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Gender Paper 3GREENAMBERRED1. Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny, including the Bem Sex Role Inventory2. The role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinfelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome.3. Cognitive explanations of gender development: Kolhberg’s theory; gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory.4. Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation5. Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles.6. Atypical gender development: gender identify disorder; biological and social explanations for gender identity disorder.Gender Specification Details______________________________________________________Key terms/conceptsPossible Essay questions______________________________________________________Essay TitleMy GradeMy amended gradeDiscuss the concept of androgyny. Refer to the Bem Sex Role Inventory in your answer (16 marks)Discuss the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (refer to atypical sex chromosomes in your answer) (16 marks)Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s theory of gender development (16 marks)Discuss two cognitive explanations of gender development (16 marks)Outline and evaluate Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development (16 marks)Discuss social learning theory as applied to gender development. (Refer to an alternative explanation of gender development in your answer). (16 marks)Describe and evaluate the influence of culture and / or media on gender roles. (16 marks)Possible short exam questions______________________________________________________Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny Distinguish between the terms sex and gender (2 marks)Describe one study related to sex-role stereotypes (4 marks)Describe the Bem Sex Role Inventory (4 marks)Explain what is meant by ‘androgyny’. (1 mark)The role of chromosomes and hormones Outline the role of chromosomes in sex and gender (6 marks)Explain the role of testosterone in sex and / or gender (4 marksCognitive explanations of gender development: Kolhberg’s theory; gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy; gender schema theory.One stage of Kolhberg’s theory of gender development is called gender labelling. Briefly describe another stage (3 marks)Kolhberg’s theory of gender development is a cognitive explanation. Explain in what way it is cognitive. (2 marks)Outline gender schema theory explanation of gender development (6 marks)Give one criticism of the gender schema theory (4 marks)Explain one difference between Kolhberg’s theory of gender development and the gender schema theory. (4 marks)Psychodynamic explanations of gender development: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisationOutline the Oedipus and Electra complex (4 marks each)Explain how both identification and internalisation are part of Freud’s account of gender development (4 marks)Social learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles.Outline social learning theory as applied to gender develop (4 marks)Give one criticism of the social learning theory as applied to gender development (4 marks)Outline the role of media on gender roles (4 marks)Outline the role of culture on gender roles (4 marks)Atypical gender development: gender identify disorder; biological and social explanations for gender identity disorder.Explain what is meant by gender identity disorder (3 marks)Outline one or more social explanations of GID (4 marks)Give one criticism of biological explanations of gender identity disorder (3 marks) Sex and gender. Sex-role stereotypes. Androgyny and measuring androgyny, including the Bem Sex Role Inventory__________________________________________________________Your sex is a key aspect of your sense of who you are. In fact psychologists distinguish between sex and gender. Sex is a biological fact whether a person is genetically male or female. Gender refers to a person’s sense of maleness or femaleness. In this topic we are concerned with the development of gender, which is due in part to biology (nature) and in part to life experience (nurture). Sex: This describes the biological characteristics of a person, so the terms male and female refer to SexGender: This refers to the psychological characteristics associated with being male and female, so the terms masculine and feminine refer to genderSex-role stereotypes: A set of expectations that dictate how men and women (and girls and boys) should act, think and feelResearch into sex-role stereotypesSmith and Lloyd (1978) showed that mothers do treat boy and girl babies differently, in line with sex-role stereotypes. The mothers sample size of 32, were videotaped playing for 10 minutes with a baby (not their own child). The babies were six months old and dressed and named as either a boy or a girl. Two were actually boys and two were actually girls but the clothes / names didn’t match their sex type. Seven toys were present: a squeaky hammer and a stuffed rabbit in trousers (masculine), a doll and a squeaky bambi (feminine), and a squeaky pig, a ball and a rattle (neutral). If the mother thought she was playing with a boy, she verbally encouraged more motor activity and offered gender appropriate toys. In other, words, the mothers perceived the sex of the infant, in-line with typical gender expectations. This study shows the impact parental influence has on gender development. Brenda Todd (2016) and her team tested 47 girls and 54 boys at four multicultural nurseries in London. The child was surrounded in a semi-circle by seven toys identified in a local survey as being stereotypically male (a car, a blue teddy, a digger, a ball) or stereotypically female (a doll, a pink teddy, a cooking pot). The toys were placed in a random order within reach of the child, who was encouraged by the researcher to “play with any of the toys that you want to The researchers divided the children into three age groups: 9-17 months, 18-23 months, and 24-32 months. At every age, there was a clear pattern – boys showed more interest in and played for longer with male-type toys and girls showed a similar bias for female-typed toys. The researchers concluded that. Todd (2016) findings support a biological explanation (nature) of toy choice prior to the age at which a gendered identity is usually demonstrated. Androgyny Formed from the two words ‘andro’ meaning males and ‘gyny’ meaning female. The word means a combination of male and female characteristics.Bem is a feminist who points out that gender schemas become the lenses through which we view the world. These ‘lenses’ lead to three main beliefs held in Western society: men and women differ psychologically and sexually, men are the dominant and superior sex and these differences are natural. The repercussion of viewing things through these lenses is that society is structured in a way that empowers men but not women.In contrast to this, Bem takes an interactionist viewpoint whereby the similarities between the sexes outweigh the differences. Society should be gender depolarized through the redefinition of our gender traits and the perception of what it is to be human rather than what it is to be male or female. 