Dr Piotr Wahl - START
Piotr Wahl
Synoptic Approach
to the European Union’s Linguistic Variety
Exemplified with
the Neo-Latin Group of Languages
against the Background of English
as a Lingua Franca
Szczecin 2014
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©Copyright by Piotr Wahl
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ISBN 83…
EDITORIAL
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Table of Contents
|Preface…………………………………………………………………………………............................................. |5 |
| | |
|Chapters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…. |9 |
| | |
|Chapter 0. Introduction…………….……………………………................................................................. |11 |
|Section 0.1. Overall Methodological Context...……...……………………………………….………. |11 |
|Section 0.2. Content…….………………………………………………………………………………. |17 |
|Subsection 0.2.1. Synoptic Approach…………………………………………………………. |17 |
|Subsection 0.2.2. The EU’s Linguistic Variety…….………………………………………….. |18 |
|Subsection 0.2.3. Neo-Latin Group of Languages ….………………………………………. |21 |
|Subsection 0.2.4. English as a Lingua Franca ……….…………………………………….... |23 |
|Section 0.3. Synoptic Method………….……………….…………………………………………….… |25 |
|Section 0.4. Research Algorithm…………………………………………………………………….… |28 |
|Section 0.5. Structure of the Presentation…………………………………………………………..… |35 |
| | |
|Chapter 1. Theoretical Preliminaries………………………………………………………………………..… |41 |
|Section 1.1. Location and Scope of Linguistics………………………………………………………. |41 |
|Section 1.2. Language……………………………………………………………............................... |47 |
|Section 1.3. Linguistic Analysis…………………………………………………................................ |49 |
|Section 1.4. Linguistic Communication………………………………………………………………... |54 |
|Section 1.5. Linguistic Classifications..…………………………………………................................ |55 |
|Section 1.6. The Indo-European Family Tree……………………………………............................. |59 |
|Section 1.7. Elements of Relevant Linguistic Theories…………………………………………….... |62 |
|Subsection 1.7.1. Semantics………………………………………………………………....... |62 |
|Subsection 1.7.2. Structuralism………………………………………………………………... |66 |
|Subsection 1.7.3. Comparative Linguistics…………………………………………………… |68 |
|Subsection 1.7.4. Noam Chomsky………………...………………………………................. |68 |
|Subsection 1.7.5. Kenneth Pike’s Tagmemics……………………………………………….. |69 |
|Subsection 1.7.6. Igor Melčuk’s Linguistic Model……………………………………….…… |71 |
|Subsection 1.7.7. Sidney Lamb’s Stratificational Grammar…….…………………………... |72 |
|Subsection 1.7.8. Wallace Chafe’s Semantic Concept of Language………………………. |73 |
|Subsection 1.7.9. Computational Linguistics…………………………………………………. |74 |
|Subsection 1.7.10. Ceteri…………………………….…………………………………………. |76 |
| | |
|Chapter 2. Theoretical Context of the Synoptic Method…………........................................................... |77 |
|Section 2.1. Theoretical Context of Synoptic Analysis.................................................................. |77 |
|Section 2.2. Theoretical Background to Synoptic Models…………….……………………….……. |90 |
|Subsection 2.2.1. Synoptic Models at the Diacritic Level………………………………….... |99 |
|Subsection 2.2.2. Synoptic Models at the Signific Level…………………………................ |111 |
|Subsection 2.2.3. Synoptic Models at the Syntactic Level……………………………..…… |117 |
|Section 2.3. Theoretical Background to Synoptic Functions…….……………..…………………... |123 |
|Section 2.4. Synoptic Semantics……………………….................................................................. |128 |
|Subsection 2.4.1. Signific Stratum………………………..………………………………….... |129 |
|Subsection 2.4.2. Syntactic Stratum…………………….…………………………................ |137 |
| | |
|Chapter 3. Linguistic Variety of |143 |
|Europe…............................................................................................... |147 |
|Section 3.1. The Indo-European Family of Languages……………………………………………... |183 |
|Section 3.2. Non-Indo-European Languages in Europe…………................................................. |187 |
|Section 3.3. Living Languages in Europe……………………………………………………………... |194 |
|Section 3.4. A European Linguistic League…………………………………………………………... |197 |
|Section 3.5. Scripts of the European Languages…………………………………………………..... | |
| |203 |
|Chapter 4. English as the Contemporary Lingua Franca…………………………………………………... |205 |
|Section 4.1. The External Extension of English………………………….………............................ |210 |
|Section 4.2. The Internal Diversification of English…………………….…………………………..... |212 |
|Section 4.3. Flexibility of English……………………………………….…………………………….... |213 |
|Section 4.4. Synoptic Meta-Language………………………………………………......................... | |
| |215 |
|Chapter 5. Synoptic |215 |
|Models………......................................................................................................... |215 |
|Section 5.1. Synoptic Model of the Spanish Language………………….………………………….. |219 |
|Subsection 5.1.1. Diacritic (Phonic) Level of the Spanish Language…….………………... |223 |
|Subsection 5.1.2. Signific Level of the Spanish Language…………………………............ |242 |
|Subsection 5.1.3. Syntactic Level of the Spanish Language…………….…………............ |242 |
|Section 5.2. Synoptic Model of the Portuguese Language……………….……….......................... |245 |
|Subsection 5.2.1. Diacritic (Phonic) Level of the Portuguese Language….………............ |246 |
|Subsection 5.2.2. Signific Level of the Portuguese Language…………………..……….… |246 |
|Subsection 5.2.3. Syntactic Level of the Portuguese Language…………….……………... |248 |
|Section 5.3. Synoptic Model of the Neo-Latin Group………….…………………........................... |251 |
|Subsection 5.3.1. Diacritic (Phonic) Stratum of the Neo-Latin Languages….………....... |259 |
|Subsection 5.3.2. Signific Stratum of the Neo-Latin Languages………………………….. | |
|Subsection 5.3.3. Syntactic Stratum of the Neo-Latin Languages………….…………….. |269 |
| |270 |
|Chapter 6. Synoptic |272 |
|Functions………..................................................................................................... |272 |
|Section 6.1. Synoptic Vertical Functions (SVFs).….....……..……………………........................... |277 |
|Section 6.2. Synoptic Oblique Functions (SOFs)………...…………….......................................... |280 |
|Subsection 6.2.1. Diachronic Linguistic Change………..………………………................... | |
|Subsection 6.2.2. The Rôle of the SOFs…………….……………………………................. |285 |
|Section 6.3. Synoptic Horizontal Functions (SHFs)……...........…………….................................. |285 |
| |285 |
|Chapter 7. Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………….... |286 |
|Section 7.1. Conclusions Arrived at in Other Synoptic Sources……………………….…………... |292 |
|Subsection 7.1.1. Applied Linguistics………………...………….......................................... |292 |
|Subsection 7.1.2. Theoretical Linguistics………………..................................................... |303 |
|Section 7.2. Academic Added Value of the Present Book…………………………........................ |304 |
|Subsection 7.2.1. Theoretical Linguistics.……………….................................................... |308 |
|Subsection 7.2.2. Applied Linguistics – Translation…....................................................... |311 |
|Subsection 7.2.3. Applied Linguistics – Guidelines for a New EU’s Linguistic Policy…..... | |
|Subsection 7.2.4. Applied Linguistics – Miscellanea………............................................... |315 |
|Section 7.3. Open Paths……………………...…………………………………………….................. | |
| |317 |
|Supplements.......................................................................................................................|317 |
|.............................. |328 |
| | |
|A. |335 |
|Annexes...........................................................................................................................|335 |
|................... |351 |
|A.1. Classification of the World’s Languages................................................................................ |372 |
|A.2. Ethnologue | |
|Languages.......................................................................................................... |375 |
| |375 |
|B. |415 |
|Bibliographies....................................................................................................................| |
|................. |441 |
|B.1. |441 |
|Books.............................................................................................................................|443 |
|........ |445 |
|B.2. Journals on Language and Linguistics.................................................................................. | |
|B.3. Internet |447 |
|Sources.................................................................................................................... |447 |
| |450 |
|I. |453 |
|Indexes...........................................................................................................................| |
|..................... | |
|I.1. Terminological Index of English Terms……………………………………................................. | |
|I.2. Personal Index………………………………………………………………………………............ | |
| | |
|L. | |
|Lists.............................................................................................................................| |
|....................... | |
|L.1. Tables…………….………………………………………………………………………………….. | |
|L.2. Pictures…………………………………..………………………………………………………….. | |
|L.3. Formulae……..…………………………..………………………………………………………….. | |
| | |
|S. Summaries……………………………………………………….…………………………………………... | |
|S.1. English Summary………………………………………………...…………………….................. | |
|S.2. Polish Summary…………………………………………………………….……………………… | |
|S.3. Spanish Summary…………………………………………………………………….……………. | |
Preface
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A prototype or an outline of this book – «Synoptic Approach to the EU’s Linguistic Variety…»[1] – was originally written in English in 2006, but it was never published. In 2011 the same author published another book, written in Polish[2], entitled «Synoptic Method. A New Vision of Natural Languages in Terms of Theory and Application» (Polish: «Metoda Synoptyczna. Nowa wizja języka etnicznego w aspekcie teoretycznym i aplikacyjnym»[3])[4]. The latter might seem a modified version of the former, as some fragments of both are similar. In reality, the two books are autonomous and separate, and their similarities result from the fact that they have been written by the same author, whose interests may comprise the whole range of Linguistics[5], but he has to concentrate only on some selected parts thereof; in addition, after having written a few books, his modus scribendi has acquired a specific character, and – on the other hand – his research objectives have crystallised, too.
