Elearningresourcecentertrinagabriel.files.wordpress.com



Principles of Learning and Learning TheoryAssignment 1Trina GabrielLIS 672 - Dr. Anthony ChowThe University of North Carolina at GreensboroSeptember 24, 2017What is Learning?Although learning can be measured, it cannot be quantified. Learning is a cumulative process in which the learner serves as an active participant, engaging in learning from many different levels - from simple signal learning, most often exemplified through Pavlov’s dog experiment, to problem solving. As noted by both Dr. Robert Gagné and Dr. Benjamin Bloom, learning is a process in which learning builds upon itself. It is transformative and transactional, behavioral and cognitive, intrinsically and extrinsically motivated (“Gagné 's Conditions of Learning,” n.d.). It is not one size fits all, use the same means, methods or strategies for desired learning outcomes. The learner plays a critical role (dependent upon type and level of learning) in shaping the learning experience as he/she must be able to express or illustrate his/her learning (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 2).Too often, possession of knowledge/the ability to memorize information is seen as the equivalent of learning. It is not. Valerie Strauss relays that adapting, applying, expanding, and thinking critically about knowledge (in essence, learning) is a necessity if individuals are to be able to function efficiently and effectively in a “wise, ethical and productive” manner (2013). As I shared in a LIS 672 discussion post on August 26, 2017, learning requires the employment of multi-variate cognitive processes which include creating, evaluating, analyzing, applying, understanding and remembering as illustrated by Bloom’s revised cognitive domain.Describe Major Learning TheoriesLearning theories provide a foundation for grounding one’s instructional design and teaching. Learning theories are not ranked according to good, better, best. Dependent upon the learning objectives and desired outcomes, one theory or a combination of theories may be used. Below, I will describe three learning theories – behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. BehaviorismBehaviorism focuses on observable behaviors. And the motivation is often extrinsic. There is not a denial of the influence of thinking and emotions; rather, this is not the focus. Thus, behaviorism is limited as it fails to include these aspects. Due to the lack of distinction between human and animal behavior, many experiments and subsequent data are based on animals, further emphasizing stimulus-response. Behaviorism relies on objective measurement. It can be tested, replicated and supported with accompanying evidence (McLeod, 2017). Behaviorism emphasizes reinforcement and punishment. If behavior is to be repeated, that behavior is reinforced/strengthened. To weaken/decrease a behavior, punishment is used. This is an oversimplification of this idea as there are additional factors in shaping behavior. But much of the responsibility lies with the instructor. Specifically linking behaviorism to my interests within online learning is the use of discussion posts. The “call and response” or posing of discussion question by instructor and response by students leads to either a positive or negative reinforcement of a response/comment by the instructor (Cicciarelli, 2007).CognitivismCognitivism differs from behaviorism as it includes learning, problem-solving, and can even incorporate cultural differences. It acknowledges stages of development – childhood to adulthood – which is not necessarily recognized in behaviorism. It accounts for our thinking processes (intelligence) and our emotions (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 4). Cognitivism increases the role of the learner as an active participant as opposed to one simply responding to stimuli.Cognitivism recognizes a student’s prior learning and knowledge or lack thereof. When employing cognitive learning theory and strategies, instructors should “develop learning experiences that help students make connections that are meaningful to themselves” (Cicciarelli, 2007, p. 2). This may be achieved through clearly stated objectives, recall of prior knowledge and guidance for learning. “Understanding the value of academic tasks and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to perform better in the classroom environment” (“Cognitivism,” n.d.).ConstructivismConstructivism is based within learner experience and reflection; learning is interactive, dialogue is valued. It is collaborative, inquiry-based and evolving. Like cognitivism, there is a connection to prior knowledge. Constructivism sees the learner as an active participant in the learning process. Questioning is a necessary element. Beyond simply recalling and reproducing facts, instructors guide students in constructing knowledge (“Constructivism as a paradigm,” n.d.). An analysis of the learner is important. As he/she is tasked with constructing meaning, it is important to know and understand learning styles, to have an understanding of student’s prior knowledge. Cicciarelli connects constructivism to my interest in online instruction by stating that effective distance learning requires “constructivism and cognitive flexibility need to be present” (2007, p. 7).Cognition and Memory’s Role in Learning Process There are three types of memory – sensory, working and long-term. Dependent upon the learning objective/goal, each may be utilized. In some instances, “the goal of instructional delivery is to encourage understanding over rote memorization and to facilitate the process of elaboration for better encoding of content to be learned” (Khalil & Elkhider, 2016, p. 147). In essence, rote memorization which is repeated for memory’s sake to be able to remember without thinking, can be upgraded to elaborative rehearsal which necessitates the organization of information to shape meaning which then can be passed into long-term memory. Moving from surface learning to deep learning, the processing of information from working memory to long-term memory involves encoding, retrieval and rehearsal (Khalili & Elkhider, 2016).Behaviorism uses memorization as a?strategy for learning; however, once learned, memory doesn't increase?