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Shara M. Marshall, M.S.

ANATOMICAL REGIONS, POSITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Overview

Anatomy:

Physiology:

Principle of Complementarity

Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical:

Cellular:

Tissue:

Organ:

Organ system:

Organismal:

Overview of Organ Systems

The integumentary system functions to:

The skeletal system functions to:

The muscular system functions to:

The nervous system functions to:

The endocrine system functions to:

The cardiovascular system functions to:

The lymphatic system functions to:

The respiratory system functions to:

The digestive system functions to:

The urinary system functions to:

The reproductive system functions to:

Survival Needs

Nutrients

Oxygen

Water

Normal body temperature

Appropriate atmospheric pressure

Homeostasis

Definition:

Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism

Components of a Control Mechanism (contain at least the following three components)

Receptor (sensor)

Control center

Effector

Negative Feedback

Example: Regulation of body temperature

Positive Feedback

Example:

Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

Anatomical Position

Standard anatomical body position:

Regional Terms

Regional terms:

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Directional Terms

• Superior (cranial) -

• Inferior (caudal) -

• Ventral (anterior) -

• Dorsal (posterior)-

• Medial-

• Lateral-

• Intermediate-

• Proximal –

• Distal -

• Superficial-

• Deep-

Body Planes and Sections

Sagittal plane

Midsagittal (median) plane

Parasagittal plane

Frontal (coronal) plane

Transverse (horizontal) plane

Body Cavities

Two Large Cavities:

Dorsal cavity

Two subdivisions:

Cranial cavity

Encases:

Vertebral cavity

Encases:

Ventral cavity

Houses:

Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

Thoracic cavity subdivisions:

Two pleural cavities

Each one houses:

Mediastinum

Contains:

Also contains:

Pericardial cavity

Encloses:

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

Abdominal cavity

Contains:

Pelvic cavity

Contains:

Abdominopelvic Regions

Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists

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Abdominopelvic Quadrants - Four Divisions used primarily by medical personnel (Right and Left Upper and Lower Quadrants)

Matter

Definition:

States of matter:

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Energy

Definition:

Types of energy:

Kinetic—

Potential-

Electrical—

Energy Form Conversions

Conversion is:

Composition of Matter

Atoms:

Atomic Structure

Neutrons

Mass =

Protons

Mass =

Electrons

Mass =

Identifying Elements

Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of subatomic particles

Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium

Atomic number =

Mass number =

Isotopes =

Molecules and Compounds

Most atoms combine chemically with other atoms to form molecules and compounds

Molecule— (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)

Compound— (e.g., C6H12O6)

Chemical Bonds

Octet rule:

Chemically Inert Elements

Chemically Reactive Elements

Types of Chemical Bonds (Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen)

Ionic Bonds

Ions are formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms

Anions (– charge):

Cations (+ charge):

Attraction of opposite charges results in:

Covalent Bonds

Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons

Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal

Equal sharing produces:

CO2

Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces:

H2O

Atoms with six or seven valence shell electrons are electronegative, e.g., oxygen

Hydrogen Bonds

Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reactions

A + B ( AB

Decomposition Reactions

AB ( A + B

Classes of Compounds

Inorganic compounds

Do not contain:

Organic compounds

Contain:

Water

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate in water

Acids and Bases

Both are electrolytes

Acids -

HCl ( H+ + Cl–

Bases-

NaOH ( Na+ + OH–

Acid-Base Concentration

Acid solutions contain [H+]

As [H+] increases:

Basic solutions contain bases (e.g., OH–)

As [H+] decreases (or as [OH–] increases):

pH:

Neutral solutions:

pH =

Acidic solutions

pH =

Basic solutions

pH=

For all of the following organic compounds, they are formed by a process called dehydration synthesis and broken down by a process called hydrolysis and the atoms of these organic macromolecules are chemically bound by covalent bonds.

**Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches

Three classes

Monosaccharides-

Disaccharides-

Polysaccharides-

Functions

Primary role:

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**Lipids

Insoluble in water

Main types:

Triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

*Triglycerides

Defined as:

Composed of:

Main functions

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*Phospholipids

Modified triglycerides:

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*Steroids

Steroids—

Ex’s. -Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

**Proteins

Composed of:

Structural Levels of Proteins

Primary Structure:

Secondary Structure:

Tertiary Structure:

Quaternary Structure:

Protein Denaturation

Definition:

A denatured protein is:

Enzymes

Biological catalysts

Function:

**Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA

Building block =

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Four bases:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Four bases:

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)

Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Function:

Phosphorylation:

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Generalized Cell

All cells have some common structures and functions

Human cells have three basic parts:

Plasma membrane—

Cytoplasm—

Nucleus—

Plasma Membrane

Separates:

Membrane Lipids

75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer)

Phosphate heads:

Fatty acid tails (chains):

5% glycolipids

20% cholesterol

Membrane Junctions

Three types:

Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Membrane Junctions: Tight Junctions

Where might these be useful in the body?

Membrane Junctions: Desmosomes

Where might these be useful in the body?

Membrane Junctions: Gap Junctions

Useful for:

Types of Membrane Transport

Passive processes

Substance moves:

Active processes

Substances are moved/”pumped”:

Passive Processes

What determines whether or not a substance can passively permeate a membrane?

Lipid solubility of substance

Size of molecule passing

Passive Processes

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis

Passive Processes: Simple Diffusion

Passive Processes: Facilitated Diffusion

Passive Processes: Osmosis

Water diffuses through plasma membranes:

Through the lipid bilayer

Through water channels called aquaporins (AQPs)

Passive Processes: Osmosis

Osmolarity:

When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane:

Importance of Osmosis

When osmosis occurs:

A change in cell volume:

Tonicity

Defined as:

Isotonic:

Hypertonic:

Hypotonic:

Membrane Transport: Active Processes

• Two types of active processes:

o

o

• Both use:

Active Transport

•

•

Active Transport

• The Sodium-potassium pump (Na+-K+ ATPase) is a specific example of active transport

o

o

Vesicular Transport

• Transports:

• Requires:

•

o

o

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasmic organelles

Mitochondria

Ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Two varieties:

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Golgi Apparatus

Lysosomes

Cytoskeleton

Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol

Microfilaments

Intermediate Filaments

Microtubules

Centrioles

Cellular Extensions

Cilia and flagella

Flagella are:

Cilia are:

Microvilli are:

Nucleus

Nuclear Envelope

Nucleolus

Chromatin

The Cell Cycle

Includes:

Interphase

4.

5. Three Subphases:

6. Gap 1 (G1)-

7. Synthesis Phase (S phase)-

8. Gap 1 (G2)-

9. Cell Division (mitotic phase or mitosis)

DNA Replication

Helicase:

Each nucleotide strand:

DNA polymerase:

End result:

This process is called:

Cell Division

14. Does not occur in most mature cells of nervous tissue, skeletal and cardiac muscle

Includes two distinct events

Mitosis—four stages of nuclear division:

Prophase -

Metaphase -

Anaphase -

Telophase -

Cytokinesis -

Protein Synthesis

DNA is:

Gene:

Each triplet specifies:

Roles of the Three Main Types of RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)

Transcription

Transcription factor

RNA polymerase

16.

17.

18.

19.

Translation

Converts:

Involves:

Genetic Code

Each three-base sequence on DNA is represented by a codon

Codon—

Steps of Translation

There are four tissue types in the body

134 Epithelial tissue

135 Connective tissue

136 Muscle tissue

137 Nerve tissue

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Cells have polarity—

Are composed of closely packed cells

Avascular

•

High rate of regeneration

•

Classification of Epithelia

Ask two questions:

How many layers?

1 =

>1 =

What type of cell?