An example of that character may be the terminological indexes at the end of both books: the English index at the end of «Synoptic Approach to the EU’s Linguistic Variety» is not a simple translation of the Polish index at the end of «Synoptic Method»; it is an extended study of the terminology that is used in the part of Linguistics that is being analysed in the books in question; some definitions have been taken from various existing sources, some have been created by the author of the books.
What is being analysed in the present book mostly pertains to Applied Linguistics, understood here as a study of two main fields:
▪ Foreign Languages Teaching and Learning (FLT/L) and
▪ Translation Studies.
And all the other sub-disciplines of Linguistics are treated here as auxiliary instruments to research into the two main fields.
Pic. P.1. The family of the synoptic books
[pic]
If there is no source given under the table of the picture, it means the table or the picture is the author’s own production.
Both the present book and «Synoptic Method» are theoretical presentations of the Synoptic Method, i.e. the two books describe the same Method, so they must contain a common core, but each book concentrates on different aspects, and – additionally – «Synoptic Approach…» has been enriched with some new threads whereas some of the old ones have been modified (heuristically). The theory presented in the two books has been put to practical use in another book written in English by the same author entitled: «Synoptic Description: Spanish, Portuguese, French»[6] (Pic. P.1⇧). There is a close correlation between «Synoptic Approach» and «Synoptic Description». Such a close correlation between theory and practice results from the methodological rules accepted in this book and strictly observed: theory not verified by practice may be worthless or even harmful, practice not resulting from a theory may be ineffective or even counter-productive.
To sum up, the present version of «Synoptic Approach» is not a revised version of the 2006 prototype or the 2011 book; actually, it is a new book different from both its 2006 ancestral version and its 2011 offspring.
It is worth mentioning here that even if a text (or a book) in one language has been translated into another language, the translated text (or a book) is always different from the original text (or a book), which is perfectly rendered by the Italian saying «Traduttore – traditore» (Pic. P.2⇩).
Pic. P.2. Traduttore – traditore
Hopefully, it may be expected that the present book represents a higher academic quality than it might have otherwise, as – on the one hand – it has evolved for eight years starting from the 2006 prototype and – on the other – there are a handful of theoretical conclusions to base on arrived at in «Synoptic Method» and numerous examples to draw from «Synoptic Description».
Chapters
Chapter 0.
Introduction
[pic]
This book is an attempt to work out a new approach to understanding the phenomenon of ethnic languages; this new approach consists in creating operational models based on the same format of some selected languages (and groups of languages), and devising two types of functions:
a) the functions to transform a model of one language into a model of another language, preferably within the same linguistic group, and
b) the functions to generate a model of a language starting from its lowest structural level (phonic stratum) up to its highest structural level (syntactic stratum).
Both the models and the functions are called ‘synoptic’ here.
The analysis has been restricted to the languages spoken in Europe (which are mostly Indo-European), especially to the official languages of the European Union, and is based on the Neo-Latin (Romance) Group of Languages[7]; and English has been treated as the core element of a meta-language[8] and a yardstick.
In addition to its cognitive and theoretical value, the book might come in useful while learning / teaching foreign languages (FLT/L) and while translating / interpreting (T/I).
0.1. Overall Methodological Context
The classical algorithm of academic research that is considered to be the present-day standard and thus commonly recommended is as follows:
1) A hypothesis is formulated, preferably in the form of a modified logical implication – ‘if p, then q’ – which is, at the same time, a cause-effect relation between these two elements (phenomena or occurrences) – where p = explanans (known, the explanation) and q = explanandum (to be found, a phenomenon that needs to be explained).
Tab. 0.1. Modification of the logical implication
|Situation |p |q |Logical implication |Modified implication | |
|2 |1 |0 |0 |Type One Error |H0 |
|3 |0 |1 |1 |Type Two Error |HA |
|4 |0 |0 |1 |the assumption falsified |HA |
2) In Tab. 0.1⇧ Situation 1 is the so-called null hypothesis H0, Situation 4 – the so-called alternative hypothesis HA (H1). It is rather HA that is tested than H0 because ‘No universal theorem may be logically arrived at or justified in a certain way on the basis of theorems on individual cases, however big were their number; and vice versa – each universal theorem may be logically negated or rejected with deductive logic thanks to only one case. This opinion may be illustrated with Popper’s[9] favourite example (actually it comes from John Stuart Mill): however big were the number of spotted white swans it would not justify the conclusion that all swans were white; spotting one black swan is sufficient to negate the conclusion. …it is not possible to prove that something is materially true, yet it is possible to prove that some theorems are materially false…’[10] Consequently, ‘From the strictly logical point of view, we cannot claim that a hypothesis is necessarily true if some facts confirm it. Jumping to conclusions on the truthfulness of the hypothesis on the basis of the truthfulness of the facts, we commit a logical error… In the opposite situation on the basis of facts we may negate the truthfulness of a hypothesis… To sum up… there is no logic in proving that something is true, but there is logic in proving that something is false.’[11]
3) The hypothesis is tested repeatedly and the outcomes are processed statistically (Tab. 0.2⇩). ‘…statistical reasoning consists in testing a part to discover unknown characteristics of the whole. ...we always run the risk of committing the so-called Type I Error (error of the first kind), i.e. of rejecting the hypothesis that is true; at the same time, we run the risk of committing the so-called Type II Error (error of the second kind), i.e. of accepting a false hypothesis. There is no statistical test that would not be subject to either type of risk.’[12]
Tab. 0.2. Outcomes of the hypothesis testing
|In reality |H0 accepted = HA rejected |H0 rejected = HA accepted |
|H0 true = HA false |OK (probability = 1 – α) |Error of the first kind (probability α) |
|H0 false = HA true |Error of the second kind (probability β) |OK (probability = 1 – β) |
4) When the alternative hypothesis has been falsified, it is supposed to be synonymous with the acceptance of the null hypothesis but ‘…all “true” theories are only temporarily true, as they have been based on falsification only; to put it differently – all the material truth we have is included in the theories that have not been falsified yet.’[13] On the other hand, ‘…any hypothesis can be maintained in spite of having been falsified, as its acceptance or rejection is to some extent the question of convention.’[14]
Even from this very short presentation it follows that the methodological classical standard approach is not an effective tool to be used in scientific descriptions, as it can be only based on falsification: all theorems are true only temporarily, there are no absolute truths scientifically acceptable. What is more, the two-valued logic (or the Bernoulli distribution) is not good enough: ‘swans’ may be not only white and non-white, but they might also be green, yellow, red, etc.; a multi-valued logic is necessary.
There is still another methodological trap in the classical approach: if there are two events (or phenomena) p and q and they occur together more often than accidentally and p always occurs before q, it cannot be said that p is the cause of q and q is the effect of p. It as well may be an example of «acausal coincidence»[15] (called also «synchronicity»).
