control sectional conductivity layer allows to create the high voltage running wave which accelerates (and brakes) the cabins (as rotor of linear electrostatic engine) to any high speed. Electrostatic forces also do not allow the cabin to leave the tube.
[pic]
Fig.6. Electrostatic AB tower (mast, Space Elevator). (a) Side view, (b) Cross-section along axis, (c) Cross-section wall perpendicular axis. Notations: 1 - electrostatic AB tower (mast, Space Elevator); 2 - Top space station; 3 - passenger, load cabin with electrostatic linear engine; 4 - bracing (in troposphere); 5 - geosynchronous orbit; 6 - tensile force from electron gas; 7 - Earth; 8 - external layer of isolator; 9 - conducting control layer having sections; 10 - internal layer of isolator; 11 - internal dielectric partition; 12 - electron gas, 13 - laser control beam.
2. Electron gas and AB tube. The electron gas consists of conventional electrons. In contract to molecular gas the electron gas has many surprising properties. For example, electron gas (having same mass density) can have the different pressure in the given volume. Its pressure depends from electric intensity, but electric intensity is different in different part of given volume. For example, in our tube the electron intensity is zero in center of cylindrical tube and maximum at near tube surface.
The offered AB-tube is main innovation in the suggested tower. One has a positive control charges isolated thin film cover and electron gas inside. The positive cylinder create the zero electric field inside the tube and electron conduct oneself as conventional molecules that is equal mass density in any points. When kinetic energy of electron is less then energy of negative ionization of the dielectric cover or the material of the electric cover does not accept the negative ionization, the electrons are reflected from cover. In other case the internal cover layer is saturated by negative ions and begin also to reflect electrons. Impotent also that the offered AB electrostatic tube has neutral summary charge in outer space.
Advantages of electrostatic tower. The offered electrostatic tower has very important advantages in comparison with space elevator:
1. Electrostatic AB tower (mast) may be built from Earth's surface without rockets. That decreases the cost of electrostatic mast in thousands times.
2. One can have any height and has a big control load capacity.
3. In particle, electrostatic tower can have the height of a geosynchronous orbit (37,000 km) WITHOUT the additional continue the space elevator (up 120,000 ( 160,000 km) and counterweight (equalizer) of hundreds tons.
4. The offered mast has less the total mass in tens of times then conventional space elevator.
5. The offered mast can be built from lesser strong material then space elevator cable (comprise the computation here and in [13] Ch.1).
6. The offered tower can have the high speed electrostatic climbers moved by high voltage electricity from Earth's surface.
7. The offered tower is more safety against meteorite then cable space elevator, because the small meteorite damaged the cable is crash for space elevator, but it is only create small hole in electrostatic tower. The electron escape may be compensated by electron injection.
8. The electrostatic mast can bend in need direction when we give the electric voltage in need parts of the mast.
The electrostatic tower of height 100 ( 500 km may be built from current artificial fiber material in present time. The geosynchronous electrostatic tower needs in more strong material having a strong coefficient K ≥ 2 (whiskers or nanotubes, see below).
3. Other applications of offered AB tube idea.
The offered AB-tube with the positive charged cover and the electron gas inside may find the many applications in other technical fields. For example:
1) Air dirigible. (1) The airship from the thin film filled by an electron gas has 30% more lift force then conventional dirigible filled by helium. (2) Electron dirigible is significantly cheaper then same helium dirigible because the helium is very expensive gas. (3) One does not have problem with changing the lift force because no problem to add or to delete the electrons.
2) Long arm. The offered electron control tube can be used as long control work arm for taking the model of planet ground, rescue operation, repairing of other space ships and so on [13] Ch.9.
3) Superconductive or closed to superconductive tubes. The offered AB-tube must have a very low electric resistance for any temperature because the electrons into tube to not have ions and do not loss energy for impacts with ions. The impact the electron to electron does not change the total impulse (momentum) of couple electrons and electron flow. If this idea is proved in experiment, that will be big breakthrough in many fields of technology.