42291007874000Bem's Explanation for Psychological Androgyny (A01)Bem (1974) challenged the traditional idea that there are only 2 gender identities by adding ANDROGYNOUS to the masculine and feminine identities. By PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY she was referring to individuals having behavioural and emotional traits rather that a physical androgyny (i.e. not just appearing androgynous; thinking a feeling that way). According to Bem, there are costs involved in the maintenance of gender role stereotypes. These costs include limiting opportunities for boys and girls, ignoring talent and perpetuating unfairness in our society. Bem therefore felt it was best to be androgynous as one could be more adaptable to the demands of modern life and take the opportunities that are open to both boys and girls…For Bem, psychological androgyny means taking on whichever quality best fitted the situation- whether it was masculine or feminine. It is far more adaptive than the traditional stereotyped gender identities of ‘boy’ or ‘girl’.Bem designed the SRI (Sex Role Inventory) questionnaire to test her ideas and found that 34% of male participants and 27% of female’s participants were androgynous. These individuals were found by a number of researchers to be more adaptable to situations and a greater sense of well-being. Bem (1983) reformed her approach in terms of what she called ‘gender schema theory’ – (to be discussed later). She suggested that the differences between androgynous and a traditionally sex-typed person is one of cognitive style. An androgynous person, when faced with a decision as to how to behave in a particular situation, responds independently of any gender concepts. In contrast, a traditionally sex-typed person determines what would be appropriate for their gender, therefore using gender schemas. Bem’s argument was that a person who has a ‘freer’ cognitive style will be psychotically healthier. Research into androgyny Research has found a positive correlation between androgyny and psychological health, as Bem predicted. Prakash et al. (2010) tested 100 married females in India on masculinity / femininity and a range of outcomes were measured including; physical health, depression, anxiety and perceived stress. Females high in masculinity had a lower depression scores etc., whereas those with higher femininity scores had higher depression scores etc. This supports the view that androgyny has a psycho-protective effect, because those with masculinity AND femininity were better off in terms of health. Adama and Sherer (1985) refute Bem’s claim that androgenous individuals are more psychologically healthy and argue that people who display a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted, as they are more highly valued in western society. Bem’s research therefore did not take into consideration the social and cultural context in which it was developed.Evaluation 095885Real world applications 00Real world applications 0127636Reliability of the BSRI00Reliability of the BSRI074295Validity of the BRSI00Validity of the BRSIThe role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________The role of chromosomes Chromosomes are made from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of a living thing. There are 46 chromosomes in the human body arranged into 23 pairs. Each chromosome carries hundreds of genes which contain instructions about physical and behavioural characteristics such as eye colour. The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines an individual’s biological sex.A person’s biological sex is determined at the time of conception by the father’s sperm. If the female’s egg is to develop into a female, the father’s sperm will contribute an X chromosome (XX), and if the egg is to develop into a male the father’s sperm will contribute a Y chromosome (XY). The other X chromosome is from the ovum (egg) from the mother.Females have XX chromosomes. Males have XY chromosomes.Up until 6 weeks all foetuses contain identical gonads (sex glands). These gonads have the potential to develop into ovaries or testes.49149009969500The Y chromosome does not carry much genetic information but it does determine an individual’s sex. The Y chromosome causes changes to the embryo from the 6th week of pre-natal development. The Y chromosome carries a gene called the ‘sex-determining region Y’ or SRY. The SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo. These produce androgens: male sex hormones. Androgens cause the embryo to become a male, without them, the embryo develops into a female.There is usually a direct link between an individual’s chromosomes and their external/internal reproductive organs. It is the chromosome that starts a chain of events that establish an individual’s sex.HormonesChromosomes initially determine a person’s sex but most gender development actually comes about through the influence of hormones.There are two different androgens responsible for masculinisation: testosterone and dihydrotestosterone. Prenatally they influence the development of the male sex organs and they masculinise the brain. Post-natally they are responsible for activating the sex organs during puberty.Pre-natally it is thought that these hormones influence the brain. Research suggests that they make the sexually dimorphic nucleus twice as large in males compared to females. Other research suggests that testosterone slows down the development of some parts of the brain while speeding up others – such as the right hemisphere. This may explain why men are better at spatial tasks and women better at verbal ones, since the key language area is in the left side of the brain but the right hemisphere is concerned with spatial ability. Oestrogen: It regulates menstruation. It is involved in the development and maintenance of the female form, such as the development of breasts during puberty. It is associated with PMS. Diminishing levels are associated with the onset of the menopauseTestosterone: It causes the development of male sex organs and masculinises the brain. It speeds up development in certain areas of the brain, including those responsible for spatial awareness. It is associated with competitiveness and aggressionOxytocin: It is produced in great quantities following giving birth. It stimulates lactation. It reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding411480031432500Research into the role of chromosomes and hormonesDavid Reimer was born a healthy male boy in 1965 along with his identical twin. At the age of 8 months his penis was removed in a circumcision that went wrong. After his parents sought advice from the psychologist Dr Money, he was raised as a girl. At 22 months he had an operation to remove his testes and at the age of puberty he was given oestrogen. By the age of 13 he was suffering from depression and he requested never to see Dr Money. It became clear that his gender identity was not female and that he had been unhappy being raised as a girl. At age 14 he had been told the truth about his gender reassignment and he decided to revert to a being male. Young (1966) changed the sexual behavior of both male and female rats by manipulating the amount of male and female hormones that the rats received during their early development. They displayed “reversed” sexual behavior and the effects were unchangeable. Young believed that the exposure had changed the sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) in the brain, as male rats had a larger SDN than females. The results have proven to be highly replicable.Alonso and Rosenfield (2002) reported that oestrogen is necessary for the normal development of body areas and tissues, like the neuroendocrine-gonadal axis, associated with puberty in both makes and females. White-Traut et al (2009) measured oxytocin levels in saliva produced by females before, during and after breastfeeding. Oxytocin levels were highest immediately before feeding, decreased at initiation of feeding and rose again 30 minutes after feeding, illustrating oxytocin’s important role in promoting breastfeedingEvaluation of chromosomes and hormones022796500Research carried out into chromosomes and hormones tend to use case studies. An example is the case of David Reimer. Case studies are evidence based and research a single individual. Strength of the case study method is that it is in-depth and provides insight into the complex interactions of many factors - insights that may be overlooked by other methods such as the experimental method. However, a disadvantage of the case study method is that it is very difficult to generalise the findings to other individuals due to each case having its own unique characteristics.08699500Research carried out into chromosomes and hormones tend to conduct research on animals. An example of this is Young (1966) who changed the sexual behavior of both male and female rats. The extent to which these results can be generalised to humans is debatable. Firstly, the study has to be justifiable in terms of a cost-benefit analysis. Secondly, the physiology of humans and animals, especially in terms of brain functioning is very different in humans and in animals. Human development and behaviour are much more subjective to social and cultural factors. Therefore, the studies investigating chromosomes and hormones have to be applied with caution when using the findings from animal studies to understand human development and behaviour.-114300130810It can be argued to be too simplistic to perceive single hormones having exclusive effects upon sex and gender. It is too simplistic to think of testosterone being a male hormone and oestrogen being female hormones. Research shows that all 3 hormones exert important influences on both males and females. 01206500The biological explanation of chromosomes and hormones argues for gender being biologically determined. The determining influence of chromosomes on gender identity is supported by the case of David Reimer. However, it could be argued that there is an overemphasis on nature. Gender development is in part biologically determined but experience, personal qualities, socialisation and culture also have a key role. For example, it can be suggested that the ease of transition from female to male in Imperato-McGinley (1974) study highlights the importance of culture in gender development. In a community prepared to accept more fluidity in gender roles it seemed to be relativity easy to move between roles, something that is much more difficult in western culture.027051000The biological explanation of chromosomes and hormones can be argued to be biologically reductionist. It oversimplifies a complex concept by reducing gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones. Thus by the explanation concentrating only on chromosomes and hormones, it could be accused of ignoring alternative explanations for gender development. The cognitive approach for example would draw attention to the changing thought process that underpin gender development. Even though these may come about by the maturation of the developing brain, the biological model that looks just at chromosomes and hormones does not adequately explain gender. Furthermore, although the biological explanation would acknowledge the important of innate factors in gender development, the psychodynamic approach would also point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction with the family.04381500An advantage of investigating chromosomes and hormones in gender is that there are many practical applications as a result. Administration of the hormone oxytocin is used to; help start and keep labour going, reducing hemorrhaging during childbirth and is used to assist in breastfeeding once the child has been born. The hormone testosterone helps individuals with a low libo.Atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinfelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome.__________________________________________________Not all individuals conform to the typical XX or XY chromosome pattern. Two examples of atypical sex chromosome combination are Klinefelter’s and Turners syndrome. The comparisons of people with typical and atypical chromosome patterns allow researchers to see what aspects of the biological development and behaviour are under the influence of genetics and chromosomes.Turner syndromeA chromosomal disorder in which affected women have only one X chromosome, causing developmental abnormalities and infertility. Klinfelter’s syndromeA syndrome-affecting male in which individuals genotypes has an extra X chromosome (in addition to the normal XY) characterised by a tall thin physique, small infertile testes and enlarged breasts. Cognitive explanations of gender development: Kohlberg’s theory; gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy. __________________________________________________Kohlberg’s cognitive-development theory of gender is based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age. Understanding of gender runs parallel to intellectual development as the child matures biologically. Children acquire an understanding of the concepts of male and female in three stages; since this is a stage theory, the children have to develop the concepts in a set order. The three qualitatively different stages are:GENDER IDENTITY The child recognises that they are male or female but the knowledge is fragile and child may not realise that little boys grow into men, and little girls grow up into women. Their understanding of gender tends not to stretch much beyond simple labelling. Children understand gender identity aged 2-3.GENDER STABILITY The child realises that people retain their gender for a lifetime but still tend to rely on superficial signs to determine gender e.g. hair length. Children cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations. They are often confused by external changes in appearance. Children understand gender stability aged 3-6.GENDER CONSISTENCY The child realises that gender is permanent whatever happens to person’s physical appearance such as men having long hair. Once the child achieves gender consistency they come to value the behaviours and attitudes associated with their gender, and identify with adults who possess these qualities. Children understand gender consistency aged 6-12. Additional background information: This third stage is related to the theory of cognitive development by Jean Piaget. He studied how children’s general thinking develops. His studies demonstrated that children aged under 7 don’t understand that objects remain the same even if they change shape. If you show a child some water in a short, fat glass, then pour it into a tall, thin glass, children under 7 will