It seems the right place to recall Eugenio Coseriu’s division into natural and cultural sciences, Linguistics belonging to the latter category:[16] ‘[…] el fundamento teórico previo de las ciencias culturales, que se ocupan de lo creado por el hombre, no lo constituyen las «hipótesis» sino […] el «saber originario»: por ejemplo, en el caso de la lingüística, el saber intuitivo de los hablantes, y de los propios lingüistas en cuanto hablantes. En este sentido, precisamente, las ciencias de la cultura son “más exactas” que las naturales, ya que su fundamento no es algo que sólo se supone, sino algo que el hombre sabe (aunque sólo intuitivamente). […] el ámbito de la cultura no admite planteamientos propiamente causales sino sólo planteamientos finalistas. […] No deberíamos, por tanto, preguntar por qué, por qué causas se dan tales hechos, […] sino para qué, con qué finalidad se producen…’[17] In these words there is a note that might be identified as the concept of Verstehen.
Mark Blaug formulates a very similar opinion as Eugenio Coseriu: ‘Beside deductive explanations... biology and all social sciences deliver numerous examples of functional or teleological explanations...’[18]; and ‘At one extreme we find some “hard” natural sciences, such as physics or chemistry... and at the opposite extreme – poetry, the fine arts, literary criticism, etc.; history and all the social sciences are somewhere in between...’[19] Mark Blaug goes even further postulating that ‘...explanations in social sciences should not refer to physical categories of effects and causes but to individual motivation and intentions’[20] and saying that ‘...there is no formal algorithm, nor a mechanical procedure to verify, to falsify, to confirm... [scientific theories].’[21]
The two above quoted outstanding authorities, one on economics and the other on Linguistics, claim that methodological monism does not exist, which means that linguistic research needs a specific methodological algorithm. As a result, a linguistic research project may be either hypothetical or teleological, or both at the same time, or even more complicated.
Yet, according to another outstanding linguist[22]: ‘En el campo del lenguaje humano las preguntas y las respuestas han sido muchas y las más recientes parecen dirigirse firmemente hacia la comprensión de algunos aspectos de la naturaleza de la mente humana y del comportamiento verbal. Esto ha sido posible porque los investigadores se han percatado de la incongruencia de mantener la investigación humanística completamente disociada en perspectiva y metodología de la investigación en las ciencias naturales. La idea de que las ciencias del hombre son distintas de las ciencias exactas no sólo en naturaleza y objeto de estudio sino también en procedimientos metodológicos y analíticos ya no es sostenible’.
The opinions quoted above, put together, might seem contradictory; however, treated as a heuristic sequence they become consecutive steps in a natural development of science. And they lead to a conclusion that in order to understand the world the linear approach is not good enough any longer; a system-oriented – i.e. cybernetic – perception of the world is much more effective. ‘…the development of cybernetics is one of the most significant intellectual steps of all time. Traditionally systems had been seen in terms of cause and effect linked together in linear chains. With cybernetics there was a feedback loop from the effect to the cause.'[23]
Now it becomes clear why an overall methodological context of the Synoptic Method is cybernetic. Generally, cybernetics deals with self-teaching systems, i.e. teleological systems that are characterised by certain parameters changing within a certain range called homeostasis, and self-teaching resulting from a feedback mechanism. Cybernetic Linguistics deals with ethnic languages; if the methodological context of linguistic exploration is cybernetic, then the explored languages are treated as self-teaching systems. Some parts of such systems may be analysed according to the above presented classical algorithm, others should be rather examined teleologically, but in both cases languages are perceived as homeostatic systems or models (langues) composed of several sets and some combinatory rules. Elements from the sets may be arranged according to the combinatory rules in linear – or syntagmatic – utterances which are units of speech (parole).
At this stage the dychotomy between Langue and Parole may be considered canonical. Consequently, exploring a language (which should be the main task of Linguistics) requires two methodologies: one for Langue, and another for Parole, as Langue is a spatial system (preferably cybernetic and homeostatic), whereas Parole is a set of linear formulae. If we want to talk about spatial Langue, we need to turn to models (preferably heuristic). It we want to work out formulae, we need to make use of functions. However, talking about one hierarchical level of a spatial system of Langue, we may need functions; whereas analysing linear formulae of Parole, we may need to turn to models.
Reality per se may exist, but it is accessible for the humans only through their sensorial apparatus, and in each sensorial channel there is always a linguistic filter. The image (mapping) of the reality the humans conceive in their minds may be of different character (it is either Mentalese or a language), but when they want to share that image (mapping) with other humans they must resort to a common language.
When we analyse a language we use an image of an image of the reality (a bit risky procedure). Let us call the language to analyse a language a meta-language; and let us make a preliminary remark that meta-language needs to be meticulously constructed to avoid methodological traps.
( ( (
0.2. Content
The title – «Synoptic Approach to the EU’s Linguistic Variety» – with the subtitle – «Exemplified with the Neo-Latin Group of Languages against the Background of English as a Lingua Franca» precisely defines the content of the book. The title (with its subtitle) is an intellectual construct that might be broken down into its constituent individual ideas:
▪ A synoptic approach… ((Subsection 0.2.1) ➜[24] ((Chapters 2, 5, 6)[25];
▪ …to the EU’s (European Union’s) linguistic variety… ((Subsection 0.2.2) ➜ ((Chapter 3);
▪ …exemplified with the Neo-Latin Group of languages[26]… ((Subsection 0.2.3) ➜ ((Chapter 3);
▪ …against the background of English as a Lingua Franca ((Subsection 0.2.4) ➜ ((Chapter 4).
Each of these ideas needs explaining one by one, which has been done heuristically.
0.2.1. Synoptic Approach
‘Synoptic’ means[27]:
1) of or relating to the first three Gospels of the New Testament (Matthew’s, Mark’s and Luke’s) as being distinguished from the fourth (John’s) by their many agreements in subject, order, and language;
2) any of the synoptic gospels;
3) affording a general view of the whole;
4) manifesting or characterised[28] by comprehensiveness or breadth of view;
5) affording, presenting, or taking the same or common view;
6) relating to or displaying atmospheric and weather conditions as they exist simultaneously over a broad area.
Throughout this book the adjective ‘synoptic’ – in its wider meaning – is used to denote a specific manner or method of intellectual proceeding; the specificity consisting in putting together some objects (in the same way the first three Gospels are sometimes presented) in order to obtain a general perspective, characterised by comprehensiveness and breadth of view, allowing thus a standardised description of the objects. In the narrower meaning the word ‘synoptic’ depicts the method presented here; a more detailed definition of the method (and thus a more detailed definition of the narrower meaning of the word ‘synoptic’) will be given in Section 0.3 of the Introduction.
0.2.2. The EU’s Linguistic Variety
In 2014 there are/were[29] 28 member-states in the European Union: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, (the) Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, (the) Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, (the) United Kingdom. The linguistic variety of the European Union is composed of 24 official languages. Since its creation the Union has kept enlarging, and there is no reason why the EU should stop doing it on. Theoretically, it might comprise more countries such as: Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Iceland, Macedonia, Moldova, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, (the) Ukraine, and Yugoslavia with Montenegro (EU-39[30])[31]; and the number of the EU’s official languages might reach or even surpass thirty.
In 2014 the 24 official languages in the European Union were as follows (after the arrow ( the SIL code of the language):
1) Bulgarian (Български = Bulgarski)[32] (BLG;
2) (Serbo-)Croat(ian) [(sɜ:bəʊ.krǝʊ(æt/ˡeɪ.ʃǝn)] (hrvatskosrpski =хрватскосрпски =srpskohrvatski =српскохрватски) (SRC (or >hbs< or >hrv< or >srpR< is pronounced in the same way in all the languages; for linguists there are at least eight phonetic realisations of the phoneme /r/ (Tab. 2.3⇩, or the IPA); but in real-world languages the number of different r-sounds (rhotic sounds) is much more numerous.
Similarly, at the syntactic stratum the third band in a linguistic analysis may be easily identified (Pic. 2.7⇩). In Pic. 2.7 there are three bands of linguistic analysis: the Real-World Band, i.e. the Parole Band, the Langue Band saturated with a substance and the Non-Substantival Langue Band. The last two ones are paradigmatic, whereas the first one is syntagmatic. The Non-Substantival Langue Band is an abstract description one degree higher than the Substantival Langue Band description. The syntagma contains only the distinctive and relevant features, it is devoid of any substance and is represented with a meta-language symbols. The clause and the sentence are saturated with a substance (primarily, with a phonic substance, and secondarily, with a graphic one). The utterance is an actually pronounced message, which is a minimal structuralised (i.e. ‘syntactalised’) communicative unit.