4) Superreflectivity. If free electrons located between two thin transparency plates, that may be superreflectivity mirror for widely specter of radiation. That is necessary in many important technical field as light engine, multy-reflect propulsion [13] Ch.12 and thermonuclear power [21] Ch.11.
The other application of electrostatic ideas is Electrostatic solar wind propulsion [13] Ch.13, Electrostatic utilization of asteroids for space flight [13] Ch.14, Electrostatic levitation on the Earth and artificial gravity for space ships and asteroids [13, Ch.15], Electrostatic solar sail [13] Ch.18, Electrostatic space radiator [13] Ch.19, Electrostatic AB ramjet space propulsion [20], etc.[21].
Project. As the example (not optimal design!) author of [19] takes three electrostatic towers having: the base (top) radius r0 = 10 m; K = 2; heights H = 100 km, 36,000 km (GEO); and H = 120,000 km (that may be one tower having named values at given altitudes); electric intensity E = 100 MV/m and 150 MV/m. The results of estimation are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The results of estimation main parameters of three AB towers (masts)
having the base (top) radius r0 = 10 m and strength coefficient K = 2 for two E =100, 150 MV/m.
| Value |E MV/m |H=100 km |H=36,000km |H=120,000km |
|Lower Radius , m | - | 10 |100 |25 |
|Useful lift force, ton | 100 |700 |5 |100 |
|Useful lift force, ton | 150 |1560 |11 |180 |
|Cover thickness, mm | 100 |1(10 -2 |1(10 -3 |0.7(10 -2 |
|Cover thickness, mm | 150 |1.1(10 -2 |1.2(10 -3 |1(10 -2 |
|Mass of cover, ton | 100 |140 |3(103 |1(104 |
|Mass of cover, ton | 150 |315 |1(104 |2(104 |
|Electric charge, C | 100 |1.1(104 |3(105 |12(105 |
|Electric charge, C | 150 |1.65(104 |4.5(105 |1.7(106 |
Conclusion. The offered inflatable electrostatic AB mast has gigantic advantages in comparison with conventional space elevator. Main of them is follows: electrostatic mast can be built any height without rockets, one needs material in tens times less them space elevator. That means the electrostatic mast will be in hundreds times cheaper then conventional space elevator. One can be built on the Earth’s surface and their height can be increased as necessary. Their base is very small.
The main innovations in this project are the application of electron gas for filling tube at high altitude and a solution of a stability problem for tall (thin) inflatable mast by control structure.
6. Electromagnetic Space Towers (AB-Levitron) [20].
The AB-Levitron uses two large conductive rings with very high electric current (fig.7). They create intense magnetic fields. Directions of the electric currents are opposed one to the other and the rings are repelling, one from another. For obtaining enough force over a long distance, the electric current must be very strong. The current superconductive technology allows us to get very high-density electric current and enough artificial magnetic field at a great distance in space.
The superconductive ring does not spend net electric energy and can work for a long time period, but it requires an integral cooling system because current superconducting materials have a critical temperature of about 150-180 K. This is a cryogenic temperature.
However, the present computations of methods of heat defense (for example, by liquid nitrogen) are well developed and the induced expenses for such cooling are small.
The ring located in space does not need any conventional cooling—there, defense from Sun and Earth radiations is provided by high-reflectivity screens. However, a ring in space must have parts open to outer space for radiating of its heat and support the maintaining of low ambient temperature. For variable direction of radiation, the mechanical screen defense system may be complex. However, there are thin layers of liquid crystals that permit the automatic control of their energy reflectivity and transparency and the useful application of such liquid crystals making it easier for appropriate space cooling system. This effect is used by new man-made glasses that can grow dark in bright solar light.
[pic]
Figure 7. Explanation of AB-Levitron Tower. (a) Artificial magnetic field; (b) AB-Levitron from two same closed superconductivity rings; (c) AB-Levitron - motionless satellite, space station or communication mast. Notation: 1- ground superconductivity ring; 2 - levitating ring; 3 - suspended stationary satellite (space station, communication equipment, etc.); 4 - suspension cable; 5 - elevator (climber) and electric cable; 6 - elevator cabin; 7 - magnetic lines of ground ring; R - radius of lover (ground) superconductivity ring; r - radius of top ring; h - altitude of top ring; H - magnetic intensity; S - ring area.