believe that there is now more water, as the level is higher. Children over 7 realise that there is the same amount of water. This is called conservation and is related to a child’s understanding that gender stays the same, even when appearances change.The theory says that children are active agents in their own gender role socialisation – this means that their thinking about gender determines when and how they show gender role behaviour. Once children acquire gender consistency they collect information about their gender role, imitate same sex models and follow gender appropriate activities. This is called self-socialisation since it does not depend on others such as parents, but what the child themselves thinks. Research to support/refute Kohlberg’s theoryHuston (1985) found that it was relatively easy to get girls to engage in masculine activities, but not vice versa as boys generally resist. Kuhn et al (1978) and Maccoby (1980) found that 3 year olds have learned many gender-role stereotypes and already prefer same-sex activities or playmates long before they begin to attend selectively to same-sex models.Bussey and Bandura (1999) ‘long before children have attained gender constancy they prefer to play with traditional toys associated with their gender, to model their behaviour after same-sex models and to reward peers for gender appropriate behaviour.Slaby and Frey (1975) carried out a study by observing and questioning children e.g. showing a picture of a girl and a boy and asking “which one are you?” (to measure gender identity) and asking “when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?” (to measure consistency). They found that children go though the three stages in the set order that Kohlberg said. They also found that 3 year olds didn’t understand any of the concepts, 4 year olds understood gender identity and by 5 children understood all three concepts.Munro (1984) carried out a cross-cultural analysis and found that the sequence of development of the gender concept is similar in other cultures (kenya, Nepal, Belize and Samoa)Evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory040449500Kohlberg’s contribution has primarily been to describe the relevant processes in gender development rather than to explain those processes. Kohlberg’s stages, for example, tell us how children are likely to think at different ages but relatively little about why gender thinking develops in this way. The reliance on quasi-experimental methods used to investigate Kohlberg’s explanation of gender is problematic. Studies supporting Kohlberg’s explanation such as Slaby and Frey (1975) can tell us that boys and girls think differently or that seven year- olds think differently from four year-olds but do not allow us not make causal inferences about why. Gender schema theory offers a more detailed alternative cognitive explanation looking at the process that underpin gender as opposed to just giving a description of gender development. -11430014414500Another issue with Kohlberg’s theory is that it may well be that children are at these stages earlier, but because of limits in their language skills they are not able to verbalise this. Therefore it could be less of a theory of gender development and more a theory of the ability to talk about different concepts of gender. 016510000Kohlberg’s theory takes a very broad approach to understanding gender development. It states that all children will go through 3 qualitatively distinct stages of gender development. This could be criticised as not all children have the same understanding of gender. For example, research conducted by Huston (1985) has shown that boys have much less flexible concept of gender role then females, and boys show greater resistance to opposite-sex activities than girls. These differences are likely to be social/cultural in origin and are difficult to explain in detail from the perspective of a cognitive-development theory. Perhaps this difference could be better understood by the Social Learning theory, which places much more emphasis on the child’s development, such as the role of socialisation in gender development, than Kohlberg does. 055689500Kohlberg’s theory of gender development is founded on soft determinism and can be seen to take an interactionist approach to gender development. This is a strength of the theory as it explains the roles of both nature and nurture within gender development. The apparent universality of Kohlberg’s stages supports the idea that the sequence of gender development may have a biological basis because all males and females seem to progress in the same way. However, if gender development were purely due to biological maturation there would be no difference in male and female gender identity with males being less flexible than females. This suggests that nurture is involved in gender development through the child’s process of self-socialisation. Male’s lack of flexibility is due to socialisation, and psychologists have found that fathers, in particular, react more negatively towards their sons’ feminine play than mothers do, suggesting a role for both environmental influences and biological maturation of the brain in gender development. (As a result of this, Kohlberg’s theory is less reductionist than other theories of gender development and so Kohlberg’s theory provides a valuable insight into the development of gender)016319500Kohlberg’s theory explains universally how gender identities develop. This is supported by Munro’s (1984) cross-cultural analysis finding in both western and non-western cultures children go through all of Kohlberg’s stages in the order he claimed. As a result, Kohlberg’s theory of gender development has higher external validity as it can be generalised to many different cultures.Additional evaluation points.Cognitive explanations of gender development: Gender schema theory.__________________________________________________This theory was developed as a response to Kohlberg’s theory, since there is much evidence that does not support Kohlberg’s theory. This means that gender schema theory should resolve some of the problems of the earlier theory.Like Kohlberg’s theory, Martin and Halverson account is a cognitive-developmental theory, which argues that children’s understanding of gender increases with Age. Also gender schema theory shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning, rather than by passively observing and imitating role models (view proposed by social learning theory)Schemas are mental frameworks that help people organise and understand information; they also allow you to predict what to do in certain situations. Gender schema theory argues that gender identity develops through both cognitive and social processes and unlike Kohlberg doesn’t suggest that children need to know that gender is permanent to develop gender schema. The child’s gender schema develops around 2/3 as soon as the child notices differences between boys and girls and can label the two groups reliably. Having developed the schema, the child then looks for evidence to support their schema.Martin and Halverson suggest that there are two types of sex-related schema: the “in-group, out group” schema and the “own-sex” schema. So a girl might begin by identifying toys which are for the in-group (a doll for a girl) or out-group (a