Pic. 2.7. Three-banded linguistic analysis at the syntactic stratum
[pic]
Surprisingly, to construct a three-banded linguistic analysis at the signific stratum has turned out to be a much more difficult task (Pic. 2.8⇩). In Pic. 2.8 there are again three bands of linguistic analysis: the Real-World Band, i.e. the Parole Band, the Langue Band saturated with a substance and the Non-Substantival Langue Band. The last two ones are paradigmatic, whereas the first one is syntagmatic. The Non-Substantival Langue Band is an abstract description one degree higher than the Substantival Langue Band description. The L-Sign (moneme) contains only the distinctive and relevant features, and it is composed of the morphological and semasiological bands, which combined compose the L-Sign. The lexeme – in addition to the distinctive and relevant features – has some features that result from the fact that it is saturated with a substance (primarily phonic); it is a synthesis of the two bands: the morphological one and the semasiological one; and the lexemes that belong to the infinite (self-contained) sets may be minimal communicative units.
The word is what is an actually pronounced and heard minimal linguistic sign; and depending on many factors, it may be pronounced and heard in an infinite number of manners (that is why it is in plural), still keeping its core value represented by the lexeme. The word is not an entity so precisely defined as the lexeme or an L-Sign, which is why its spectrum is wider.
Pic. 2.8. Three-banded linguistic analysis at the signific stratum
[pic]
The real-world band (Parole) and the Substantival Langue Band being sensorially perceived information (although mentally conceived), may be expressed both in a physical (material) form and mentally (with the exception of the first stratum, the diacritic one).
There is no need for a separate semantic level, as all the information on the meaning of the analysed language is included in the semasiological band(s). The synthesis of the morphological bands and the semasiological bands are the semantical bands. In other words, semantics permeates all the three vertical bands.
As a result, a new scheme of synoptic linguistic analysis appears. It has been represented in Tab. 2.2⇩. The pictures 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8 have been incorporated into Tab. 2.2. What distinguishes Tab 2.2 from all the other linguistic analyses (especially Tab. 2.1, p. 78) is the introduction of an additional band (a vertical column): the Substantival Langue Band, with phones (at the diacritic statum), lexemes (at the signific stratum) and the clauses and sentences (at the syntactic stratum). The term ‘signific’ means here: ‘at the level of a simple sign’. ‘Diacritic’ in the phrase «Diacritic Stratum» is an adjective, ‘diacritic(s)’ in Column 2 is a noun. The term ‘supra-segmentals’ has been explained in the Terminological Index.[165]
Tab. 2.2. The scheme of the Synoptic Analysis modified
|Substantival Band |Non-Substantival Band |
|Strata |Semantics |Parole | |
| | |
|Diacriti|…sensorially |…mentally | |
|c | | | |
|(Stratum| | | |
|) | | | |
| |Diacritics (units) |
Tab. 2.3. The consonantal grid[174]
|CONSONANTAL GRID |PLACE |
A two-element relation may be presented in the form of a graph and a matrix.
It is possible to operate on relations:[203]
1) inclusion ( being a father includes being a parent;
2) identity ( x being a brother of y is an identical relation to x and y being children of the same mother;
3) sum ( being a parent is a sum of being a mother and being a father;
4) common part ( being an older brother is a common part of two relations: being a brother and being older;
5) complement ( being a sister completes being a brother in the relation of being a sibling;
6) reciprocality ( being a parent is a reverse relation to being a child.
A function is a specific case of a relation; it is such a two-argument relation [pic] that assigns not more than one element y form set U2 to each element x from set U1, and is symbolised by y = f(x).
If the number of the Neo-Latin languages is n = 47, the number of all the SHFs (i.e. two-element groups, k = 2) within this group is:
|[pic] |(2.3) |
The result of operation (2.3) is 2,162; it means that there are 2,162 (two thousand one hundred and sixty-two = twenty-one hundred and sixty-two) Synoptic Horizontal Functions within the Neo-Latin Group. One of the Synoptic Horizontal Function within the Neo-Latin Group (AB) is a function (A(B) transforming Spanish (A) into Portuguese (B), another one is the function (B(A) transforming Portuguese (B) into Spanish (A) (the lower half of Pic 2.11⇩[204]).
Pic. 2.11. The correlation between SVFs, SHFs and SMs
[pic]
In spite of the present-day (the beginning of the 21st century) unimaginable fragmentation of the English language into different varieties (dialects and/or accents) all the native speakers belonging to the English-speaking community (at least the ones educated at the secondary level+) can understand each other, can communicate without any serious problems, and can easily identify anybody who is not a native speaker of English. The truthfulness of the previous sentence will be confirmed both by most average native speakers of English and by all professional linguists and philologists; it means that the English native speaker’s competence (NSC) is precisely defined and – paradoxically – homogenous; this competence may be imagined as a kind of black box in which all utterances enter and after a while leave it with one of the two possible labels: correct or incorrect. Although the theory of the native speaker’s competence so far has not been questioned by any other theory, it has not been explained in a satisfactory way either. We know something, but we do not know the reasons which condition the actual state of affairs.
Undoubtedly, there is a similar phenomenon within the Spanish-language community: if somebody is a native speaker of Spanish, he (or she) is at once identified as such; all other Spanish-language speaking people are rejected as extranjeros / forasteros / forenses (= fuera de esa tierra = ‘outside this land’, strangers). But for an outsider it is much easier to pretend to be an hispanoparlante than to pretend to be a native speaker of English.
Each language has a native speaker’s competence black box. The question is whether all the Neo-Latin languages – or a group of them – might be treated as one language with various dialects. If so, it means that there might be a native speaker’s competence black box for (a group of) the Neo-Latin languages.
The Synoptic Function[205] – like the Synoptic Model – is always composed of three sub-functions:
▪ a sub-function at the diacritic level;
▪ a sub-function at the signific level;
▪ a sub-function at the syntactic level.
The Diachronic (Historical) Grammar of the Neo-Latin languages may come in useful especially at the diacritic level (Pic. 2.12⇩).
There is a striking resemblance between Pic 2.11⇧ and Pic 2.12⇩, however ‘Latin’ cannot be replaced by ‘Model of Linguistic Group AB’, nor can ‘Historical Grammars’ – by SVFs. What the two pictures do reveal is that there is some functional analogy between the relations ‘Latin’ – ‘Historical Grammar’ and ‘Model of Linguistic Group’ – ‘SVF’, and historical grammars may come in useful while constructing SMs and SFs (especially SVFs).
Pic. 2.12. Position of Diachronic Grammar in SFs
[pic]
The correlations presented in Pic. 2.12⇧ have been exemplified in Pic. 2.13⇩. The examples have been taken from diachronic (historical) grammars of the Spanish language and the Portuguese language.[206]
Pic. 2.13. Examples for Pic. 2.12
[pic]
It must be emphasised again that at the end of the day in this book there are two types of Synoptic Functions (SFs): the Synoptic Vertical Functions (SVFs) and the Synoptic Horizontal Functions. The SVFs operate within one language; they generate that language from bottom to top (from its diacritic stratum to its syntactic stratum). The SHFs operate on two languages; they transform one language into anther. Paradoxically, bringing back the first concept of the SVFs (Tab. 0.5⇧) helps to improve the new – conclusive and final – concept of the SHFs (Pic. 2.12⇧): knowing that the Latin ~act~ [~akt~] evolved into the Spanish ~ech~ [~eʧ~] and the Portuguese[207] ~eit~ [~ejt~] makes it possible to formulate one of the SHFs:
|SHF(SMspn) = SMpor |(2.4) |
e.g.
|f1 (~eʧ~) = (~ejt~) |(2.5) |
The set of SHFs (formula 2.4⇧), composed of a series of functions (f1, f2,…, fn) such as the one shown in formula 2.5⇧, changes one language into another at the diacritic stratum (ds) (they may be symbolised by formulae 2.6a⇩ or 2.6b⇩); but in order to make this (transformative)[208] change operational it is necessary to equip the transformative apperatus with a chronological table of changes and arrange the diacritic stratum SHFs accordingly. In addition, the diacritic stratum SHFs have to be closely coordinated with the signific stratum SHFs and the syntactic stratum SHFs.
|SHFds(SMspn) = SMpor |(2.6a) |
or:
|[pic] |(2.6b) |
At the signific stratum the coordination has to be performed in the spheres that are traditionally called morphology and lexicon. First, all lexemes – free and bound – should become combined into all possible words (or at least the ones with the highest frequencies of occurance); next, all these words should be translated into words or phrases of the target language.
