Commack High School HL Biology
121602520320Student Notes020000Student Notesleft2901950Seven QuestTopic One: CellsCommack High School HL Biology3500050000Seven QuestTopic One: CellsCommack High School HL Biology1.1 U.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells.When do the first cells appear in the fossil record of Earth (Slide 2) the three core ideas of cell theory (Slide 3)All living things are made up of cells.1.1 A.1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae.For each atypical example outline how it challenges conventional cell theory (Slides 7-11)Striated muscleChallenges the idea that a cell has one nucleus. Muscle cells have more than one nucleus per cell Muscle Cells called fibers can be very long (300mm). They are surrounded by a single plasma membrane but they are multi-nucleated (many nuclei).This does not conform to the standard view of a small single nuclei within a cellGiant algae: Fungal hyphae: Blood Cells: Bone Cells: 1.1 U.2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. State the functions of life, as demonstrated by all living organisms. (Slide 12)Metabolism - Response - Living things can respond to and interact with the environmentHomeostasis - The maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions, e.g. water and pHGrowth - Reproduction - Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexuallyExcretion – Nutrition – 1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.Below is an image of a paramecium. Label and annotate the image to indicate how it performs each of the functions of life. (Slide 14)1.1 U.3 Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size.Explain why small cells are more efficient than big cells. (Slides 17-19)1.1 U.5 specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms.7. In humans, how many different types of cells are there? (Slide 20) 1.1 U.4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components.a. Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life, multi-cellular organisms differentiate and show emergent properties. Describe what is meant by the term emergent properties. (Slide 21)Outline the toaster project and how it relates to the idea of cells having emergent properties. (Slide 22)The Hierarchy of Life Video Questions (Slide 23)Using termites, explain emergent properties. (0:49) Describe how is biology organized? (1:44)1.1 U.6 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome.All cells in an organism share the same, identical, genome (i.e. they all possess the samegenetic information). Describe how newly formed cells become specialized. (Slide 24)1.1 U.7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.Describe what is meant by the term stem cell. (Slide 25)Define the following types of stem cells. Giving an example of each: (Slide 25)Totipotent Pluripotent Multipotent Unipotent 13. Stem Cell Story (video) (Slide 26) What are the two types of cells stem cells can make when they divide? (4:02)How many skin cells can skin one stem cell make 4:32How many blood stem cells are needed to repair the entire blood system, when fighting leukemia? (6:38)Where do embryonic stem cells come from? (7:16) How many cell types exist in the brain? (10:53)How many people in Belgium currently have diabetes? (12:20)1.1 A.4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby and from an adult’s own tissues. Complete the table to compare the different sources of stem cells available: (Slide 27)Comparison of stem cell sourcesEmbryoCord bloodAdultDifferentiationCan differentiate into any cell typeLimited capacity to differentiate (without inducement only naturally divide into blood cells)Limited capacity to differentiate (dependent on the source tissue)GeneticdamageDue to accumulation of mutations through the life of the adult genetic damage can occurCompatibilityComplete the table to compare the different sources of stem cells available: (Slide 28)Comparison of stem cell sourcesEmbryoCord bloodAdultEase of extractionCan be obtained from excess embryo’s by IVF programsLimited capacity to differentiate (without inducement only naturally divide into blood cells)Difficult to obtain as there are very few and are buried deep in tissuesEthics of the extractionCan only be obtained by destruction of an embryoGrowth potentialAlmost unlimitedReduced potentialTumor riskLow risk of DevelopmentCord blood saving lives Video (Slide 29)What makes up cord blood? (22secs) How long can cord blood last? (30 secs) What are some diseases that can be treated with cord blood? (48secs) What is Hurler syndrome? (1:26) 1.1 A.3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named plete the table to detail the use of stem cells in the treatment of specific conditions. (Slides 30-35)ConditionStargardt's macular dystrophyLeukemiaOutline the condition andthe problems it causesAffects around one in 10,000 Recessive genetic (inherited) condition.The mutation causes an active transport protein on photoreceptor cells to malfunction. That causes progressive, and eventually total, loss of central visionDescribe treatment ofthe conditionusing stem cellsHematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord bloodChemotherapy and radiotherapy used to destroy the diseased white blood cellsNew white blood cells need to be replaced with healthy cells.HSCs are transplanted back into the bone marrowHSCs differentiate to form new healthy white blood cellsThe benefit of using stemCellsStem cells are currently the only viable treatment for this condition.Therapeutic cloning remains a controversial area of medicine.Outline the main arguments for therapeutic cloning (Slide 36)?Stem cell research may pave the way for future discoveries and beneficial technologies that would not have occurred if their use had been banned?May be used to cure serious diseases or disabilities with cell therapy (replacing bad cells with good ones)?Cells are taken at a stage when the embryo has no nervous system and can arguably feel no painOutline the four main arguments against therapeutic cloning (Slide 36)?Involves the creation and destruction of human embryos (at what point do we afford the right to life?)?Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued division and may develop into cancerous cells and cause tumors1.2 U.3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.State the definition of resolution: (Slide 38) shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished State Outline the scale of objected studied in Biology (Slide 39)Complete the table below comparing the resolution of the eye with light and electron microscopes: (Slide 40)Resolution Millimeters (mm)Micrometers (μm)Nanometers (nm)Human eye100100,000Light microscopes0.0002Electron microscopes0.0011 Explain why electron microscopes have a better resolution that light microscopes. (Slide 40)State what is meant by the term Ultrastructure and how it relates to an electron microscope. (Slide 41)S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues, with drawing of cells. Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in drawings or micrographs. Write out the formula for calculating an image at the bottom of Slide 42 Calculate the magnification of these scale bars using a rule and formula I/AM:Calculate the actual size of the structures delineated in yellow.Diatom x 1,0001-'1155065-79375000The diagram below shows the characteristic rod shaped structure of E. coli bacteria.Calculate the magnification of the image.State the method (shown here) by which bacteria reproduce1.2 U.1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization. AND 1.2 S.1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure Define the term prokaryote. (Slide 46) Draw and label (including function of each part) prokaryote. Include cell wall, plasma membrane, pili, flagella, nucleoid (naked DNA), ribosomes and a scale bar. (Slides 48-49)A.2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.Outline the process of binary fission (Slide 50)1.2 U.2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.Plant and animal cells are eukaryotic.Define the term eukaryote. (Slide 51) Outline the benefits compartmentalization provides to eukaryote cells compared when with prokaryotes. (Slide 52) 1.2 A.1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cells of the plete the table to summary the organelles commonly found in eukaryotes.(Slides 52-65)OrganelleFunctionDiagram How to identify it on anelectron micrographNucleusContains genetic information in the form of chromosomesMitochondrionHas a double membrane. A smooth outer membrane (2) and a folded inner membrane (1). The folds are referred to as cristae (3). The space inthe middle is called the matrix(4). The shape varies.Freeribosomes (80S)Synthesizes proteins to function in the cytoplasm, for use within the cell, e.g. enzymesRoughEndoplasmic Reticulum (rER)rER synthesizes proteins which are transported, by vesicles, to the golgi apparatus for modification before secretion outside the cellOrganelleFunctionDiagram (labelled wherenecessary)How to identify it on anelectron micrographGolgiApparatusflattened membrane sacs called cisternae, like rERVesiclesUsed to transport materials inside of a cellLysosomesspherical with a single membranedigestive enzymesVacuolesIn Plant cells, large and permanent, often occupying the majority of the cell volumeIn animals, smaller and temporary and used for various reasons, e.g. to absorb food and digest itFlagellumUsed to move the cellCiliaUsed to move the cellChloroplastcontain chloroplastsStacks of thylakoidsThe site of photosynthesis Cell walls are not true organelles. (Slide 65)What is the function of the cell wall and where can it be found? In plant cells what is the cell wall mainly composed of? 1.2 S.2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.The ultrastructure of plant and animal cells is very different.Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells (Slide 66)Draw and label the ultrastructure of a generalized eukaryote animal cell. Include all the relevant organelles from the two questions above (Slides 67-68) Draw and label the ultrastructure of a generalized eukaryote Plant cell. Include all the relevant organelles from the two questions above. (Slides 69-70)U.1 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules.Explain how hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the phospholipid bilayer allow a membrane to maintain its structure. (Slides 77-78) The polar-nonpolar nature of the molecule (remember organic chem) make it possible to self-assemble.Draw a diagram of a single phospholipid molecule. Label the hydrophobic and hydrophilic sections. (Slide 791.3 S.1 Drawing of the fluid mosaic model. Draw and label a simplified (2D) diagram of the plasma membrane. (Slide 81)Include: phospholipid bilayer, integral and peripheral proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol.The Singer-Nicholson fluid mosaic modern model, identify some it key features. (Slide 81)A1 Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes.The presence of cholesterol in the membrane restricts the movement of phosolipids and other molecules. How does this affect the physical properties of the membrane? (Slide 83) The presence of cholesterol disrupts the regular packing of the of the hydrocarbon tails of phospholipid molecules. What impact does this have on the physical properties of the membrane? (Slide 