The most important problem of the AB-Levitron is the stability of the top ring. The top ring is in equilibrium, but it is out of balance when it is not parallel to the ground ring. Author offers to suspend a load (satellite, space station, equipment, etc) lower than this ring plate. In this case, a center of gravity is lower a net lift force and the system then become stable.
For mobile vehicles the AB-Levitron can have a running-wave of magnetic intensity which can move the vehicle (produce electric current), making it significantly mobile in the traveling medium.
Project #1. Stationary space station at altitude 100 km. The author of [20] estimates the stationary space station located at altitude h = 100 km. He takes the initial data: Electric current in the top superconductivity ring is i = 106 A; radius of the top ring is r = 10 km; electric current in the superconductivity ground ring is J = 108 A; density of electric current is j = 106 A/mm2; specific mass of wire is ( = 7000 kg/m3; specific mass of suspending cable and lift (elevator) cable is ( = 1800 kg/m3; safety tensile stress suspending and lift cable is ( = 1.5(109 N/m2 = 150 kg /mm2; ( = 45o , safety superconductivity magnetic intensity is B = 100 T. Mass of lift (elevator) cabin is 1000 kg.
Then the optimal radius of the ground ring is R = 81.6 km (Eq, (3)[20], we can take R = 65 km); the mass of space station is MS = F = 40 tons (Eq.(2)). The top ring wire mass is 440 kg or together with control screen film is Mr = 600 kg. Mass of two-cable elevator is 3600 kg; mass of suspending cable is less 9600 kg, mass of parachute is 2200 kg. As the result the useful mass of space station is Mu = 40 - (0.6+1+3.6+9.6+2.2) = 23 tons.
Minimal wire radius of top ring is RT = 2 mm (Eq. (10)[20]). If we take it RT = 4 mm the magnetic pressure will be PT =100 kg/mm2. Minimal wire radius of the ground ring is RT = 0.2 m. If we take it RT = 0.4 m the magnetic pressure will me PT =100 kg/mm2. Minimal rotation speed (take into consideration the suspending cable) is V = 645 m/s, time of one revolution is t = 50 sec. Electric energy in the top ring is small, but in the ground ring is very high E = 1014 J. That is energy of 2500 tons of liquid fuel (such as natural gas, methane).
The requisite power of the cooling system for ground ring is about P = 30 kW.
2. Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures [22]. These structures use the special magnetic AB-columns [Fig. 8]. Author of [22] computed two projects: suspended moveless space station at altitude 100 km and the geosynchronous space station at altitude 37,000 km. He shows that space stations may be cheap launched by current technology (magnetic force without rockets) and climber can have a high speed.
As the reader observes, all parameters are accessible using existing and available technology. They are not optimal.
General conclusion
Current technology can build the high height and space towers (mast). We can start an inflatable or steel tower having the height 3 km. This tower is very useful (profitable) for communication, tourism and military. The inflatable tower is significantly cheaper (in ten tines) then a steel tower, but it is having a lower life times (up 30-50 years) in comparison the steel tower having the life times 100 – 200 years. The new advance materials can change this ratio and will make very profitable the high height towers. The circle, kinetic, electrostatic and magnetic space towers promise a jump in building of space towers but they are needed in R&D. The information about the current tallest structures the reader find in [23].
[pic]
Fig.8. Suspended Magnetic AB-Structure
References
Many works noted below the reader can find on site Cornel University and search "Bolonkin", site and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, , search "Bolonkin")
1. D.V. Smitherman, Jr., “Space Elevators”, NASA/CP-2000-210429.
2. K.E. Tsiolkovski:”Speculations Abot Earth and Sky on Vesta”, Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1959;
Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR., Moscow, p. 35, 1999.