Similarly, at the syntactic stratum there is a set of functions that transform clauses and sentences of the source language into the clauses and sentences of the target language. Ii should be mentioned here that the SHFs operate in the middle band (Tab. 2.2, p. 94⇧), i.e. in the band of phones (diacritic stratum), lexemes (signific stratum) and clauses/sentences (syntactic stratum). The other two bands – the right one: L-Signs and (Simple and Complex) Syntagmas (at the intersection of this band and the diacritic stratum there is nothing), and the left one: sounds, words and utterances – play an auxiliary role in the synoptic analysis, although an approximation to the description[209] of the Parole band (the left one) is the objective of the Synoptic Method.
Between the signific stratum and the syntactic one there is an area with blurred borders that might be called «phraseology» («phraseological area»). A phrase in one language may be one word in another language; a clause in one language may be a phrase in another language;
▪ examples for the former:
o eng: at home = rus: дома;
o eng: with a knife = rus: ножом;
▪ examples for the latter:
o eng: He is a student = rus: Он студент;
o eng: He is very wise = rus: Он очень мудрый.
( ( (
2.4. Synoptic Semantics
The function of language is not to produce sounds. The function of language is not to create syntactic constructions. The function of language is to make communication between human beings possible, i.e. to transmit meaningful messages. Consequently, the appropriate approach is not to treat semantics as a one-level autonomous part of a linguistic analysis, as phonology/phonetics, morphology, and syntax are treated; semantics permeates all the levels of any linguistic analysis. ‘…in at least one sense, meaning is a product of all linguistic levels. Changing one phoneme for another, one verb ending for another, or one word order for another will produce differences of meaning. This view leads some writers to believe that meaning cannot be identified as a separate level, autonomous from the study of other levels of grammar. A strong version of this view is associated with the theory known as cognitive grammar, advocated by linguists such as Ronald Langacker…’[210] ‘…the various autonomy theses and dichotomies proposed in the linguistic literature have to be abandoned: a strict separation of syntax, morphology and lexicon is untenable; furthermore it is impossible to separate linguistic knowledge from extra-linguistic knowledge.’[211]
Generally, the Synoptic Method is semantically-biased; the Synoptic Analysis is carried out at three levels defined in relation to the sign, the key concept of semantics (and semiotics):
▪ the infra-sign (= diacritic) level (stratum);
▪ the sign (= signific) level (stratum);
▪ the super-sign (= syntactic) level (stratum).
And at the signific and syntactic levels (strata) the analysis is based on the bilateral concept of the sign: the signifiant and the signifié cannot be analysed separately, the morphology of the sign and its semasiology cannot be separated, and the Synoptic Analysis is the synthesis of the two.
Being semantically-biased does not mean that the Synoptic Analysis cannot take advantage of the methods typical of formal Linguistics, for example such as predicate logic.
2.4.1. Signific Stratum
When an ethnic language is being analysed, then
▪ at the signific stratum (the sign level) the analysed units are:
o free and bound lexemes within the Middle Band (i.e. a Langue sub-band = the substantival and paradigmatic sub-band);
o words within the Left Band (i.e. the Parole Band = the substantival and syntagmatic band);
▪ and at the syntactic stratum (Super L-Sign level):
o (simple) clauses and (complex) sentences within the Middle Band;
o utterances within the Left Band.
The commonest procedure to analyse words and affixes is called Componential Analysis (CA)[212]; for example:
▪ woman = [female] + [adult] + [human]
▪ bachelor = [male] + [adult] + [human] + [unmarried]
▪ spinster = [female] + [adult] + [human] + [unmarried]
▪ wife = [female] + [adult] + [human] + [married]
or (in a binary feature format):
▪ woman = [+female] + [+adult] + [+human]
▪ bachelor = [-female] + [+adult] + [+human] + [-married]
▪ spinster = [+female] + [+adult] + [+human] + [-married]
▪ wife = [+female] + [+adult] + [+human] + [+married]
and, for example:
▪ x~ed = [participium perfecti passivi, x is always the basic form of a verb; if at the end of x there is a single consonant (C) preceded by a single vowel (V), then the consonant is doubled: -V-C + ~ed = -V-CC~ed, etc.]
Each of the nine signific classes (traditionally called ‘morphological classes’ or parts of speech) has its own semantical idiosyncrasies, so each class has to be treated separately.
The verb is the nucleus of the clause; it organises the structure of the clause in such a way that every individual verb has a definite number of semantical links; for example most verbs (in English, all of them) have a subject – it is one link; transitive verbs have one or two objects – two links more, some verbs indicate the instrument – another link, and so on.
All the nouns may be divided into the following semasiological classes:
1) Sensorial things (ideas with designata), i.e. things that may be ‘touched’ by one of the five human senses;
i. visible objects,
ii. (audible) sounds and noises,
iii. tactile surfaces and spatial forms (solids),
iv. (gustatory) tastes,
v. (olfactory) smells;
These sensorial objects may be:
1. inanimate things and
2. animate things:
1. plants,
2. animals,
3. human beings.
2) Mental things (ideas without designate, or ideas perceived only mentally), i.e. things that may be seen only inside the human mind (lat: mens), or immaterial things;[213]
1. occurrences and phenomena, for example ‘rain’, ‘accident’, ‘kiss’, etc.;
2. (static) states, for example ‘marriage’, ‘maternity’, ‘mannerism’, ‘love’ etc.;
3. (dynamic) processes, for example ‘metabolism’, ‘torture’, ‘mechanisation’, ‘embezzlement’, ‘demonstration’, etc.;
4. space-time ideas, for example ‘Sunday’, ‘March’, ‘place’, ‘London’[214], etc.;
5. features, for example ‘wisdom’, ‘pettiness’, ‘majesty’, etc.;
6. abstract ideas which are not 2.1-2.5, for example ‘freedom’, ‘right’, ‘value’, etc.;
7. idearia (singularis: idearium), i.e. autonomous mental models, for example ‘Marxism’, ‘mathematics’, ‘magic’, etc.
As the division into signific classes is a convention, in many cases the borderlines between particular classes might be blurred, and the very same idea might be classified as a noun and as an adjective, as a verb and as an adverb related to it. For example, it is possible to replace the expressions:
▪ ‘a wise man’,
▪ ‘apply for the job’,
▪ ‘here’;
by, respectively:
▪ ‘a man of great wisdom’,
▪ ‘put an application for the job’,
▪ ‘in this house’.
In Spanish the word español (eng: Spanish) is an adjective and a noun (eng: Spaniard); in Spanish all signific classes may be converted into a noun, for example el yo (eng: the I), el sí (eng: the yes), also grammatical forms: el pagaré (eng: a promissory note, IOU), and even clauses: El que tengas prisa no me importa (eng: The fact that you are in a hurry is not of my concern).
The adjective is an answer to the question: what is it like? As the adjective expresses the main feature included in the idea of the noun (or a verb) to which it may be related, it may be transformed into a noun (or a verb). Consequently, there are three classes of adjectives:
▪ adjectives proper (adj-p),
▪ gerund adjectives (g-adj),
▪ participium perfecti passivi adjectives (ppp-adj),
and the fourth additional class:
▪ semi-adjectives which are not related to nouns or verbs but to pronouns or numerals, and may be further divided into:
o demonstrative semi-adjectives: this, that, these, etc.;
o distributive semi-adjectives: each, every, either, etc.;
o quantitative semi-adjectives: some, any, no, little/few, etc.;
o interrogative semi-adjectives: which, what, where, etc.;
o possessive semi-adjectives: my, your, his, etc.
Symbolically, adjectives proper may be presented as a function adj-p = F (noun), where F = typical of…/pertaining to…/having…/being…/causing… (a) noun; whereas g-adj and ppp-adj may be transformed into clauses:
▪ g-adj = that ~ing (or having this effect),
▪ ppp-adj = that been ~ed (or affected in this way).
The verbs ‘to be’ and ‘to have’ are in brackets – and – because they may be in any tense or they may be used without any reference to any tense.
There are three classes of adverbs according to the question they are answers to:
▪ how?
▪ when?
▪ where?
The how-adverbs are related to adjectives; the when-adverbs situate the clause at a point on the time line; the where-adverbs situate the clause in the space.