train for a boy) and then move on to the “own-sex” schema by thinking:- A doll is for a girl. I am a girl. A doll is for me. These schemas help children interpret and organise their experience – schemas simplify the world for us. They are very similar to stereotypes.If we do not categorise information and make generalisations (e.g. about what boys like and what girls like) on that basis, we simply would not be able to manage our lives effectively. For children exposed to an endless stream of new information and novel input, such processes of simplification are necessary in order to make sense of the complex world around them.The gender schema that a child develops is appropriate to that child’s culture, so gender schemas will vary from culture to culture, much as in Kohlberg’s theory children’s gender identity will differ according to their culture.Research supporting/refulting gender schema theoryMartin and Little (1990) Studied 3-5 year olds and found that they had very basic understanding of gender yet they had strong gender stereotypes about what girls and boys were supposed to do i.e. they did understand gender appropriate behaviour. Hence only basic gender understanding is needed to affect the child’s gender behaviour. (research conducted on a western culture)Martin, Eisenbud and Rose (1995) Showed 3-5 year old children toys that they could play with, but before they made their choices, they were told that the toys were either for boys or girls. They found that boys would play with the toys that they had been told were meant for boys, and girls would play with the toys that they were told were meant for girlsBauer (1993) investigated whether very young children already had gender schemas. His participants were as young as 25 months of age. Experimenters observed the participants whilst they carried out gender-specific tasks. They wanted to test whether children would copy the gender-specific tasks that they saw. They found that girls recalled and copied both types of behaviour BUT boys showed better recall for male-specific activities Note: the experimenter that modelled the sequence was female. Does this affect the validity of the findings?Martin (1989) When children were asked to predict how much the characters in a story would like masculine and feminine toys the younger children relied only on the sex of the character to make their judgements whereas older children took into account both the sex of the character and their stated likes and dislikes.Eisenbrg et al (1982) When describing toys that other children would like, 3 and 4 year old children used sex-role-oriented thinking to justify their answers, however, they used significantly less of this type of reasoning to justify decisions regarding their own toy preferences. After a session of free play they did not justify their toy choices by referring to gender, but by referring to the toys themselves and what they could do.Evaluation of gender schema theory09144000A strength of the gender schema theory is that it is explanatory, rather than simply descriptive (a criticism of Kohlberg’s’ cognitive theory of gender development). The gender schema theory offers a more detailed cognitive explanation of the process that underpins gender. For example it offers a greater understanding as to why children have rigidity gender beliefs (children do not accept information that goes against their schema). However, a weakness of the theory is that some of the key assumptions of the theory are not supported. It is assumed that it should be possible to change children’s behaviour by changing their schemas. In fact, it is very difficult to change behaviour even if certain beliefs are held. Therefore, although the gender schema theory does offer a more detailed and explanatory understanding of gender development compared to Kohlberg’s theory, there are still questions regarding gender development that aren’t answered by the cognitive explanation.05651500A weakness of the Gender schema theory is that it places too much emphasis on the role of the individual. The theory accounts for the active role children play in gender development. Rather than simply acquiring it, this theory states that children actively gather information concerning the behaviour and attitudes displayed by their gender. However, by placing emphasis on the role of the individual it could be argued to undermine the influence of social factors (such as reward and punishment by parents) on gender development.08763000A strength of the gender schema theory is that it can help explain some of the processes by which gender stereotypes become so psychologically ingrained in our society. Understanding these processes has led to many practical applications, particularly in the area of education. For example, it has helped raise awareness that the male/female dichotomy is used as an organising framework, often unnecessarily, especially in the school curriculum. By knowing this and understanding student behaviour in the classroom it has helped educators promote gender equality (questioning, seating plans) and has helped to teach alternative schemata to children so they are less likely to build and maintain a gender schema.026606500The gender schema theory suggests that we innately organise information in order to make sense of the world around us, children develop gender schemata for this reason. However this theory also suggests that gender schemata develop as a result of social and environmental factors thus emphasises the role of nurture in gender development. This provides a logical explanation for why gender stereotypes develop, and creates a more flexible way of explaining a child's understanding of gender than Kohlberg’s theory. 11430010541000A weakness of the gender schema theory is in its difficulty in explaining individual differences as not all children conform to gender stereotypical behaviour. For example, those who are raised as gender neutral. Furthermore, the gender schema theory has difficulty explaining why different children with much of the same environmental influences respond differently to gender-appropriate behaviour. For example, this theory cannot explain why some girls may prefer action figures and some boys may prefer barbies. This may be due to biological differences and may best be explained by a biological theory such as the role of genes and hormones in gender development. Thus, the gender schema theory may lead to a limited understanding of gender, particularly as there is a wealth of evidence that suggests genes and hormones play a role in gender behaviour and identity.Additional evaluation pointsPsychodynamic explanations of gender development: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory; Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation__________________________________________________The psychodynamic theory of gender development suggests that gender identity is acquired in the unconscious Freud saw conscious behaviour as motivated by unconscious drives, with the structure of the mind consisting of the ID, Ego and Superego the three components of personality. Freud saw children as experiencing an unconscious conflict as they went through each of the five psychosexual stages. In the first two stages, the oral and the anal; stages, children are perceived as ‘bisexual’ as there are no