3. Geoffrey A. Landis, Craig Cafarelli, The Tsiolkovski Tower Re-Examined, JBIS, Vol. 32, p. 176–180, 1999.
4. Y. Artsutanov. Space Elevator, .
5. A.C. Clarke: Fountains of Paradise, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1978.
6. Bolonkin A.A., (2006). Optimal Solid Space Tower, Paper AIAA-2006-7717, ATIO Conference, 25-
27 Sept.,2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA, .
See also paper AIAA-2006-4235 by A. Bolonkin.
7. Bolonkin A.A. (2007), Optimal Rigid Space Tower, Paper AIAA-2007-367, 45th Aerospace Science Meeting, Reno, Nevada, 8-11 Jan.,2007, USA. search “Bolonkin”.
8. Book "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch.9, “Optimal Solid
Space Tower”, pp.161-172. .
9. Bolonkin A.A.,(2002), "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers of High Height", COSPAR-02 C1.
10035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The Wold Space Congress - 2002, 10 -19 Oct. 2002, Houston, Texas, USA.
10. Bolonkin A.A. (2003),Optimal Inflatable Space Towers with 3 -100 km Height", JBIS, Vol.56,No.3/4, pp.87-97, 2003. .
11. Book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", by A.Bolonkin, Elsevier. 2006, Ch.4 “Optimal Inflatable Space Towers”, pp.83-106; , .
12. Book "Macro-Engineering: Environment and Technology", Ch.1E “Artificial Mountains”,
pp. 299-334, NOVA, 2008. ,
, search term “Bolonkkin”.
13. Book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch. 9 “Kinetic Anti-Gravotator”,
pp. 165-186; , ; Main idea of this Chapter was presented as papers COSPAR-02, C1.1-0035-02 and IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03, 53rd International Astronautical Congress. The World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October 2002, Houston, TX, USA, and the full manuscript was accepted as AIAA-2005-4504, 41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA. search “Bolonkin”.
14. Book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier. 2006, Ch.5 “Kinetic Space Towers”, pp. 107-124, Springer, 2006. or .
15. “Transport System for Delivery Tourists at Altitude 140 km”, manuscript was presented as Bolonkin’s paper IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03 at the World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October, Houston, TX, USA. ,
16. Bolonkin A.A. (2003), “Centrifugal Keeper for Space Station and Satellites”, JBIS, Vol.56, No. 9/10, 2003, pp. 314-327. .
17. Book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", by A.Bolonkin, Elsevier. 2006, Ch.3 ”Circle Launcher and Space Keeper”, pp.59-82. ,
18. Bolonkin A.A. (2007), “Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower”, Presented as Paper AIAA-2007-6201 to 43rd AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference, 8-11 July 2007, Cincinnati, OH, USA. search “Bolonkin”. See also “Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower” in: ,
19. Book "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch. 11 “Optimal
Electrostatic Space Tower (Mast, New Space Elevator)”, pp.189-204.
.
20. Book "New Concepts, Ideas and Innovation in Aerospace", NOVA, 2008, Ch.12, pp.205-220
“AB Levitrons and Their Applications to Earth’s Motionless Satellites”. (About Electromagnetic Tower). .
21. Book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology”, NOVA, 2008, Ch.12, pp.251-270,
“Electronic Tubes and Quasi-Superconductivity at Room Temperature”, (about Electronic Towers).
, .
22. Bolonkin A.A., Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Moveless Space Satellites.
23. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative
Commons license. .
Part B
Projects solvable by current technology
Chapter B4 Gas Pipeline 8 29 09
Chapter 1B
Aerial Gas Pipeline
Abstract
Design of new cheap aerial pipelines, a large flexible tube deployed at high altitude, for delivery of natural (fuel) gas, water and other payload over a long distance is delineated. The main component of the natural gas is methane which has a specific weight less than air. A lift force of one cubic meter of methane equals approximately 0.5 kg (1 pound). The lightweight film flexible pipeline can be located in air at high altitude and, as such, does not damage the environment. Using the lift force of this pipeline and wing devices payloads of oil, water, or other fluids, or even solids such as coal, cargo, passengers can be delivered cheaply at long distance. This aerial pipeline dramatically decreases the cost and the time of construction relative to conventional pipelines of steel which saves energy and greatly lowers the capital cost of construction.