(Cicciarelli, 2007). With cognitivism and constructivism, instruction is shaped to allow learners to connect prior learning. Strauss (2013) shares two instructional approaches – generative and exploratory. Both necessitate a learner’s ability to acquire and experience learning beyond facts to active engagement and interaction with ideas. Having these “deeper and authentic approaches to learning” impresses them within one’s memory, allowing one to retain it longer. This mode of learning highlights the learner's ability to compare, contrast, criticize, evaluate, deconstruct, etc. (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 2).What is Teaching?Effective teaching facilitates a desired learning objective/goal. A teacher serves as a facilitator or guide, down the path of facts, concepts, processes, procedures and principles. Effective teaching is designing instruction with the end in mind. It requires an understanding or at least acknowledgement of Gagné’s Nine Instructional Events. Teaching alone doesn’t ensure that one learns. Adhering to Gagné’s Nine Instructional Events does not produce learning, but rather supports a systematic, structure learning process (Gabriel, 2017, Week 2 Discussion). “Different instructional concepts require the selection of different instructional strategies and different methods of assessment” (Khalili & Elkhider, 201, p. 148). Effective instruction requires an analysis of learner’s needs, if the objective is design of instruction which results in systematic, consistent development (“What is Instructional Design,” n.d.).Describe Instructional Process Instructional design is the creative, intentional, systematic process of designing, developing and delivering instructional materials. It is determining the goals, objectives, desired outcomes and developing a consistent system for facilitating the achievement of the specified goals, objectives, desired outcomes (What Is Instructional Design,” n.d.). It is the employment of learning theories.Whether using ADDIE, a Backward by Design model, or Gagné’s Conditions of Learning, instructional designers can be creative in selection of methods, tools and strategies; modified for specific needs or goals. ADDIE and Gagné’s Nine Instructional Events are detailed later in this paper. Having an outline/framework for instruction aids in helping reach the instructional goal. Begin with the end in mind. Beginning with a defined learning objective, all activities are better aligned. It’s not a hodge-podge of related ideas/thoughts that do not directly, intently connect to the focus (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 2). Clear, specific goals are relayed at the outset, allowing for assessment throughout to determine if goals have been met. The goal of mastery learning is embedded into every detail of the course – from a detailed syllabus to clearly outlined objectives and how assignments connect with those objectives to rubrics which directly note expectations and discussions – interactive, reflective and exploratory (Cicciarelli, 2007).How Do You Know It Is Effective?In gauging the effectiveness of one’s teaching, one must know information about their students prior to engagement. As well, one must have defined learning goals/objectives upon which to base an assessment. With learning being cumulative, it's important for instructors to build upon student's prior knowledge or to adjust to a lack thereof. Assessments must be made so that outcomes are not based upon assumptions of prior knowledge/experiences/understanding, etc. (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 2).Instructional design is not structured to produce "a" learner. It should allow learners to engage in a process which allows them to develop skills, to engage in a multi-dimensional learning process. Students may react differently as they create models for understanding and engaging in the learning process (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 2). Classroom instruction cannot be the sole factor/predictor related to student performance, much like training related to work performance (Chow & Whitlock, 2010, p. 128). There are both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for student learning.In A-ADDIE, the “A” stands for assessment. The “E” in ADDIE stands for evaluation. From beginning to end, there must be measures to determine the effectiveness of strategies for student learning as well as teaching. The two are not mutually exclusive. Formative and summative assessments inform both. Formative assessments provide an opportunity for an instructor to gain ongoing information about the learner and his/her progression or development. Summative assessments help instructors to learn if they’ve been successful in aiding the student in achieving the overall learning goal. By including both formative and summative assessments, a student should be able to clearly track his/her progress and act as an agent in his/her continued improvement (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 5). ?In a class discussion post from September 16, 2017, I wrote “Formative and summative assessments may serve as both assessment?for?learning, assessment as learning and assessment of?learning. Formative assessment, completed often, and early, embeds feedback and review throughout the units, allowing for self-reflection, self-monitoring and self-adjustment.” Formative assessments, which afford student opportunity to showcase learning, may take the shape of discussion questions, short quizzes, among other tools. For instructors, formative assessments provide a review of the intended outcomes and ensure that students are moving in that direction; if not, corrections can be made. Per Guskey, formative assessments are means of evidence gathering to measure/monitor student learning (2010, p. 55). To determine whether teaching is effective, it is important to check for understanding. Anticipate student’s questions. What types of questions will be productive? Which may need to be tabled/discussed later? Instructors must “balance between covering content (accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand” (Milkova, n.d.).Although not separated from assessment as learning and a student’s ability