82)1.3.U3 Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes.Cholesterol is a type of lipid, but it is not a fat or oil. What group does it belong to? (Slide 83) Cholesterol makes up around about 20% of the mass of cell membranes. This percentage varies greatly and some membranes, e.g. bacteria, do not contain it at all.Where in the plasma membrane can cholesterol be found? (Slide 83) What properties cause it to be located in this position? (Slide 83) U.2 Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function.Where are the three major types of proteins found in the membrane? (Slides 84-85)Intergral Peripheral Glycoprotein List the six main functions of the membrane proteins. (Slides 86-87)1.3 S.2 Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that led to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli model.Outline the structure of the Davson-Danielli model of the cell membrane. (Slides 88-89) Why was the new model proposed, what did it help explain? (Slide 90) 1.4 U.1 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport.Outline the head and the tails of the plasma membrane. (Slide 92)Describe the five ways in which the membrane controls movement. (Slide 93)Compare simple diffusion to osmosis. (Slides 94-96) Distinguish between solute, solvent and solution. (Slide 96) Compare cells to the solution there are in as isotonic, hyper or hypotonic: (Slide 96)Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic In the space below, draw a diagram of a plant cell undergoing plasmolyed and then turgid. Explain how osmosis causes plasmolysis. (Slide 97)93345010425500In the space below, draw a diagram of a plant cell before and after plasmolysis. Explain how osmosis causes plasmolysis. (Slides 98)1091045-4100001.4 A.2 Tissues or organs to be used in medical procedures must be bathed in a solution with the same osmolarity as the cytoplasm to prevent osmosis.Explain osmolarity regulation in cell: (Slide 99) Describe somethings that my determine the solute concentration of a Ringer lactate IV drip? (Slide 99) sList the common medical procedures in which an isotonic saline solution is useful. (Slide 99) Explain what is happening in this diagram:Watch the hype-link: How Facilitated Diffusion Works and then outline how it does (Slide 1001.4.A1 Structure and function of sodium–potassium pumps for active transport and potassium channels for facilitated diffusion in axons.Draw the example of Facilitated Diffusion from last year’s curriculum. (Slides 101-103)ATP is the source of energy for active transport. Explain how ATP releases energy, using a simple diagram.(Slide 102)1.4 U.2 The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis.1.4.U.3 Vesicles move materials within cells.Large food particles (macromolecule) are taken in using endocytosis? Give one example of a macromolecule produced in the cell. (pervious knowledge)What is a vesicle? (Slide 104) Outline the uses of vesicles within cells after watching the hyperlink on slide 104. Differentiate between exocytosis and endocytosis. after watching the hyperlink on slide 104. Exocytosis is often characterized as being either pinocytosis or phagocytosis. Distinguish between two terms. (Slide 105) A.1 Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth.Outline the idea of the theory of Spontaneous Generation ((Slide 107) According to Spontaneous Generation, where do mice come from? (Slide 108) 1.1 U.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells. State the three core ideas of cell theory (Slide 109) How does the idea of spontaneous generation stand in the way of the advancement of our understanding of the cell? (Slides 109-114) 1.5 A.1 Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth. Louis Pasteur designed an experiment to test whether sterile nutrient broth could spontaneously generate microbial life Watch the Hyperlink on 115 before answering questions 68-71 In which flask(s) would you expect microbes grow? (Slide 116) Explain the reasons for your answer in question 68 using slides 115-116How does the evidence derived from this experiment refute the idea of spontaneous generation P1.5 U.2 The first cells must have arisen from non-living material.There are two theories of where the first cells come from on Earth. Panspermia and Organic Evolution. Explain Panspermia (Slide 117)List the four things needed of Organic Evolution to have occurred below (Slides 118)The non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules what were the conditions on early Earth? (Slide 119)Little to no free O2/ Very hot (Volcanism)/Different chemicals/Lots of timeThe non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules what were the conditions on early Earth? (Slide 119)Little to no free O2/ Very hot (Volcanism)/Different chemicals/Lots of timeProvide a list below some of the molecules contained in the early atmosphere and ocean of Earth (Slide 120)H2O/NH3/N2/H2S/CH4Where is it thought that Organic Evolution might have occurred on Earth? (Slides 121-123)Close to the ocean surface of deep in the ocean around hydrothermal plete and annotate the diagram below to show the process of vesicle transport of a protein molecule through a eukaryote cell. Begin with protein synthesis in the Rough ER and finish with exocytosis though the plasma membrane. Label all organelles shown. (Slide 128)1.5.U3 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory.State the definition of endosymbiotic theory: (Slide 129) As shown by the diagram below there are several key stages in the theory. (Slide 130-131)Describe the evidence supporting the theory for mitochondria and chloroplasts: (Slide 133) ................
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