visible differences between behaviour in boys and girls. However, when children reach the third stage, the phallic stage, between ages 3 and 5, its libido (life force) is seen as increasing focused on their genitals and it is this stage when child’s gender identity develops through the resolution of either the Oedipus complex (for boys) or the Electra complex (for girls) The third stage is known as the phallic stage, which occurs between the ages of 3 and 5. In this stage, the child unconsciously sexually desires the opposite-sex parent and is jealous of the same-sex parent. In order to deal with these feelings and the anxiety that they produce, the child begins to behave like the same-sex parent. This is known as identification. Freud believed this process occurred differently in boys and girls. During the phallic stage, boys experience the Oedipus complex. They sexually desire their mothers and see their father as a rival, which results in aggressive feelings that are directed towards the father. The boy fears that if the father finds out about his desire for his mother he will castrate him. This is called castration anxiety. The boy resolves the conflict by identifying with the father and wanting to be like him. He internalises his father, which means he incorporates his father into his own psyche. The superego is formed and, in taking on his father as part of himself, the boy takes on a male gender identity. This leads to masculine behaviour as young boys take on the attitudes and expectations of their father.Girls enter the Electra complex. This starts with the realisation that they have no penis leading them to think that they have been castrated, which they blame on their Mother. As she has no penis the girl sees herself as powerless, and wishes that she had one. This is called penis envy. She starts to desire her Father, because he has one and becomes hostile towards her Mother. Eventually, she identifies with her mother developing a superego and a female gender identity. At this point she represses her desire for a penis and substitutes it for the desire for a child. They develop a weaker identity than men because their fear is not as strong as the fear of castration that men feel. This leads to feminine behaviour as young girls take on the attitudes and expectations of their Mother.The crux of Freuds’ theory is that children of both sexes identify with the same sex parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes. Boys adopt the attitudes and values of their father, and girls adopt those of their mother.The involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same-sex parent, a process freud referred to as internalisation. Essentially then, both boys and girls receive a ‘second hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage. Research to support/refute the psychodynamic explanation. Psychodynamic psychologists have tended to base their theories on case studies of people who were undergoing treatment for psychological problems. Their case study method relies on gathering material from the person being treated and analysing it to identify the latent (hidden) meanings in the things the person thinks, says or does. Freud (1909)Freud carried out a case study to investigate the gender development of a baby known as ‘Little Hans’AimTo investigate Little Hans’s phobiaMethod Hans’s father wrote to Freud to tell him about Han’s development. At the age of four Hans developed a phobia of horses. He was frightened that a horse might bite him or fall down. He was particularly afraid of large white horse with black around the mouth. Freud analysed this information. Result Freud claimed that Hans was experiencing the Oedipus complex. He unconsciously sexually desired his mother and saw his father as a rival and feared castration. He displaced the fear of his father on to horses. The white horse with black around his mouth represented his father who had a dark beard. His fear of being bitten by a horse represented his fear of castration and his fear of horses falling down was his unconscious desire to see his father dead. ConclusionThis supports Freud’s ideas about the Oedipus complex. The psychodynamic theory implies that a child must grow up in a conventional nuclear family, with mother and father figures, in order to develop a ‘normal’ gender identity. Golombok et al (1984) demonstrated how children from single parent families went onto develop normal gender identities. Green (1978) studied a sample of 37 families who were raised by gay or transgender parents, and discovered that only one had a gender identity that was described as ‘non typical’Freud’s theory implies that sons of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys because higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with the aggressor. Blakemore and Hill (2008) refute this claim finding the reverse to be true; that boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity.The psychodynamic approach suggests that the child’s gender identity is absent before the age of about three and not fully formed until the age of about five or six. However, research has shown that children start to show gender-based preferences for toys as early as one year old, and usually have clear ideas about their own gender identity by the age of three.Evaluation of the psychodynamic explanation.09207500One criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour. Many of the concepts of Freud's theories are subjective and impossible to scientifically test. For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind? In this respect the psychodynamic perspective is falsifiable as its theories cannot be empirically investigated. We are unable to deliver any evidence that the unconscious mind does or does not exist. The defence mechanisms that occur in gender development all take place in the unconscious so the child is unaware that they are feeling sexual attraction towards the opposite-sex parent and these are also resolved in the unconscious so we are unable to provide evidence that they are actually happening. This contrasts sharply with other explanations of gender such as the biological explanation into chromosomes and hormones that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from laboratory studies. According to Karl Popper (1959) Freud’s theory is pseudoscientific. 09144000Different explanations see the child acquiring gender at different ages. The psychodynamic explanation suggests at the end of the phallic stage (approximately age 6) is when the child’s gender becomes fixed and they are no longer bisexual but have internalised masculine or feminine behaviour through the process of identification with the same-sex parent. This is in contrast to other explanations of gender development. Kohlberg suggests that children acquire gender identity at around age 2 years, which is earlier than Freud, would suggest. At this stage children can label themselves as male or female. At age 4 they achieve gender stability where they know they will be a mummy or daddy when they grow up and age 6 they reach gender constancy and realise they would remain the same sex through life despite any superficial changes such as appearance. According to Kohlberg, children have an understanding of gender before the psychodynamic explanation would suggest.Additional evaluation pointsSocial learning theory as applied to gender development. The influence of culture and media on gender roles.