Debra Breland's e-Portfolio - Introduction



A Comparison of Learning Theories and theirApplications in the Design of InstructionDebra BrelandThe University of Southern MississippiAbstractEducators in the public and private sector rely on instructional designers to examine the skills, knowledge, and attitudes of targeted audiences in web-based learning modules. In an effort to identify the most effective strategies for engaging students in the learning process, the instructional designer should examine instructional strategies most conducive to learning for the particular audience in which the design is intended. This paper will examine three different learning theories and their applications in the design of instruction. The three theories examined will be Behaviorism, Discovery-based learning, and Cognitive Load Theory.Each theory will be compared to discover strengths and weaknesses, while their application in instructional design and technology project design will be discussed as it relates to the widely used ASSURE Model.A Comparison of Learning Theories and theirApplications in the Design of InstructionIn recent years, Web-based learning has become a way for learners and instructors to experiment with a wide variety of interesting and innovative environments. These environments afford the learner opportunities that are not available in the traditional classroom. According to Ertmer and Newby (2013) as an instructional designer begins the process of organizing and planning the Web-based module, instructional design models aid in constructing the various steps. By implementing learning theories in the instructional design process, the designer can better understand how learning occurs. Using theories will provide guidelines to help the designer select instructional tools, techniques, and strategies that promote learning. An instructional designer needs to take into consideration several factors before embarking on the design process. Situational and contextual restraints should be examined. The span of individual differences among the learners should be considered. The designer should be able to bridge application with research or learning theories. (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p 44)Throughout history, scholars have debated on how people learn. Hammond, et al. (2001) stated that Aristotle believed that by using his senses, knowledge can be found in the world outside of him; therefore, developing a scientific method of gathering data to study the world around him. Hammond, et al. further explained that Rene Descartes was the first scholar to recognize that the ability of the environment and mind to initiate behavior. Many other scholars studied human nature and the human brain over the years, with many other theories and ideas to support learning. However, the nineteenth century began to bring a scientific approach to the study of learning. B. F. Skinner considered learning to be based on desired behaviors. The behaviorist theory allows the student to learn in a set of sequenced steps, reinforcement, and practice. (Hammond, et al., 2001, p. 3-6)The twentieth century brings to light the theory of Constructivism, which includes the Discovery-Based Learning Theory. Hammond, et al. states the main theorists involved in founding the Constructivist theory are John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and Jean Piaget. The Constructivist Theory centers on students’ creativity and collaboration. The Constructivist Theory allows the student to easily grasp the material, as well as fostering the students’ willingness to learn. (Hammond, et al., 2001, p. 6)The final theory to be examined in this paper will be the Cognitive Load Theory that was proposed by John Sweller. In his article entitled “Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning” Mr. Sweller (1988) stated his belief that short-term memory is limited in the amount of information it can contain simultaneously, but long-term memory is made up of sophisticated structures that allow us to perceive, think, and solve problems. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses on simple, rote facts, Sweller’s theory focuses on these structures known as schemas. In relation to instructional design, instructional material must be processed by working memory first, and then working memory should be reduced. This theory works to reduce working memory load in order to change long term memory associated with schema acquisition. (Sweller, 1988) Each theory differs in its perspectives on learning though each is instrumental in shaping instructional methods and instructional design to some degree.Many instructional designers use a variety of instructional approaches and theories in their designs. It would be impractical to completely design instruction using only one theory and one model.Behaviorists believe that learning involves a behavior change. In the beginning stages of learning a new concept, learning takes place when stimuli and responses occur close together in time. In order for stimulus-response situations to take place, certain events must take place in conjunction with one another; therefore, contiguity of events takes place. (Ormrod, 2006, p. 296) When an instructional designer creates a learning program, there are certain objectives that need to be met in order to prove mastery of the subject. When the behaviorist view of learning is used in design, the aim must be to provide learners with the appropriate stimuli. The learners should be provided with