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

(If stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)

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Overview of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelia: Simple Squamous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Simple Columnar

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Squamous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Epithelia: Transitional Epithelium

Description:

Function:

Location:

Glandular Epithelia

← Gland:

← Two major types:

o Endocrine glands-

o

o Exocrine glands-

Connective Tissue

Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type

Four classes

Connective tissue proper

Cartilage

Bone tissue

Blood

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues have:

Cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)

Extracellular Matrix

Ground substance

Components

Fibers (three types)

Collagen

Elastic

Reticular

Cells of Connective Tissue

“blasts” = Mitotically active and secretory cells

“cytes” = Mature cells

Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper

Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in cartilage

Osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone

Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow

Overview of Connective Tissues

Connective Tissues: Osseous

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Cartilage

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Areolar Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Adipose Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Reticular Connective Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Connective Tissues: Blood

Description:

Function:

Location:

Muscle Tissue (Three Types)

Skeletal Muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Cardiac Muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Smooth muscle

Description:

Function:

Location:

Nervous Tissue

Description:

Function:

Location:

Steps in Wound Repair

• Inflammation

• Organization and restored blood supply

• Regeneration and fibrosis

Epithelial Membranes

Cutaneous membrane (skin)

Mucous membranes

Mucosae

(e.g., digestive and respiratory tracts)

Serous Membranes

Serosae—membranes lining the closed ventral body cavity

Parietal serosae -

Visceral serosae –

20. Serosa are named based on their location:

21. Pleural membranes surround:

22. Pericardial membranes surround:

23. Peritoneal membranes surround:

Skin (Integument)

Consists of three major regions

Epidermis—

Dermis—

Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—

Epidermis

Cells of epidermis

Keratinocytes—

Melanocytes

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)

Also called stratum germinativum:

Cells travel from basal layer to surface

Takes 25–45 days

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)

Functions

Dermis

Two layers:

Papillary

Reticular

Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer

Papillary layer

Contains dermal papillae with:

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

Reticular layer

26.

Skin Color

Three pigments contribute to skin color:

Melanin

27.

Carotene

Hemoglobin

Appendages of the Skin

Derived from the epidermis

Sweat Glands

Two main types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

Eccrine sweat glands— abundant on palms, soles, and forehead

Sweat:

Apocrine sweat glands—confined to:

Sebum:

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

Sebum

Hair

Functions

Consists of:

Three layers from interior to exterior:

Hair pigments:

Hair Follicle

Two-layered wall:

Hair bulb:

Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus):

Arrector pili

Structure of a Nail

Structures of the nail:

29.

Functions of the Integumentary System

Protection—

Chemical

Physical/mechanical barriers

Biological barriers

Body temperature regulation

Cutaneous sensations

Metabolic functions

Blood reservoir—

Excretion—

Skin Cancer

Three major types:

Basal cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma

Melanoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Melanoma

Melanoma

Characteristics (ABCDE rule)

A: Asymmetry-

B: Border-

C: Color-

D: Diameter-

E: Evolution-

Rule of Nines

Partial-Thickness Burns

First degree

Second degree

Full-Thickness Burns

Third degree

Severity of Burns

Critical if:

Bones: An Overview

Functions of Bones

Support

Protection

Movement

Storage

Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in:

Classification of Bones by Shape

Long bones

Short bones

Flat bones

Examples:

Irregular bones

Examples:

Bone Markings (Refer to Table 5.1)

Bulges, depressions, and holes serve as

Bone Markings: Projections

Sites of muscle and ligament attachment

Tuberosity—rounded projection

Crest—narrow, prominent ridge

Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface

Line—narrow ridge of bone

Tubercle—small rounded projection

Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle

Spine—sharp, slender projection

Process—any bony prominence

Projections that help to form joints

Head - bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

Facet - smooth, nearly flat articular surface

Condyle - rounded articular projection

Ramus -armlike bar

Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings

Meatus -canal-like passageway

Sinus - cavity within a bone

Fossa -shallow, basinlike depression

Groove- furrow

Fissure -farrow, slitlike opening

Foramen -round or oval opening through a bone

Bone Textures

• Compact bone

•

•

• Spongy bone

•

Membranes of Bones

• Periosteum (fibrous connective tissue)

201 Surrounds:

202 Contains:

203

Endosteum (areolar CT)

205

Structure of a Long Bone

Diaphysis (shaft)

Epiphyses

Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

“think of a stiffened spongy bone sandwich”

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone

Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit

Lamellae

Central (Haversian) canal

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

Lacunae—

Canaliculi—

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

Bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

Bone Formation, Growth and Remodeling

Ossification—

Stages

Bone formation—

Postnatal bone growth—

Bone remodeling and repair—

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Growth in Length of Long Bones

Interstitial growth:

Growth in Width of All Bones

Appositional growth:

Control of Remodeling

What controls continual remodeling of bone?