__________________________________________________Social Learning Theory The social learning theory or social learning approach also provides an insight into how and why gender differences arise. Unlike the biological approach, social learning theory suggests that our gender differences arise from our socialisation - our interactions with other human beings. As such, it draws attention to the influence of the environment (nurture) in shaping gender development. This includes significant others that the child comes into contact with – parents, peers, teachers as well as the wider influence of culture and the mediaChildren are seen to acquire their gender identity and associated gender-appropiate behaviour through key social learning concepts of vicarious reinforcement, modelling and imitation. Social learning theory regards gender identity and role as a set of behaviours that are learned from the environment. The main way that gender behaviours are learned is through the process of observational learning. Social learning theory suggests four meditational processes that are central to the learning of gender behaviour. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways, some of which relate to gender. They pay attention to some of these people (models) (a boy might want to emulate his favourite footballer) and through retention (encoding) they will try to reproduce the behaviour (trying to reproduce the skills the child saw on TV in the playground). The child gets motivation from wanting to become famous like his hero (identification). However, for the child to be able to imitate the behaviour observed they have to be physically capable of doing it (motor reproduction). They may do this regardless of whether the behaviour is ‘gender appropriate’ or not but there are a number of factors that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behaviour that its society deems appropriate for its sex.Identification: Firstly, the child is more likely to attend to, imitate and model those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behaviour modelled by people the same sex as themselves or who possess qualities that the child sees as rewarding. These people are known as role models (parents, teachers, celebrities etc..)Second, the people around the child will respond to the behaviour it imitates with either direct reinforcement or punishment. The ways in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropiate behaviour is called differentiated reinforcement. It is through this differentiated reinforcement that a child learns their gender identity. It is likely that the child will be reinforced for acting in gender appropriate ways and punished or ignored for gender inappropriate behaviour. The reinforcement may be direct or indirect. Third, the child will also have observed the consequences of other people’s behaviour and will be motivated to imitate the behaviour it has seen reinforced and avoid imitating the behaviour it has seen punished (vicarious reinforcement).Once this process has taken place and the child begins to imitate their model, they will then begin to act is a gender specific way and receive direct reinforcement from the socialising agents which causes Research to support/refute the social learning theory explanationSmith & Lloyd 1978: this study demonstrated that most parental influence is unconscious parents don’t always realise how they are influencing their children. In this lab experiment, women (who were mothers themselves) were filmed playing with a 4-month-old baby (not their own). Regardless of the baby’s actual gender, sometimes it was dressed as a girl and sometimes as a boy. Smith & Lloyd wanted to know how the women would respond to the baby based on what they thought the gender was. There was a variety of toys for the women to choose from to give to the baby. The results showed that the choice of toy varied depending on what gender the baby was perceived to be. The ‘boy’ would be given a toy hammer to play with and encouraged to make noise, while the ‘girl’ would be given a doll to play with and encouraged to be quiet. It was also found that the women were more prepared to let the ‘girl’ play with boys’ toys, but not to let the ‘boy’ play with girls’ toys. Therefore, the women were reinforcing stereotypical behaviour, without even realising. McGhee and Frueh (1980)?Found that the more TV people watch the stronger gender stereotypes they possessed. Fagot (1985)?Showed that both male and female children were more critical of male children who exhibited female behaviours than of female children who exhibited male behaviours.Eccles (1987) Observed that teachers praised male children for their academic achievement whilst praising female children for their tidiness and obedience.Pfost and Fiore (1990) Women were criticised harsher than men in the workplace when they worked traditionally masculine jobs than men were when they worked traditionally feminine jobs.Archer and Lloyd (1982) reported that three year olds playing the opposite sexes games were ridiculed by their peers and later shunned.Evaluation of the social learning theory explanation0-635000Social learning theory views gender to be environmentally determined. It places great emphasis on the role of the environment in gender and places little emphasis on the inflluence of genes and chromosomes in gender development. However, research such as the case study of David Reimer shows us that it was not possible to raise a biological make as a female and override chromosomal influence. Perhaps by looking at gender development from a biosocial approach which suggests that there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforced through social interaction and cultural experience we can develop a fuller understanding of how children acquire their gender.Social learning theory suggests that we observe gender behaviour and imitate the behaviour of role models especially if we are reinforced for that particular behaviour. Social learning theory suggests we are making these decisions consciously if we are motivated because the action is likely to bring desirable consequences. The influence of unconscious forces (psychodynamic explanation) on gender development challenge social learning theory because we are not aware of these unconscious forces, our gender behaviour is determined or caused by factors outside of our control over which we have no choice.Additional evaluation pointsThe influence of culture and media on gender roles__________________________________________________Social learning theorists see gender-role behaviour as largely determined by the environment and socialisation. Two key areas through which social norms are transmitted and communicated are culture and the media.Culture and gender rolesThis section focuses on gender role and gender identity and how our culture can shape our gender. 