to actively participate in the construction of knowledge, summative assessment may be described as assessment?of learning: the extent to which students can apply the key concepts, knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to the curricular outcomes; indication of each student’s level of learning. For the student, summative assessment provides the measure/mark that he/she has achieved the overall student learning outcome. More than a mastery of tasks, he/she has mastered the learning (Gabriel, 2017, Weekly Discussion 5). For instructors, a summative assessment should provide a “defensible and accurate description of student competence in relation to defined outcomes” (“Assessment of Learning,” p. 58). ADDIE Model Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, EvaluationThe ADDIE model provides a systematic means of designing instruction. It is a framework or guide that pushes the designer/creator/instructor to prioritize the learning objective. The five steps include analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation. Chow and Whitlock describe it as “a systematic yet fluid process of identifying problems and their solutions through working backwards in a logical fashion to ensure they are resolved” (Chow and Whitlock, 2010, p. 128)Analysis This stage is one of questioning, research and review of previous materials/information. Who are the learners? What are the goals? What is the learning environment? What resources are available? Is differentiated instruction needed? One tool which may be used is a pre-test.Design In the design stage, the content and instructional design strategies are discussed. What is the best delivery method? Strategies should be linked to clear, direct, learning objectives. Khalil & Elkhider (2016, p.152) suggest measurable verbs (i.e. define, explain) as opposed to nonbehavioral verbs (e.g. understand, know).DevelopmentWithin this stage, content is created; materials are drafted; assessments are developed. ImplementationThe developed product (lesson, learning tool) is implemented. This may be described as the “doing stage” – delivering the instruction, the materials, the content. Khalil & Elkhider note that it is during this stage that learning objectives, expectations and the grading policy should be clearly articulated to students (2016).Evaluation This stage uses formative (throughout) and summative (conclusion) assessment. Employment of corrective instruction and opportunity – embedded within design and development phases- lead to assessments are not a one-time occurrence (Guskey, 2010). Evaluation may not simply mark students’ performance; it could also speak to “students’ attitudes and motivation and evaluating the efficiency of instruction” (Khalil & Elkhider, 2016, p.154). This stage is marked by feedback, review and reflection. May include tools such as post-tests to connect with the pre-tests in the analysis stage.Instructional and Learning EnvironmentsCurrently, I assist with the recruitment of online students to select UNCG online undergraduate programs. From navigating the many UNCG pre-applicant processes to connecting prospective students with appropriate UNCG offices and resources, my work with students is not often viewed from the framework of instructor-learner; however, I believe it can be reframed as such. Professionally, it would allow me to employ many of the instructional design strategies presented in LIS 672.My instructional environment may include face-to-face settings or online settings. Both synchronous and asynchronous communication are used: face-to-face conversations, Google Hangout, phone calls, emails, etc. I believe an opening presents itself in using WebEx to move beyond strictly one-on-one interactions to more group “instruction.” More than seeking to impact the behaviors of students (e.g. meeting application deadlines, communicating with appropriate offices), using WebEx could afford the opportunity to create an online learning environment and online community which could increase student self-efficacy and facilitation of creative thinking and independent decision making.Most UNCG Online undergraduate programs are degree completion, requiring students to have earned a minimum number of credits/hours. The majority of prospective students are adult students. It will be imperative to create a learning space which recognizes and values the experiences of adult learners, a balance between their desire to direct their own learning but also their need to have detailed, direct instruction (Cicciarelli, 2007). An analysis, not a presupposition, of their needs is required. With the ability to share a screen, include audio and video (for non-verbal cues), share files, chat with instructor and other learners, WebEx, as a tool, can help shape instruction that guides both instructor and student in crafting and assessing learning goals. In particular, the use of polls, chat and video (nonverbal cues) can be used for immediate feedback (formative assessment). In using the ADDIE model, the design of instruction must consider both extroverted students and introverted students in which a level of participation and interaction is appropriate for different types of learners (Cicciarelli, 2007). For both design and development, additional support from other offices would be beneficial. I am not the keeper of all information. Thus, experts from those content areas must be included. Once implemented, the WebEx sessions would be evaluated based upon the outlined learning objectives. Since this is an idea that has yet to be implemented, I do not have specific learning objectives at this time; however, I know they should be clear, direct, measurable and specifically linked to the learning objectives. There would be both formative assessments (e.g., polls, question and answer during WebEx sessions) and summative assessments (e.g., pre-tests and post-tests, end of session evaluations). Develop Instruction Using ADDIE modelAnalysis Transfer students often seek information on how their courses are likely to transfer prior to application. UNCG Undergraduate Admissions utilizes a tool, TES, which can assist prospective UNCG students; for students who are unfamiliar with the tool or the transfer process it can seem complicated.To