The article contains a computed project for delivery 24 billion cubic meters of gas and tens of million tons of oil, water or other payload per year.
Key words: gas pipeline, water pipeline, aerial pipeline, cheap pipeline, altitude pipeline, inflatable pipeline.
*Presented in , 2008, search “Bolonkin”,
Introduction
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane (CH4) but including significant quantities of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane—heavier hydrocarbons removed prior to use as a consumer fuel —as well as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo extensive processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
Natural gas is not only cheaper, but burns cleaner than other fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit energy released. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal.
The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is transportation and storage because of its low density. Natural gas conventional pipelines are economical, but they are impractical across oceans. Many existing pipelines in North America are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some politicians representing colder areas to speak publicly of potential shortages.
With 15 nations accounting for 84% of the world-wide production, access to natural gas has become a significant factor in international economics and politics. The world's largest gas field by far is Qatar's offshore North Field, estimated to have 25 trillion cubic meters (9.0×1014 cu ft) of gas in place—enough to last more than 200 years at optimum production levels. The second largest natural gas field is the South Pars Gas Field in Iranian waters in the Persian Gulf. Connected to Qatar's North Field, it has estimated reserves of 8 to 14 trillion cubic meters (2.8×1014 to 5.0×1014 cu ft) of gas.
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field (known as flaring). This wasteful practice is now illegal in many countries. Additionally, companies now recognize that value for the gas may be achieved with liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), or other transportation methods to end-users in the future. LNG carriers can be used to transport (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can carry liquefied or CNG over shorter distances. They may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to distribution points such as pipelines for further transport. These may have a higher cost, requiring additional facilities for liquefaction or compression at the production point, and then gasification or decompression at end-use facilities or into a pipeline.
Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil or natural gas over land. Compared to railroad, they have lower cost per unit and also higher capacity. Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by tanker ships. The current supertankers include Very Large Crude Carriers and Ultra Large Crude Carriers. Because, when full, some of the large supertankers can dock only in deepwater ports, they are often lightened by transferring the petroleum in small batches to smaller tankers, which then bring it into port. On rivers, barges are often used to transport petroleum.
Pipelines, most commonly transport liquid and gases, but pneumatic tubes that transport solid capsules using compressed air have also been used. Transportation pressure is generally 1,000 pounds per square inch (70 kilograms per square centimeter up to 220 atm) because transportation costs are lowest for pressures in this range. Pipeline diameters for such long-distance transportation have tended to increase from an average of about 24 to 29 inches (60 to 70 centimeters) in 1960 to about 4 feet (1.20 meters). Some projects involve diameters of more than 6 1/2 feet (2 meters). Because of pressure losses, the pressure is boosted every 50 or 60 miles (80 or 100 kilometers) to keep a constant rate of flow.
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with inner diameter typically from 10 to 120 cm (about 4 to 48 inches). Most pipelines are buried at a typical depth of about 1 - 2 metres (about 3 to 6 feet). The oil is kept in motion by pump stations along the pipeline, and usually flows at speed of about 1 to 6 m/s.
For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of carbon steel and varying in size from 2 inches (51 mm) to 56 inches (1,400 mm) in diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by compressor stations and is odorless unless mixed with a mercaptan odorant where required by the proper regulating body. Pumps for liquid pipelines and Compressors for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.
Block Valve Station is the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of pipeline.
Conventional pipelines can be the target of theft, vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks, as destruction of pipelines can seriously disrupt enemy logistics.
The ground gas and oil pipeline significantly damage the natural environment, but as the demand is so great, ecological concerns are over-ridden by economic factors.
Increased Demand for Natural Gas
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas turbines and steam turbines. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, and this technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a reasonable cost. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner options for converting natural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive.