041338500Studying cultural influences on gender role gives us a greater understanding of the relative contributions of biology (nature) and socialisation (nurture) in the development of gender. It allows us to address the nature/nurture debate and consider how much each contributes to gender development. We do this by conducting cross-cultural research.Cross cultural studies help us to decide whether it is biology or socialisation which determines gender roles.If biology was the main factor, we should expect to find similarities in the division of labour across cultures. However, if socialisation was the main factor, we should expect to see differences across cultures in the roles taken on by men and women this is known as cultural relativism. Research into culture and gender rolesMargaret Mead (19035) was an early researcher who used an ethnographic approach to study cultures which involved her immersing herself within a culture, conducting participant observation and interviews. 45720018796000Mead’s research has been much criticised for observer bias and cultural bias. She may have over-emphasised the role of nurture over nature because of her own beliefs, so she may not have been objective. This belief that she held was a reflection of the beliefs held by her own culture at the time, hence she is culturally biased and ethnocentric since she imposed the beliefs of her culture on the way she interpreted the behaviour on another culture. Gewertz (1981) observed the Tchambuli in the 1970s and found that males were more aggressive than females. Gewertz argued that Mead studied these tribes when they were facing a change in their lifestyle and were forced to behave differently from normal and so were more aggressive than normal; this shows how important it is to consider the context of a culture’s situation when looking at their behaviour. Freeman (1983) criticised Mead’s study arguing that it was flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants and that her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of the events.45720026606500342900118110Williams & Best (1990a) found evidence of cultural similarities in gender stereotypes. They tested 2,800 students’ in 30 different countries using a 300 item adjective checklist. Participants were asked to decide whether each adjective was most associated with men or women. There was a broad consensus across countries. Men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous, whereas women more nurturing and interested in affiliation. This suggests there are universal stereotypes about gender. 0Williams & Best (1990a) found evidence of cultural similarities in gender stereotypes. They tested 2,800 students’ in 30 different countries using a 300 item adjective checklist. Participants were asked to decide whether each adjective was most associated with men or women. There was a broad consensus across countries. Men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous, whereas women more nurturing and interested in affiliation. This suggests there are universal stereotypes about gender. Evaluation of culture and gender rolesResearch into the effects of culture and the media on gender roles provides support for the social learning theory explanation of gender. Social learning theory suggests we learn gender roles by observation of role models and we copy or imitate the models we see, especially if we see those models being rewarded or reinforced for such behaviours. The media provides us with role models, and often males and females in the media are portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways; for example, females looking after children and males as breadwinners. If there are cultural differences in gender roles, we can explain these through socialisation and experience, which is how social learning theory suggests we acquire gender roles.03556000Cultural bias is an issue with the research into cultural influences on gender because, as highlighted with ethnographic research, it shows how difficult it is not to let our own cultural biases influence the way we record and interpret behaviour from a culture that we are unfamiliar with. Western researchers who take indigenous populations to be their object of study typically undertake cross-cultural research. There is a danger that researchers, armed with theories and methods that have been developed in the west, impose their own cultural interests and understanding upon the people they are studying (imposed etic). Although cross cultural research is generally regarded as a positive, as it allows us to extend our understanding of behaviour beyond western society, it also raises the question as to whether psychology can ever be totally free of cultural bias. Perhaps one way to reduce this bias is to include at least one member of the local population within the research team (as seen in Buss, 1990 study)Additional evaluation pointsNature or Nurture?4800600342900Media on gender rolesThe media provides role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate. Vicarious reinforcement means that we learn gender-appropriate behaviour through watching others being rewarded for behaving in a certain way. One of the main sources of this is the media, as television often shows people behaving in gender-stereotyped ways and being rewarded for doing so, usually by being successful or popular in some way. The media (TV, films, books, advertisements, toys etc) portray males and females differently and provide very clear gender stereotypes. Males are more represented in most types of TV programmes even more so in children’s programmes. Males and females are portrayed in gender stereotypical ways, males are perceived as more dominant, aggressive and independent while women are seen as submissive, nurturing and dependent. The media does more than simply model gender typical behaviours, as it also gives information about the likely outcomes of those behaviours for males and females. Seeing people similar to yourself succeed raises a person’s belief in their own capabilities (self efficacy), whereas the failure of similar others produces self-doubt. Research into media on gender rolesHodges et al (1981) found that men are more likely to be portrayed as being in control, while women are at the mercy of others. McGhee & Frueh (1980) found that children who are exposed to such models on tv display far more stereotyped behaviours. When the media shows people behaving in a gender-typed way and succeeding somehow, this increases the feeling of self-efficacy in the viewer: ie they feel that they too will be successful if they behave in the same way. Furnham and Farragher (2000) studied TV adverts and found that men were more likely to shown in an autonomous roles with professional contexts whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.Evaluation: media on gender rolesCorrelation not causation:Counter-stereotypes:Atypical gender development: gender identify disorder; biological and social explanations for gender identity disorder.__________________________________________________Gender Identity Disorder (GID) characterised by strong, persistant feelings of identification with the oppposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex. People with GID desire to live as members of the opposite sex and often dress and use mannerisms associated with the opposite gender. Also referred to as transgenderism or gender dysphoria. ExplanationDescriptionResearchEvaluationBIOLOGICALBrain Sex theory:Genetic factors:ExplanationDescriptionResearchEvaluationSOCIALPSYCHOLOGICALPsychoanalytic explanation:Cognitive explanation ................
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