As the central parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs) are interrelated, they may be classified together according to connections between their semasiological values. Collections of such words are called ‘thesauri’; the most prestigious of them is Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases.[215] ‘Since it was first published in 1852 Roget’s Thesaurus has sold well over 30 million copies. It has been an indispensable companion to generations of English speakers and writers, and is firmly established as one of the greatest English reference books in the world… Roget’s Thesaurus is essentially a collection of words and phrases classified according to underlying concepts and meanings. The unique classification invented by Peter Mark Roget has withstood the test of time remarkably well. It has proven infinitely capable of absorbing new concepts and new vocabulary. Improved and expanded in detail by successive editors, it continues to provide an unparalleled key to modern English usage.
The Thesaurus is divided into six Classes. The first three Classes cover the external world: Class One, Abstract Relations, deals with such ideas as number, order and time; Class Two, Space, is concerned with movement, shapes and sizes, while Class Three, Matter, covers the physical world and humankind’s perception of it by means of five senses. The last Three Classes deal with the internal world of human beings: the human mind (Class Four, Intellect); the human will (Class Five, Volition), and the human heart and soul (Class Six, Emotion, Religion and Morality). There is a logical progression from abstract concepts, through the material universe, to mankind itself, culminating in what Roget saw as mankind’s highest achievement: morality and religion.’[216]
The Roget’s plan of classification is as follows:
1. Abstract Relations
1. Existence
2. Relation
3. Quantity
4. Order
5. Number
6. Time
7. Change
8. Causation
2. Space
2.1. Space in general
2.2. Dimensions
2.3. Form
2.4. Motion
3. Matter
3.1. Matter in general
3.2. Inorganic matter
3.3. Organic matter
4. Intellect: the exercise of the mind
I. Division one: Formation of ideas
4-I.1. General
4-I.2. Precursory conditions and operations
4-I.3. Materials for reasoning
4-I.4. Reasoning processes
4-I.5. Results of reasoning
4-I.6. Extension of thought
4-I.7. Creative thought
II. Division two: Communication of ideas
4-II.1. Nature of ideas communicated
4-II.2. Modes of communication
4-II.3. Means of communicating ideas
5. Volition: the exercise of the will
Division one: Individual volition
5-I.1. Volition in general
5-I.2. Prospective volition
5-I.3. Voluntary actions
5-I.4. Antagonism
5-I.5. Results of action
Division two: Social volition
5-II.1. General social volition
5-II.2. Special social volition
5-II.3. Conditional social volition
5-II.4. Possessive relations
6. Emotion, religion and morality
6.1. General
6.2. Personal emotion
6.3. Interpersonal emotion
6.4. Morality
6.5. Religion
All the other parts of speech – articles, numerals, pronouns, prepositions and conjunctions – are finite sets, and are relatively easy to define.
Articles may be classified as inflectional signific units; in English or Spanish they are a separate class, but for example in Romanian and Danish they are attached to nouns in the same way plural suffixes are. Articles may indicate number and gender of the nouns they accompany, and in this function they are usually tautological; in most cases their exclusive function is to define whether the accompanying noun is:
▪ definite or indefinite,
▪ partitive or a whole,
▪ countable or uncountable,
▪ etc.
The numeral is an answer to the question: how many?
The pronoun is a word that symbolises another word which is known both to sender and receiver participating in a linguistic communication.
The preposition indicates a position in space; by extension, it also indicates the temporal situation of the object in question, and some other relations.
The conjunction is a word that joins two (simple) clauses; it determines the type of logical relation that joins the clauses.
2.4.2. Syntactic Stratum
In linguistic oral/aural communication what is heard is an utterance, as in the example below:
- Surname? (= What is your surname?)
- Smith. (= My surname is Smith.)
- Age? (= What is your age?)
- Thirty. (= I am thirty years old.)
The utterance may be a clause (full clause) or a truncated version of it, as in the dialogue above. In any case, the meaning of the utterance is as if it were a full clause: even truncated clauses should be decoded as if they were full clauses. Truncated clauses are informal or colloquial way of speaking.
In addition to truncated clauses there are non-finite clauses and verbless clauses; they also may be easily transformed into regular full clauses.
The clause is the basic unit of linguistic communication; it is composed of linguistic minimal signs (free and bound lexemes), but its meaning (syntactic semasiological value) is not the sum of them; the semasiological value of a clause is referred to as ‘compositional meaning’.
One of the ways to represent the meaning of a clause, i.e. its semasiological value, is to refer to predicate logic; for example:[217]
▪ Every student knows the professor. = (x (S(x) ( K(x, p))
▪ The professor knows every student. = (x (S(x) ( K(p, x))
▪ (At least) One student kissed Kylie. = (x (S(x) ( K(x, k))
▪ Kylie kissed (at least) one student. = (x (S(x) ( K(k, x))
Simple clauses may be positive p or negative (p. An imperative clause – Cimp = a!, do b!, where a = the addressee of the order, and b = the order – may be transformed into two clauses (= a complex clause), an imperative sentence Simp = C1 + C2 = ‘I want a to do b’.[218] And, similarly, interrogative clauses Cint may be transformed into two clauses (= sentence), an interrogative sentence Sint = C1 + C2 = ‘I want to know if/wh~’. Each (simple) clause is submerged in a three-dimentional space and situated in a point on the time line. The core element of a clause is the verb; the verb may be n-argument. Arguments are like atom’s valency. The verbal valency may be obligatory or optative; for example the Spanish verb llover is optatively one-argument: it may be said «Llueve» or «Lluve [how?] a cántaros», whereas its English equivalent is obligatorily one-argument and optatively two-argument: «It [what/who?, subject] rains» or «It [what/who?, subject] rains [how?] cats and dogs».
The semantical value of a (simple) clause results from the main verb of the clause: from its semasiological value and from the realisation of its arguments. The semasiological value of a verb (and of any other signific class) is in most cases componential, i.e. composed of some basic elements, it is the verb’s potentially overall (complete) meaning and may be called its ‘dictionary meaning’; when the verb is actually used in an utterance some elements of the dictionary meaning are chosen and some are left out; which elements should be chosen and which should be left out depends – to some extent – on the decisions made by the sender’s (speaker’s).
A good exemplification to the previous paragraph could be an analysis of the verb ‘cherish’. It is a two-argument verb, argument one is a subject (in English the subject argument is always obligatory), and argument two is an object, obligatory too: it is incorrect to say *I cherish. There are two classes of objects:
1) people / animals / plants / inanimate material things;
2) a mental state (such as hope, ambition, memory, ideal, illusions, etc);
3) abstract ideas (such as freedom, right, values).
When the object is (1) then ‘cherish’ means ‘care for’; when it is (2), it means ‘nurture’; and when it is (3) it means ‘value and protect’.
At least two (simple) clauses may combine into a (multiple) sentence. To be exact, there are compound sentences and complex sentences. The compound sentence is composed of (at least) two clauses of equal value; compound sentences are divided into conjunctions (), disjunctions (), and contrasts ().
From the point of predicate logic, (complex) sentences may be divided in the following types:
▪ p and q = (p ( q)
▪ p and/or q = (p ( q)
▪ p or q but not both = (p (e q)
▪ if p, then q = (p ( q)
▪ p if and only if q = (p ( q)
▪ ‘there a possibility that q’ (epistemic sentence) = ((q);
▪ ‘what the right thing to do is q’ (deontic sentence) = ((q).
means that the verb ‘to be’ may be in any tense: there/what is, there/what was, there/what will be, etc.
From the point of view of traditional grammar, there are the following types of complex sentences (p = main clause or superordinate clause, q = subordinate clause):
▪ the sentence of reason: p because q; e.g. I didn’t buy it (= p) because I didn’t have money (= q);
▪ the sentence of result: p so q; e.g. I didn’t have money (= p) so I didn’t buy it
(= q);
▪ the sentence of concession: p although q; e.g. I bought it (= p) although I am poor (= q);
▪ the sentence of comparison: p > / < / = q; e.g. I bought more (= p) than I could afford (= q);
▪ the relative sentence: p that q; e.g. I bought something (= p) (that) I didn’t like (= q);
▪ the purpose sentence;
▪ the time sentences;
▪ the noun sentence.
In the Synoptic Method the system of syntactic constructions is different. “The simple clause – in its extreme form – may be composed of up to ten elements, as presented in Tab. 2.5. […] The subordinate clause (and – at the same time – the whole sentence composed of that clause and the main one) may be one of the two types (groups):
a) it may be an expansion of one of the ten elements (components) of the simple clause into five subtypes of subordinate clauses (Tab. 2.5⇩)[219];
b) it may be a description of one of the five logical circumstances of the main clause (Pic. 2.14⇩).