opportunities to express desired behaviors that learning has actually taken place. (Keramida, 2015) When an instructional design uses the behaviorist approach, one may assume that knowledge is objective. Objective knowledge describes things that can be observed or reproduced or can be described as hard facts. In other words, there is only one right or wrong answer. Types of objective knowledge are factual, observable, and some could be both objective and subjective. Factual knowledge consists of writings and journals, recordings, newspapers, and other sources specific to an event. Observable knowledge comes from an observation such as counting the number of objects in a box. Some knowledge can be both subjective and objective such as pain. Pain is objective because we know it exists, while at the same time, it is subjective because we do not know the extent of pain of someone else. (Gardner, n.d.)In contrast, Discovery-based learning “occurs whenever the learner is not provided with the target information or conceptual understanding and must find it independently and with only the provided materials”. (Alferi, et al, 2011) Jerome Bruner introduced the theory of discovery-based learning because he believed that learners should be encouraged to build on past experiences and knowledge. Learners should use their imagination and creativity, and search for new information to discover facts. He believed that learning should be a lot more than simply absorbing what was said or read, but actively seeking for answers. (Pappas, 2014) Discovery-based learning can be a great way for students to learn to figure things out for themselves. The role of the teacher is to facilitate student discovery learning and can include anything from setting up experiments, research, debate, discussion, and many other activities that do not include telling the student the answer. In an article published by The University of Adelaide, (2013) the author states before throwing students into a task to “figure out on their own”, the instructor must first determine how much they already know. The instructor should then teach and scaffold before setting the student out on his or her own to discover. Another caution in teaching and designing under the discovery-based learning theory is for the instructor to create check-points to assess and ensure that the students are learning the material they should be learning instead of acquiring misconceptions and false information. A careful instructional design with a well-qualified instructor will ensure students are discovering credible knowledge in a reasonable manner. (Adelaide, 2013)Discovery-based learning has made significant gains on student learning in STEM programs that have been developed in high schools across the nation. Meyrick (2001) states in her article “STEM programs strive to focus on student engagement, knowledge acquisition, literacy analysis, synthesis, and critical thinking skills that impact the depth of student learning”. (Meyrick, 2001, para.4) Meyrick further states STEM and discovery-based learning is being integrated into all content areas at all grade levels as to provide students with informal practice in solving problems creatively before deciding on a career. By integrating STEM and discovery-based learning, students are involved in hands-on, problem-based projects and the opportunity to work collaboratively with other students. These critical thinking skills and collaboration is what educators call 21st Century Skills. Having these 21st Century Skills, the student has the knowledge and skills in order to compete globally for education and employment opportunities. (Meyrick, 2001)So far, this paper has examined behaviorism, which deals with the most basic rote, “yes/no” answers for information and then to discovery-based learning where students use hands-on activities to figure things out on their own. Both of the former theories would not be possible without the next theory, Cognitive Load Theory. The idea behind Cognitive Load Theory says that cognitive capacity in working memory is limited. Therefore, if a task requires too much thought process, learning will be hampered. This theory suggests that instead of simply designing instruction in such a way that working memory is used to capacity to avoid cognitive overload. (de Jong, 2010)There are three types of cognitive load, intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germaine cognitive load. Intrinsic cognitive load relates to the difficulty of the subject matter. Intrinsic cognitive load could be a task with a single, simple, element that can be learned in isolation or a task with high interactivity that requires prior knowledge. One unique feature of Intrinsic cognitive load is that it cannot be changed by instructional design or external influences. Intrinsic cognitive load is not determined by number of elements or the of elements; however, there are techniques that may help control intrinsic load such as the type of materials used and the way the material is introduced. (de Jong, 2010)In extraneous cognitive load the working memory capacity left once resources have been allocated to deal with intrinsic cognitive load can be used to deal with extraneous load. Extraneous cognitive load is imposed by the manner in which information is presented to the learners; therefore, directly related to the instructional design of the course. If the course is not designed appropriately, the mental activities required to process the information can have a negative effect on a