better serve prospective online degree completion students, specific instruction should be provided on the use of TES. For the purpose of my instruction, I will focus specifically on community college transfer students from Guilford Technical Community College (GTCC) who are seeking to transfer to the online Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies or the online Bachelor of Science in Integrated Professional Studies. Design The objective is for students to be able to conduct an unofficial transfer equivalency evaluation using TES. They will be able to do a course-by-course analysis. The approximately 25-minute session will be delivered live via WebEx and recorded as well. Ideally, conversations with the transfer articulation services team as well as select current BLS or BIPS students would be included as part of the design and development. They would serve as consultants in outlining key concepts, practices, noting missteps, etc. Development An online presentation modeling the use of TES with step by step instructions would be created. This would include assessments to determine if students can effectively use the tool. Implementation At this stage, the developed instructional tool will be implemented. Gagné's Nine Steps are outlined below.Gain Attention?I will share statistics related to graduation rates, time to degree for part-time adult students and how this relates to overall cost of attendance. I will utilize an interactive poll to gauge students’ knowledge. I will then suggest that preparation and a plan helps. And that takes place before a student enrolls at UNCG.Provide a Learning Objective?At the conclusion of this session, students will be able to use the unofficial transfer equivalency course search tool to evaluate their unofficial transcripts from GTCC. They will be able to determine if a course is transferable and how it transfers (i.e. general education requirement vs. elective credit).Stimulate Recall of Prior KnowledgeI will discuss the following and pose questions which students can respond to by using the chat feature or microphone.Review definitions of transferable credits (grade of C or better)Did any student transfer any credit to GTCC? What was this process like?Have students heard any “stories” about transferring credit?Present the Material?To avoid cognitive overload, the focus is on course by course analysis. Other admissions requirements such as overall transferable GPA will be discussed separately.I will provide an overview of TES, introducing students to the web tool. Discussion of terms – general education requirementsDemonstrate the process by modeling an evaluation of two courses and add to “my list”Provide Guidance for LearningPrior to the session, each student will be asked to retrieve his/her unofficial transcript. (For my example, I will provide each of my group mates with an unofficial transcript.) Following my demonstration, students will be asked to evaluate one course that I choose. Volunteers will be asked to share their experience. How difficult was the process? Any questions/confusion? Poll students with question regarding level of difficulty. (Formative assessment).Elicit PerformanceEach student will look up his/her courses and add to the “my list” feature. Move from observation to additional practice. Provide Feedback Since this is an ungraded activity, rather than use a quiz, ask for individuals to share two/three courses that they looked up and their answers. Use chat for discussion/questions from other learners. Assess PerformanceThis will be done in tandem with providing feedback. Are students able to construct an unofficial list of transferable courses.Enhance Retention and Transfer The focus of this session is evaluating individual transfer courses and constructing an unofficial list. The generated list should include notes regarding general education markers. To push the students to over-learning, I will provide the overall degree requirements for BIPS and BLS. Outside of this session (or for a following session), students can map their transferable credits to the overall degree requirements. For those not preparing to transfer at this time, they may use the tool to plan/select their upcoming community college courses.Evaluation There will be formative assessments during the presentation of the material and the performance. There will be a summative evaluation at the conclusion; evaluation not only of skills but also attitude. Do students feel confident in their ability to complete the unofficial transfer evaluation and possibly extend it to a review of the degree requirements?ReferencesAssessment of Learning [PDF document]. Retrieved from , A., & Whitlock, M. (January 01, 2010). Systemic Educational Change and Society: Georgia's Central Educational Center and Career Academies. International Journal of Science in Society, 1, 4.)Cicciarelli, M. S. (October 01, 2007). Behavioral, Cognitive, and Humanistic Theories: Which Theories Do Online Instructors Utilize?. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 3, 4, 1-12.Clark, D. R. (n.d.). Robert Gagné's nine steps of instruction. Retrieved from . (n.d.). Retrieved from as a paradigm for teaching and learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from , T. (2017, August 26). Re: Weekly Discussion 2 [Online discussion group]. Retrieved from , T. (2017, September 10). Re: Weekly Discussion 4 [Online discussion group]. Retrieved from , T. (2017, September 16). Re: Weekly Discussion 5 [Online discussion group]. Retrieved from é's conditions of learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from , T. R. (October 01, 2010). Mastery Learning. Educational Leadership, 68, 2, 52.Khalil, M. K., & Elkhider, I. A. (June 01, 2016). Applying learning theories and instructional design models for effective instruction. Advances in Physiology Education, 40, 2, 147.McConnell, M. (n.d.). How students learn: what learning involves. Retrieved from , S. A. (2017). Behaviorist approach. Retrieved from behaviorism.htmlMilkova, S. (n.d.). Strategies for effective lesson planning. Retrieved from , V. (2013, August 12). What is learning, exactly? Retrieved from is instructional design? (n.d.). Retrieved from ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download