Tab. 2.5. Schema of the (simple) clause in its extreme form
|subject |verb |objects |adverbials |
| |(predicate) | |(physical circumstances) |
| | |direct |indirect | |
|adjective |noun |
| |pronou|
| |n |
|Indo-Aryan Romani |7 |
|Balkan Romani, Carpathian Romani, Kalo, Sinte Romani, Welsh Romani, Baltic Romani, Vlax Romani |7 |
|Albanian |4 |
|Albanian-Gheg, Albanian-Tosk, Arbereshe, Arvanitika |4 |
|Greek |2 |
|Modern Greek, Pontic |2 |
|Germanic |47 |
|West |35 |
|West|N-W |English, Scots, Yinglish, Angloromani, Eastern Frisian, Northern Frisian, Western Frisian |7 |
| |High German |Standard German, Lower Silesian, Upper Saxon, Luxembourgian, Mainfränkisch, Pfaelzisch, Kölsch, Swiss German, |14 |
| | |Swabian, Walser, Bavarian, Cimbrian, Mocheno, Eastern Yiddish | |
| |Low Saxon |Achterhoeks, Drents, Gronings, Plautdietsch, Sallands, Low Saxon, Stellingwerfs, Twents, Veenkoloniaals, East Veluws,|12 |
| | |North Veluws, Westwolds | |
| |L. Franc. |Dutch, Flemish |2 |
|North |12 |
|N. |East |Norwegian, Danish, Jutish, Swedish, Skane, Delecarlian, Tavringer Romani |7 |
| |West |Faeroese, Icelandic, Jamska, New Norwegian, Traveller Norwegian |5 |
|Slavonic |15 |
|West |Lower Sorbian, Upper Sorbian, Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak |6 |
|South |Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Romano-Serbian |5 |
|East |Russian, Ukrainian, Belorussian |4 |
|Baltic |2 |
|Latvian, Lithuanian |2 |
|Celtic |7 |
|Goidelic | Irish, Manx, Gaelic, Shelta |4 |
|Brythonic | Cornish, Welsh, Breton |3 |
|Neo-Latin |41 |
|Eastern |Romanian, Istro-Romanian, Macedo-Romanian, Megleno-Romanian |4 |
|I-W |I-D |Istriot, Judeo-Italian, Italian, Napoletano-Calabrese, Sicilian |5 |
| |Weste|G-R |Emiliano-Romagnolo, Ligurian, Lombard, Piemontese, Venetian, French, Picard, Franco-Provançal; Frulian, Ladin, |11 |
| |rn | |Romansch | |
| | |I-R |Catalan, Auvergnat, Gascon, Limousin, Languedocian, Provançal; Asturian, Miranda, Estramaduran, Calo, Ladino, |15 |
| | | |Spanish; Fala, Galician, Portuguese | |
| | |P-M |Aragonese |1 |
|Southern |Corsican, Sassarese Sardinian, Gallurese Sardinian, Logudorese Sardinian, Campidanese Sardinian |5 |
|Finno-Ugric |16 |
|Ugric |Hungarian |1 |
|F-P |Lappic |Lule, Southern Sami, Northern Sami, Kildin, Skolt, Inari |6 |
| |Baltic |Estonian, Finnish, Ingrian, Livvi, Ludic, Karelian, Veps; Kven Finnish, Tornedalen |9 |
|Miscellaneous |3 |
|Caucasic |Basque |1 |
|Ham.-Sem. |Maltese |1 |
| Altaic |Turkish |1 |
|All the living languages (ethnolects) in Europe |144 |
In Europe there are 48 states [after the sign ( the official language(s); after the sign ( all the other spoken living languages but without the official status][278]:
1) Albania ( Tosk Albanian (98% of the population in 1989) ( Gheg Albanian + Greek (1.8%; 1989) + Vlax Romani + Macedo-Romani + Serbo-Croatian.
2) Andorra ( Catalan (61%; 1999) + French (6%; 1986) ( Spanish (60%, 1986).
3) Austria ( Standard German (98%; 1990) + Slovenian ( Alemannisch + Bavarian + Hungarian + Sinte Romani + Serbo-Croatian + Walser.
4) Belgium ( Flemish (Dutch) + French + Standard German ( Luxembourgian + Picard.
5) Belorus ( Belorussian (98%; 1993) ( Latvian + Lithuanian + Polish + Baltic Romani + Russian + Tatar + Ukrainian + Eastern Yiddish.
6) Bosnia & Herzegovina ( Serbo-Croatian (¿Bosnian? + ¿Croatian? + ¿Serbian?) ( Vlax Romani.
7) Bulgaria ( Bulgarian (85%; 1986) + Turkish ( Gheg Albanian + Crimean Turkish + Gagauz[279] + Macedonian + Balkan Romani + Vlax Romani + Macedo-Romani + Turkish (9%; 1986).
8) Croatia ( Serbo-Croatian (dialects: Kaykavski, Chakavski, Shtokavski) + Italian ( Istriot + (Istro) Romanian + Venetian.
9) Cyprus ( Greek.
10) Czech Republic ( Czech ( Bavarian + Standard German + Carpathian Romani + Sinte Romani + Lower Silesian.
11) Denmark ( Danish + Standard German ( Faeroese + Greenlandic Inuktitut + Jutish + Skane + Traveller Danish.
12) Estonia ( Estonian (93%; 1989) ( Russian.
13) Finland ( Finnish (93.5%; 1993) + Swedish (5.7%; 1997) ( Estonian + Tornedalen Finnish + Karelian + Livvi + Romani (Kalo Finnish) + Inari Saami + Northern Saami + Skolt Saami.
14) France ( French ( Alemannisch + Auvergnat + Navarro-Labourdin Basque + Souletin Basque + Breton + Caló + Catalan + Corsican + Dutch + Franco-Provançal + Gascon + Greek + Italian + Languedocien + Ligurian + Limousin + Luxembourgian + Picard + Portuguese + Provançal + Balkan Romani + Sinte Romani + Vlax Romani + Spanish + Flemish.
15) Germany ( German ( Alemannisch + Bavarian + Danish + Eastern Frisian + Northern Frisian + Kolsch + Luxembourgian + Mainfrankisch + Pfaelzisch + Plautdietsch + Polish + Sinte Romani + Balkan Romani + Vlax Romani + Low Saxon + Upper Saxon + Lower Sorbian + Upper Sorbian + Swabian + Westphalien + Yeniche + Western Yiddish.
16) Gibraltar ( English (dialect: Yanito) ( Spanish.
17) Greece ( Greek (98.5%; 1986) ( Arvanitika Albanian + Bulgarian + Pontic + Balkan Romani + Vlax Romani + Macedo Romanian + Megleno Romanian + Romano-Greek + Slavic + (✞)Tsakonian + Turkish.
18) Hungary ( Hungarian (98%; 1986) ( Bavarian + Standard German + Balkan Romani + Carpathian Romani + Sinte Romani + Vlax Romani + Romanian + Serbo-Croatian + Slovenian.
19) Iceland ( Icelandic.
20) Ireland ( Irish (Irish Gaelic; 13%; 1983) + English ( Scots + Shelta.
21) Italy ( Italian + French + Standard German + Serbo-Croatian ( Arbereshe Albanian + Bavarian + Catalan + Cimbrian + Corsican + Emiliano-Romagnolo + Franco-Provançal + Frulian + Greek + Judeo-Italian + Ladin + Ligurian + Lombard + Mócheno + Napoletano-Calabrese + Piemontese + Provançal + Balkan Romani + Sinte Romani + Vlax Romani + Campidanese Sardinian + Gallurese Sardinian + Logudorese Sardinian + Sassarese Sardinian + Sicilian + Slovenian + Venetian + Walser.
22) Kosovo ( Albanian, Serbo-Croatian ( Turkish + Gorani + Romani.
23) Latvia ( Latvian ( Liv + Baltic Romani + Eastern Yiddish.
24) Liechtenstein ( Standard German ( Alemannisch + Walser.
25) Lithuania ( Lithuanian (80%; 1998) ( Karaim + Baltic Romani.
26) Luxembourg ( French + Standard German + Luxembourgian.
27) Macedonia ( Macedonian ( Adyghe + Gheg Albanian + Balkan Gagauz Turkish + Balkan Romani + Macedo-Romanian + Serbo-Croatian + Turkish.