student’s learning. Extraneous load can interfere with the construction or automation of schemas. (Malamed, 2016)The third type of cognitive load theory, Germane cognitive load, is produced as a result of the former two and the construction of schemas. This type of cognitive load theory assists in learning new skills and information. There has recently been controversy over whether germane load is related to schemata. The CLT community claims that learning can occur without germane load, but germane load enhances learning. (Debue and Leemput, 2014)Connie Malamed (2016) gives the reader six strategies to reduce extraneous cognitive load in order to prevent frustration and the possibility of a student giving up. 1) Maximize signal to noise ratio. In other words, anything that complicates learning such as poor instructions or a visually cluttered layout. 2) Promote Generative Strategies where the learner takes responsibility for learning. 3) Write concisely helps the learner to use only words that are necessary to remove clutter from writing. 4) Provide scaffolding. Scaffolding is a way of “weaning” the student from difficult tasks by providing assistance a little at a time. 5) Collaborative learning is a way of allowing students to work together. 6) Cognitive aids are any tool that can take some of the demands of working memory, such as a calculator or mobile app. (Malamed, 2016)Each of the theories described herein can be used in instructional design and technology. The systems approach to design should be used when planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction. Reasons for using the systems approach are the right focus, at the outset, on what learners are to know or be able to do when instruction is concluded. (Dick, et al., 2015, p. 9) Classes that were previously taught in the classroom may need to be re-designed to fit the online mode, with the shift to visuals, videos, audio, and careful presentation of material.The ASSURE Model consists of six steps and is an instructional model that incorporates technology. The A stands for Analyze the learner. (Kim, 2016) During this phase of design, the designer determines who the students are. By taking this step the designer can create a more productive class by learning the nature of the students locally and distant. At this time, the designer can determine cultural, social, and economic backgrounds, as well as attitudes and interests of the students. (Simonson, et al., 2015, p 133)The first S in ASSURE stands for “State Objectives”. (Kim) During this phase the instructor determines which objectives are appropriate for the learners. The first part of the objective describes what the learner will be able to do at the end of the lesson and contains both the action and the content. The second part describes what the learner will do while carrying out the task. The third part describes the criteria to be used to evaluate learner performance. (Dick, et al., 2015, p. 120) According to Bloom’s Taxonomy, when writing objectives using the Behaviorism Theory, key terms would include “list, describe, recite, write, compute, discuss…” Key terms for Discovery-Learning Theory would include “research, examine, contrast, distinguish…” There are many criteria involved in writing learning objectives, but the end goal for any designer is to transfer and retain knowledge. (missouristate.edu)The second S in the ASSURE model stands for “Select media and materials”. Many factors should go into considering which media will be used such as the age of the students, the learning objectives, the availability of technology, and the accuracy of the information. During the design process of an online course, the instructor will need to pay close attention to the mode of delivery and quality of visual materials, keeping in mind the difference between online and traditional classroom delivery. (ou.edu)Considering the three theories mentioned in this paper, each theory can play a large role in media selection. In distance learning situations, one could see many theories at work. The Cognitive Load Theory should be examined carefully when choosing media for distance learning. Too much information for the student to try to process at one time could limit understanding. Research has shown that designers should work from a cognitive theory of learning rather than from an information delivery viewpoint. Brian Chipperfield (2007) quotes Mayer and Moreno (2002) “A crucial design goal is to promote schema construction in the learner.” Results of research shows that presenting material using multimedia could bring success to the classroom if the distance learning course is designed where the cognitive processes are not overloaded. This type of design can be achieved by organizing text, pictures, colors, and other visual information so the learner can make the connection between the two. (Chipperfield, 2004)Media selection in the Discovery Based learning theory should focus on media that incorporates real world problem solving, poses thought-provoking questions, and develop self-guided online research projects. By providing online learning experiences, the student remains engaged and motivated and have an opportunity to work at their own pace. (Pappas, 2016)The U in ASSURE stands for “Utilize media and materials”. During this step, the media chosen will be used according to the objectives. (ou.edu.)The R in ASSURE stands for “Require learner participation”. Depending on your objectives, all learning theories mentioned in this report can be