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)

( Blood Ca2+ levels

(

__________________________

(

PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+

(

____________________________________

Response to Mechanical Stress

Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle

Trabeculae form along lines of stress

Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

Hematoma forms

The break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus

Bony callus formation

Bone remodeling

The Axial Skeleton

Three major regions

Skull and associated bones (29 bones)

Vertebral column (26 bones)

Thoracic cage (25 bones)

The Skull

Two sets of bones

Cranial bones

Enclose the brain in the cranial cavity

Cranium consists of:

Cranial base:

Facial bones

Cavities for:

All skull bones are joined by:

Facial bones provide sties of attachment for:

Cranial Bones

Frontal bone

Parietal bones (2)

Occipital bone

Temporal bones (2)

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Frontal Bone

Parietal Bones and Major Associated Sutures

Four sutures mark the articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:

Coronal suture—

Sagittal suture—

Lambdoid suture—

Squamous (squamosal) sutures—

Occipital Bone

Contains:

Temporal Bones

Inferior to parietal bones

External acoustic canal:

Zygomatic process:

Mastoid process:

Styloid process:

Mandibular fossa:

Sphenoid Bone

Keystone bone

Articulate with:

Ethmoid Bone

Superior part of :

Facial Bones

Mandible

Maxillary bones (maxillae) (2)

Zygomatic bones (2)

Nasal bones (2)

Lacrimal bones (2)

Palatine bones (2)

Vomer

Inferior nasal conchae (2)

Mandible

Temporomandibular joint:

Mandibular condyle articulates w:

Maxillary Bones

6.

Keystone bones

Zygomatic Bones

Nasal Bones and Lacrimal Bones

Nasal bones

Form:

Lacrimal bones

Palatine Bones and Vomer

Palatine bones

Vomer

Inferior Nasal Conchae

Form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity

Orbits

Encase:

Sites of attachment for:

Formed by:

Paranasal Sinuses

Found in:

Hyoid Bone

Vertebral Column

Flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)

Cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of:

Thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of:

Lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebra of:

Sacrum—bone inferior to:

Coccyx—terminus of vertebral column

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

Increase the resilience and flexibility of the spine

Primary curvatures

Secondary curvatures

Abnormal spine curvatures

Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curve)

Kyphosis (hunchback)

Lordosis (swayback)

General Structure of Vertebrae

Body or centrum

Vertebral arch

Formed from:

Vertebral foramen

Seven processes per vertebra:

Spinous process—

Transverse processes (2)—

Superior articular processes (2)—

Inferior articular processes (2)—

Cervical Vertebrae

C1 to C7:

C3 to C7 share the following features

Transverse foramen in:

C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features

Atlas (C1)

Consists of:

Superior articular facets articulate with:

Axis (C2)

Thoracic Vertebrae

T1 to T12

Lumbar Vertebrae

L1 to L5

Sacrum and Coccyx

Sacrum

5 fused vertebrae (S1–S5)

Forms:

Articulates with:

Coccyx

Tailbone

3–5 fused vertebrae

Articulates superiorly with:

Thoracic Cage

Composed of

Thoracic vertebrae

Sternum

Ribs and their costal cartilages

Sternum (Breastbone)

Three fused bones

Manubrium

Body

Xiphoid process

Ribs and Their Attachments

12 pairs

Pairs 1 through 7

True ribs

Attach directly to the sternum by individual costal cartilages

Pairs 8 through 10

False ribs

Pairs 11-12

Floating ribs

Appendicular Skeleton

Bones of the limbs and their girdles

Pectoral girdle attaches the upper limbs to the body trunk

Pelvic girdle secures the lower limbs

Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)

Clavicles and the scapulae

Attach:

Provide:

Clavicles (Collarbones)

Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)