Natural gas is supplied to homes, where it is used for such purposes as cooking in natural gas-powered ranges and/or ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling and central heating. Home or other building heating may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. CNG is used in rural homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. However, due to CNG being less economical than LPG, LPG (Propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.
Compressed natural gas (methane) is a cleaner alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol) and diesel. As of 2005, the countries with the largest number of natural gas vehicles were Argentina, Brazil, Pakistan, Italy, Iran, and the United States. The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of their engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas (10%-15%). CNG-specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel's higher octane number of 120-130.
Russian aircrafts manufacturer Tupolev is currently running a development program to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft. The program has been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. It claims that at current market prices, an LNG-powered aircraft would cost 5,000 roubles (~ $218/ £112) less to operate per ton, roughly equivalent to 60%, with considerable reduction of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the standard kerosene mixes and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.
Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has various applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and a fuel source in hydrogen vehicles. Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, and other products.
It is difficult to evaluate the cost of heating a home with natural gas compared to that of heating oil, because of differences of energy conversion efficiency, and the widely fluctuating price of crude oil. However, for illustration, one can calculate a representative cost per BTU. Assuming the following current values (2008):
For natural gas.
• One cubic foot of natural gas produces about 1,030 BTU (38.4 MJ/m³).
• The price of natural gas is $9.00 per thousand cubic feet ($0.32/m³).
For heating oil.
• One US gallon of heating oil produces about 138,500 BTU (38.6 MJ/l).
• The price of heating oil is $2.50 per US gallon ($0.66/l) .
This gives a cost of $8.70 per million BTU ($8.30/GJ) for natural gas, as compared to $18 per million BTU ($17/GJ) for fuel oil. Of course, such comparisons fluctuate with time and vary from place to place dependent on the cost of the raw materials and local taxation.
Current pipelines.
Natural gas pipelines. The long-distance transportation of natural gas became practical in the late 1920s with improvements in pipeline technology. From 1927 to 1931 more than ten major gas pipeline systems were built in the United States. Gas pipelines in Canada connect gas fields in western provinces to major eastern cities. One of the longest gas pipelines in the world is the Northern Lights pipeline, which is 3,400 miles (5,470 kilometers) long and links the West Siberian gas fields on the Arctic Circle with locations in Eastern Europe.
Oil and petroleum products pipelines. Pipelines are used extensively in petroleum handling. In the field, pipes called gathering lines carry the crude oil from the wells to large storage depots located near the oil field. From these depots the oil enters long-distance trunk lines, which may carry it to an intermediate storage point or directly to refineries.
By the last quarter of the 20th century, there were about 250,000 miles (400,000 kilometers) of oil pipeline in operation in the United States. About one third of the total mileage consisted of crude-oil trunk lines. Pipelines carry large volumes of crude oil from fields in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma to refineries in the Midwest and on the East coast of the United States. The 800-mile (1,300-kilometer) north-south trans-Alaskan oil pipeline, which began operation in 1977, connects the Prudhoe Bay fields on the northern coast of Alaska to Valdez on Prince William Sound. Europe also has several crude-oil pipelines supplying inland refineries. In the Middle East large pipelines carry crude oil from oil fields in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and other oil-exporting countries to deepwater terminals on the Mediterranean Sea.
From the refinery, large volumes of petroleum products travel to the market area by way of product lines. In areas of high consumption, several similar products gasoline, furnace oil, and diesel oil, for example may be shipped in the same line in successive batches of several tens or hundreds of thousands of barrels each. The first European product line, called the TRAPIL line, was completed in 1953 in France. In 1964 the world's largest products line began operation in the United States; the pipeline can transport 1 million barrels of products per day from Houston, Tex., to New Jersey.[1]
The trans-Alaskan pipeline was the most expensive pipeline in the world costing 9 billion dollars to build. It is 48 inches (122 centimeters) in diameter and 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) long. Oil moves southward through it, at a rate of 1.5 million barrels each day, from the giant Prudhoe Bay oil field on the northern coast of Alaska to the ice-free port of Valdez, where the oil is shipped by tankers to refineries on the West coast of the United States. The pipeline traverses three mountain ranges and 250 rivers and streams. For some 400 miles (640 kilometers) it is suspended on pylons above permanently frozen ground called permafrost. If the pipeline had been buried in the ground, the heat from the oil in the pipeline would have melted the permafrost, causing considerable environmental damage.