used. Learner participation is important because this is the point where the learners move beyond passive learning. This will ensure students think, solve, create, analyze, and transfer knowledge. (ou.edu.)The Behaviorism Theory believes that learners should be active and they should respond to stimulus in order for learning to occur. Keramida,(2015) explains in the distance learning environment, students can answer question in the form of a discussion. Students should receive reinforcement from the instructor after exhibiting desired behaviors. (Keramida, 2015) A positive e-mail could be an example of positive reinforcement. Pappas (2014) states that the Discovery Learning Theory is an inquiry-based way of learning and students are required to use resources to discover facts and make connections in order to learn the material. Participation is a must in discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to make sure students are not gathering erroneous information and correct any misconceptions. (Pappas, 2014)When designing a distance learning course, cognitive load should be taken into consideration when requiring participation. Asraj (2011) states in his article that interactive simulations where students participate can be great learning tools because they offer the opportunity to delve into hypotheses and receive instant feedback, researchers believe that high short-term memory load levels may be accountable for instructional failures and breakdowns. When asking for student participation, the designer should carefully consider the learners level of domain expertise and prior knowledge. (Asraj, 2011)The E in ASSURE stands for “Evaluate and revise”. Courses should be constantly evaluated and revised. Instructors should always strive to make the lesson better. Students have better response if the technology and media are up to date. (Ou.edu)In conclusion, each of the learning theories have similarities and differences. Each theory has its own unique features. Behaviorism Theory, Discovery-Learning Theory, and Cognitive Load Theory are all similar where learners develop learning through receiving either a stimulus or information from an outside source. In instructional design for distance learning all theories can be adapted to the online platform. Differences are that Behaviorism Theory believes learning is through stimulus and reward. Discovery Learning Theory allows students to learn on their own by discovering, researching, and making connections. These students use cognitive ability to gain new knowledge. Cognitive Load Theory uses prior knowledge and memory to build from intrinsic to extraneous load to germane cognitive load. Each step is a measure of mental effort and researchers believe cognitive overload can hinder learning.A variety of learning theories and design models can be used in one course. The end result is student success.ReferencesAlfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does Discovery-Based Instruction Enhance Learning??Journal of Educational Psychology,103(1), 1-18. doi:10.1037/a0021017.suppAsraj, A. A., Freeman, M., & Chandler, P. A. (2011). Considering Cognitive Load Theory Within E-Learning Environments. Retrieved March 03, 2018, from , B. (2004, April). Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design. Retrieved March 03, 2018, from Design Theory. (2015). Retrieved March 04, 2018, from Jong, T. D. (2009). Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought.?Instructional Science,38(2), 105-134. doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9110-0Debue, N., & Leemput, C. V. (2014). What does germane load mean? An empirical contribution to the cognitive load theory.?Frontiers in Psychology,5. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01099Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2015).?The Systematic Design of Instruction (Eighth ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.Discovery-based Learning. (2013, May 15). Retrieved March 04, 2018, from , P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2008). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective.?Performance Improvement Quarterly,6(4), 50-72. doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.1993.tb00605.xGardner, A. T. (n.d). Examples of Objective Knowledge. Retrieved March 04, 2018, from , L., Austin, K., Orcutt, S., & Rosso, J. (2001). How People Learn: Introduction to Learning Theories. Retrieved February 25, 2018, from , M. K. (2017). Behaviorism In Instructional Design For eLearning: When And How To Use. Retrieved March 04, 2018, from , D., & Downey, S. (2016). Examining the Use of the ASSURE Model by K–12 Teachers.?Computers In The Schools,?33(3), 153-168. doi:10.1080/07380569.2016.1203208Missouristate.edu. (n.d.). Retrieved from , K. M. (2011). How STEM Education Improves Student Learning.?Meridian K-12 Technology Journal,14(1). Retrieved March 04, 2018, from , J. E. (2006).?Educational Psychology Developing Learners (Fifth ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson.Ou.edu. (n.d.) Retrieved from , C. (2017). Instructional Design Models and Theories: The Discovery Learning Model. Retrieved March 04, 2018, from , M., Smaldino, S., & Zvacek, S. (2015).?Teaching and Learning at a Distance (Sixth ed.). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.Sweller, J. (1988), Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning. Cognitive Science, 12: 257-285. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4 ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download