The Upper Limb

30 bones form the skeletal framework of each upper limb

Arm

Forearm

Hand

8 carpal bones in the wrist

5 metacarpal bones in the palm

14 phalanges in the fingers

Humerus

Head of Humerus Articulates with:

Contains:

Articulates inferiorly with the radius and ulna via the:

Bones of the Forearm

Ulna

Forms:

Contains:

Contains:

Radius

Head articulates with:

Contains:

Interosseous membrane connects:

Hand: Carpus

Eight bones in two rows

Proximal row

Distal row

Only scaphoid and lunate articulate with radius to form wrist joint

Hand: Metacarpus and Phalanges

Metacarpus

Phalanges

Each finger (digit), except the thumb, has:

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

Two hip bones (each also called coxal bone or os coxae)

Attach:

Support: pelvic organs

Each hip bone consists of three fused bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis

Hip Bone

Three regions

Ilium

Ischium

Pubis

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

Female pelvis

Adapted for:

True pelvis:

Cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity

Male pelvis

The Lower Limb

Three segments of the lower limb

Thigh:

Leg:

Foot: 7 tarsal bones in the ankle, 5 metatarsal bones in the metatarsus, and 14 phalanges in the toes

Femur

Articulates:

Contains:

Bones of the Leg

Tibia

Fibula

Connected to tibia by:

Articulates:

Foot: Tarsals

Tarsal bones: calcaneus, talus, cuboid, navicular, and the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms

Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges

Metatarsals:

Phalanges

Each digit (except the hallux) has three phalanges

Joints (Articulations)

Articulation—

Functions of joints:

Functional Classification of Joints

Three functional classifications:

Synarthroses—

Amphiarthroses—

Diarthroses—

Structural Classification of Joints

Three structural classifications:

Fibrous (As a general rule, these are immovable)

Cartilaginous (Both movable and immovable, most are amphiarthroses)

Synovial (All are freely movable)

Fibrous Joints

Three types:

Sutures

Syndesmoses

Fibrous Joints: Sutures

Fibrous Joints: Syndesmoses

Examples:

distal tibiofibular joint

Cartilaginous Joints

Examples, Symphyses (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs)

Synovial Joints

Four Distinguishing features:

Articular Cartilage-

Articular Capsule-

3. Joint cavity-

Encloses synovial fluid

4. Reinforcing Ligaments

Synovial Joints: Friction-Reducing Structures

Bursae:

Contain:

Commonly act as “ball bearings” where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together

Tendon sheath:

Classification of Synovial Joints

Six types, based on shape of articular surfaces:

Plane

Hinge

Pivot

Condyloid

Saddle

Ball and socket

Plane Joints

Hinge Joints

Pivot Joints

Condyloid Joints

Saddle Joints

Ball-and-Socket Joints

Chapter 6-The Muscular System

Three Types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle tissue:

Cardiac muscle tissue:

Smooth muscle tissue:

Muscle Functions

Skeletal Muscle

Each muscle is served by one artery, one nerve, and one or more veins

Connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle:

Epimysium:

Perimysium:

Endomysium:

Skeletal Muscle: Attachments

Muscles attach:

Directly—

Indirectly—

Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Myofibrils

Exhibit striations:

Sarcomere

Features of a Sarcomere

Thick filaments:

Thin filaments:

Z disc:

H zone:

M line:

Ultrastructure of Thick Filament

Composed of the protein myosin

Myosin tails

Myosin heads:

Ultrastructure of Thin Filament

Twisted double strand of actin (protein)

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

• Network of:

• Stores:

T (transverse) Tubules:

• Continuous with:

• Penetrate cells interior at each:

o T tubules:

Sliding Filament Theory

In the relaxed state:

During contraction:

As H zones shorten and disappear:

The Neuromuscular Junction

Axons of motor neurons:

Each axon:

Each axon ending forms:

Axon terminal and muscle fiber are:

Synaptic vesicles of axon terminal contain:

Junctional folds of the sarcolemma contain:

A nerve impulse:

Ach is:

Events at the Neuromuscular Junction

A nerve impulse:

1. Ca2+:

2. Ca2+ entry causes:

3. Ach diffuses:

4. Ach binding:

5. Na+:

6. Once threshold is reached:

The Action Potential

The AP is:

Repolarization:

Destruction of Acetylcholine

ACh effects are quickly terminated by:

Prevents:

Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction

At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration:

At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations:

Cross Bridge Cycle

Continues as long as:

Cross bridge formation:

Power stroke:

Cross bridge detachment:

“Cocking” of the myosin head:

[pic]

Motor Unit: The Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit

Motor unit =

Graded Muscle Responses

• Defined:

Changing:

Changing:

Response to Change in Stimulus Frequency

A single stimulus results in a single contractile response called a:

Increase frequency of stimulus(

Ca2+ release stimulates further contraction (

Further increase in stimulus frequency (

If stimuli are given quickly enough, (

Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction

ATP is regenerated by:

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

Anaerobic pathway

Aerobic respiration

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)

CP is:

When ATP stores are depleted:

Products are:

Provides energy for:

Anaerobic Pathway

Under intense muscle activity or when oxygen delivery is impaired:

Begins just like aerobic pathway (glycolysis) but pyruvic acid is:

Products are:

Provides energy for:

Aerobic Pathway

Produces:

1. Fuels:

2. Products are:

3. Provides energy for:

Muscle Fatigue

Defined:

Results from:

Skeletal Muscles: Functional Groups

• Antagonists

o

• Synergists

o

Naming Skeletal Muscles

• Location—bone or body region associated with the muscle

• Shape—e.g., deltoid muscle (deltoid = triangle)

• Relative size—e.g., maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), longus (long)

• Direction of fibers or fascicles—e.g., rectus (fibers run straight), transversus, and oblique (fibers run at angles to an imaginary defined axis)

• Naming Skeletal Muscles

• Number of origins—e.g., biceps (2 origins) and triceps (3 origins)

• Location of attachments—named according to point of origin or insertion

• Action—e.g., flexor or extensor, muscles that flex or extend, respectively

Muscles of Facial Expression

• Frontalis

o

• Orbicularis Oculi

o

• Orbicularis Oris

o

• Buccinator

o

• Zygomaticus

o

• Platysma

o

Muscles of Mastication

• Temporalis

o Prime movers of jaw closure

• Masseter

o

Muscles of the Neck

• Sternocleidomastoid

o

Trunk Muscles

• Pectoralis Major

o

• Rectus Abdominis

o

• External oblique

o

Neck/Trunk/Shoulder Muscles

• Posterior muscles

o Trapezius

▪

o Latissimus Dorsi

▪

o Erector Spinae

▪

o Deltoid

▪

Arm/Shoulder Muscles

• Anterior Rlexor muscles

o Brachialis and biceps brachii

▪

o Brachioradialis

▪

o Deltoid

▪

• Posterior Extensor muscles

o Triceps brachii

▪

Muscles of the Forearm

• Actions:

• Most anterior muscles are :

• Most posterior muscles are :

Hip/Thigh Leg Muscles

• Iliopsoas and Sartorius

o

• Lateral thigh:

o Gluteus Maximus

▪

o Gluteus Medius

▪

• Medial thigh:

o Adductor Muscles

• Hamstrings (Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus)

o

• Quadriceps Group (Vastus Medialis, Lateralis, intermedius and rectus femoris)

o

Muscles of the Anterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Tibialis anterior and Extensor digitorum longus

o

Muscles of the Lateral Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Fibularis longus

o

Muscles of the Posterior Compartment of the Lower Leg

• Gastrocnemius and Soleus

o

o

The Eye and Vision

Accessory Structures of the Eye

Protect the eye and aid eye function

Eyebrows

Eyelids (palpebrae)

Conjunctiva

Lacrimal apparatus

Extrinsic eye muscles

Eyebrows

Function in

Eyelids

Palpebral fissure—

Medial and Lateral Canthi-

Caruncle—

Tarsal plates—

Levator palpebrae superioris—

Eyelashes

Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids

Tarsal glands-

Conjunctiva

Mucous membranes of the eye

Palpebral conjunctiva:

Bulbar conjunctiva:

Lacrimal Apparatus

Consists of: Lacrimal gland and ducts that connect to nasal cavity

Releases: Lacrimal secretion (tears)

The solution also contains:

Blinking spreads the tears towards the:

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

The movement of the eye is controlled by six muscles on the external surface of each eye:

Superior rectus:

Inferior rectus:

Lateral rectus:

Medial rectus:

Inferior oblique:

Superior oblique:

The innervations to each muscle can be remembered by the following equation: (LR6SO4)O3

Which means:

Lateral rectus:

Superior oblique:

All others:

Structure of the Eyeball

Wall of eyeball contains three layers

Fibrous

Vascular

Sensory

Fibrous Layer

Two regions: sclera and cornea

Sclera

Fibrous Layer

2. Cornea:

Vascular Layer

Middle pigmented layer

Three regions: choroid, ciliary body, and iris

Choroid region

2. Ciliary body

3. Iris

The colored part of the eye

Pupil—

Close vision and bright light—

Distant vision and dim light—

Sensory Layer: Retina

Delicate two-layered membrane

Pigmented layer –

Neural layer -

The Retina

Ganglion cell axons

Optic disc (blind spot)

Photoreceptors

Rods

More numerous at:

Operate in:

Provide:

Cones

Found in:

Operate in:

Provide:

Cones

There are three types of cones named for the colors of light absorbed:

Intermediate hues are perceived by:

Color blindness is due to:

Blood Supply to the Retina

Two sources of blood supply

Choroid supplies:

Central artery and vein of the retina supply:

Internal Chambers and Fluids

The lens and ciliary zonule separate the anterior and posterior segments

Posterior segment contains vitreous humor that:

Anterior segment is composed of two chambers

Anterior chamber—

Posterior chamber—

Anterior segment contains aqueous humor

Supplies:

Glaucoma:

Lens

Lens fibers—

Lens becomes denser, more convex, and less elastic with age

Cataracts (clouding of lens) occur as a consequence of aging, diabetes mellitus, heavy smoking, and frequent exposure to intense sunlight

Light

Our eyes respond to:

Light:

Rods and Cones respond to:

Refraction and Lenses

Refraction

Occurs when light meets the surface of a different medium at an oblique angle

Refraction and Lenses

Light passing through a convex lens is:

The image formed at the focal point is:

Focusing Light on the Retina

Pathway of light entering the eye: cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, neural layer of retina, photoreceptors

Light is refracted

Change in lens curvature allows for fine focusing of an image

Focusing for Distant Vision

Light rays from distant objects are:

Ciliary muscles are:

Lens is:

Focusing for Close Vision

Light from a close object diverges as it approaches the eye; requires that the eye make active adjustments

Close vision requires

Accommodation—

Near point of vision is determined by:

Presbyopia—

Constriction—

Convergence—

Problems of Refraction

Myopia (nearsightedness)—

Hyperopia (farsightedness)—

Astigmatism—

Functional Anatomy of Photoreceptors

Rods and cones

Outer segment of each contains visual pigments -

Inner segment of each joins the:

Visual Pathway

The Ear: Hearing

Three parts of the ear

External (outer) ear

Middle ear (tympanic cavity)

Internal (inner) ear

The Ear: Hearing and Balance

External ear and middle ear are involved with:

Internal ear (labyrinth) functions in both:

External Ear

The auricle (pinna) is composed of:

External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Middle Ear

Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube—connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx

Ear Ossicles

Three small bones in tympanic cavity: the malleus, incus, and stapes

Transmit :

Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles :

Internal Ear

Bony labyrinth

Three parts:

Filled with:

Filled with:

Vestibule

Contains two membranous sacs (saccule and utricle) that:

Semicircular Canals

Three canals that:

Membranous semicircular ducts:

Ampulla (swelling) of each canal houses:

Receptors respond to:

The Cochlea

A spiral, conical, bony chamber

Contains the cochlear duct:

Transmission of Sound to the Internal Ear

Auditory Pathways to the Brain

Impulses from the cochlea pass:

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