This is a list of countries by total length of pipelines mostly based on The World Fact book accessed in June 2008 .
|Rank |Country |Total length |Structure |Date of |
| | |of pipelines (km) | |Information |
|1 | United States |793,285 |petroleum products 244,620 km; natural gas 548,665 km |2006 |
|2 | Russia |244,826 |condensate 122 km; gas 158,699 km; oil 72,347 km; refined products 13,658 |2007 |
| | | |km | |
|3 | Canada |98,544 |crude and refined oil 23,564 km; liquid petroleum gas 74,980 km |2006 |
|4 | China |49,690 |gas 26,344 km; oil 17,240 km; refined products 6,106 km |2007 |
[pic]
Building typical ground pipeline.
Requires ground right of way and results in damage to ecology
[pic]
Trans-Alaska oil pipeline.
Notice the damage.
Some currently planned pipeline projects:
The Nabucco pipeline is a planned natural gas pipeline that will transport natural gas from Turkey to Austria, via Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary. It will run from Erzurum in Turkey to Baumgarten an der March, a major natural gas hub in Austria. This pipeline is a diversion from the current methods of importing natural gas solely from Russia which exposes EC to dependence and insecurity of the Kremlin practices. The project is backed by the European Union and the United States.
The pipeline will run from Erzurum in Turkey to Baumgarten an der March in Austria with total length of 3,300 kilometers (2,050 mi). It will be connected near Erzurum with the Tabriz-Erzurum pipeline, and with the South Caucasus Pipeline, connecting Nabucco Pipeline with the planned Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline. Polish gas company PGNiG is studying the possibility of building a link to Poland with the Nabucco gas pipeline.
In the first years after completion the deliveries are expected to be between 4.5 and 13 billion cubic meters (bcm) per annum, of which 2 to 8 bcm goes to Baumgarten. Later, approximately half of the capacity is expected to be delivered to Baumgarten and half of the natural gas is to serve the markets en-route. The transmission volume of around 2020 is expected to reach 31 bcm per annum, of which up to 16 bcm goes to Baumgarten. The diameter of the pipeline would be 56 inches (1,420 mm).
The project is developed by the Nabucco Gas Pipeline International GmbH. The managing director of the company is Reinhardt Mitschek. The shareholders of the company are: OMV (Austria), MOL (Hungary), Transgaz (Romania), Bulgargaz, (Bulgaria), BOTAŞ (Turkey), RWE (Germany).
In 2006, Gazprom proposed an alternative project competing Nabucco Pipeline by constructing a second section of the Blue Stream pipeline beneath the Black Sea to Turkey, and extending this up through Bulgaria, Serbia and Croatia to western Hungary. In 2007, the South Stream project through Bulgaria, Serbia and Hungary to Austria was proposed. It is seen as a rival to the Nabucco pipeline. Ukraine proposed White Stream, connecting Georgia to Ukrainian gas transport network.[2]
These mega-pipeline projects and others currently planned will require investment of at least $200Billion in the next few years. We propose a much cheaper alternative, an aerial pipeline that is lifted because natural gas is lighter than air and as such a lifting gas. An inflatable pipeline pressurized with natural gas will levitate and float up as if full of helium. Each end of the pipeline will be tethered to the ground but the middle will soar above land and sea at altitudes between .1 and 6 kilometers. It can span seas and can be up to a hundred times cheaper than conventional undersea pipelines. It can be only 100meters above the ground and easily monitored and repaired.
The main differences of the suggested Gas Transportation Method and Installation from current pipelines are:
1. The tubes are made from a lightweight flexible thin film (no steel or solid rigid hard material).
2. The gas pressure into the film tube equals an atmospheric pressure or less more ( ................
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