28) Malta ( Maltese + English.
29) Montenegro ( Serbo-Croatian ( Albanian.
30) Moldova ( (Moldovan) Romanian ( Bulgarian + Gagauz + Balkan Romani.
31) Monaco ( French (58%; 1988) ( Ligurian (17%; 1988) + Provançal (15%; 1988).
32) Netherlands ( Dutch + West Frisian + Drents + Gronings + Westerwolds ( Achterhoeks + Sinte Romani + Vlax Romani + Sallands + Stellingwerfs + Twents + Veenkoloniaals + North Veluws + East Veluws + Flemish.
33) Norway ( (Bokmål) Norwegian + New Norwegian (Nynorsk) ( Kven Finnish + Vlax Romani + Lule Saami + Northern Saami + Pite Saami + Southern Saami + Tavringer Romani + Traveller Norwegian.
34) Poland ( Polish (98%; 1986) ( Belorussian + Standard German + Kashubian + Baltic Romani + Carpathian Romani + Sinte Romani + Vlax Romani + Lower Silesian + Ukrainian.
35) Portugal ( Portuguese ( Asturian + Caló + Galician + Miranda do Douro + Vlax Romani.
36) Romania ( Romanian (90%; 1986) ( Bulgarian + Crimean Turkish + Gagauz + Standard German + Greek + Hungarian + Polish + Balkan Romani + Carpathian Romani + Vlax Romani + Macedo-Romanian + Serbo-Croatian + Turkish.
37) Russia ( Russian ( European part: Abaza + Adyghe + Aghul + Akhvakh + Andi + Archi + Avar + Bagvalal + Bashkir + Bezhta + Botlikh + Chamalal + Chechen + Chuvash + Dargwa + Dido + Domari + Erzya + Finnish + Ghodoberi + Hinukh + Hunzib + Ingrian + Ingush + Judeo-Tat + Kabardian + Kalmyk-Oirat + Karachay-Balkar + Karata + Karelian + Khvarshi + Komi-Permyak + Komi-Zyrian + Kumyk + Lak + Lezgi + Livvi + Ludian + High Mari + Low Mari + Moksha + Nogai + Vlax Romani + Rutul + Akkala Saami + Kildin Saami + Skolt Saami + Ter Saami + Serbo-Croatian + Tabassaran + Tatar + Tindi + Tsakhur + Udmurt + Veps + Vod.
38) San Marino ( Italian ( Emiliano-Romagnolo (83%; 1993).
39) Slovakia ( Slovak ( Standard German + Hungarian + Polish + Carpathian Romani + Vlax Romani + Rusyn + Serbo-Croatian + Ukrainian.
40) Slovenia ( Slovenian + Hungarian + Italian.
41) Spain ( Spanish + Basque + Galician + Gascon (Aranese) + Catalan ( Aragonese + Asturian + Caló + Extremaduran + Fala + Quinqui.
42) Sweden ( Swedish (93%; 1986) ( Dalecarian + Finnish + Tornedalen Finnish + Jamska + Kalo Finnish (Romani) + Vlax Romani + Lule Saami + Northern Saami + Pite Saami + Southern Saami + Ume Saami + Skåne + Tavringer Romani.
43) Switzerland ( French (19.2%; 1990) + Standard German + Italian + Rhaeto-Romance (0.6%; 1990) ( Alemannisch (63.6%; 1990) + Franco-Provançal + Lombard + Sinte Romani + Walser.
44) Turkey ( Turkish ( Tosk Albanian + Armenian + Balkan Gagauz Turkish + Bulgarian + Domari + Greek + Ladino + Balkan Romani + Serbo-Croatian + Tatar.
45) Ukraine ( Ukrainian + Russian ( Hungarian + Jakati + Karaim + Carpathian Romani + Vlax Romani + Romanian + Rusyn + Urum.
46) United Kingdom ( English + Welsh + French ( Angloromani + Cornish + Irish + Scots Gaelic + Polari + Welsh Romani + Scots + Traveller Scottish + Yinglish.
47) Vatican ( Italian + Latin.
48) Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian + Hungarian ( Gheg Albanian + Bulgarian + Balkan Romani + Sinte Romani + Romanian + Macedo-Romanian + Romano-Serbian + Slovak.
Out of the 144 ethnolects from Tab. 3.2 the European states have recognised 46 as official languages[280]:
1) Albanian (Tosk) (pql: albański) – in Albania
2) Basque (pql: baskijski) – in Spain
3) Belorussian (pql: białoruski) – in Belorus
4) Bulgarian (pql: bułgarski) – in Bulgaria
5) Catalan (pql: kataloński) – in Andorra
6) Czech (pql: czeski) – in the Czech Republic
7) Danish (pql: duński) – in Denmark
8) Drents – in the Netherlands
9) Dutch (pql: holenderski) – in the Netherlands
10) English (pql: angielski) – in the United Kingdom, in Ireland, in Malta
11) Estonian (pql: estoński) – in Estonia
12) Finnish (pql: fiński) – in Finland
13) Flemish (pql: flamandzki) – in Belgium
14) French (pql: francuski) – in France, in Belgium, in Monaco, in Andorra
15) Galician (pql: galicyjski) – in Spain
16) Gascon (pql: gaskoński) – in Spain (spn: aranés, a dialect of Gascon)
17) German (pql: niemiecki) – in Germany, in Austria, in Switzerland, in Liechtenstein, in Belgium
18) Greek (pql: nowogrecki) – in Greece, in Cyprus
19) Gronings – in the Netherlands
20) Hungarian (pql: węgierski) – in Hungary
21) Icelandic (pql: islandzki) – in Iceland
22) Irish (pql: irlandzki) – in Ireland
23) Italian (pql: włoski) – in Italy, in Switzerland, in San Marino
24) Latin (pql: łaciński) – in the Vatican
25) Latvian (pql: łotewski) – in Latvia
26) Lithuanian (pql: litewski) – in Lithuania
27) Luxembourgian (pql: luksemburski) – in Luxembourg
28) Macedonian (pql: macedoński) – in Macedonia
29) Maltese (pql: maltański) – in Malta
30) New Norwegian (pql: nowonorweski) – in Norway
31) Norwegian (pql: norweski) – in Norway
32) Polish (pql: polski) – in Poland
33) Portuguese (pql: portugalski) – in Portugal
34) Rhaetian (pql: retycki) – in Switzerland
35) Romanian (pql: rumuński) – in Romania
36) Russian (pql: rosyjski) – in the Russian Federation
37) Serbo-Croatian (pql: serbo-chorwacki) – in Croatia (Croatian), in Yugoslavia (Serbian), in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Bosnian)
38) Slovak (pql: słowacki) – in Slovakia
39) Slovenian (pql: słoweński) – in Slovenia
40) Spanish (pql: hiszpański) – in Spain
41) Swedish (pql: szwedzki) – in Sweden
42) Turkish (pql: turecki) – in Turkey
43) Ukrainian (pql: ukraiński) – in (the) Ukraine
44) Welsh (pql: walijski) – in the United Kingdom (Wales)
45) West Frisian (pql: zachodnio-fryzyjski) – in the Netherlands
46) Westerwolds – in the Netherlands
Thus, the EU-28 with 24 languages from Subsection 0.2.2 has been enlarged (virtually) to the maximum size[281] of 48 countries (EU-48) with 46 ethnolects.
( ( (
3.4. A European Linguistic League
Geographic classification of languages is based on leagues. A linguistic league is a group of languages whose populations have lived in one geographic region long enough to let their languages saturate with each other; as a result such neighbouring languages might have a lot of similarities without being necessarily genetically related.
It is relatively easy to arrange the European languages into a European linguistic league as most of them are genetically related and had a common ancestor: the Proto-Indo-European. Out of the 46 official languages forty are Indo-European and may be divided into seven linguistic groups (40 languages):
1) Albanian (1): Albanian.
2) Baltic (2): Latvian, Lithuanian.
3) Celtic (2): Irish, Welsh.
4) Germanic (14): Danish, Drents, Dutch, English, Flemish, German, Gronings, Icelandic, Luxembourgian, New Norwegian, Norwegian, Swedish, West Frisian, Westwolds.
[The Germanic languages are further divided into two subgroups: Scandinavian and Germanic proper; English may be excluded and treated as the core element of a meta-language.]
5) Greek (1): Modern Greek.
6) Neo-Latin (10): Catalan, French, Galician, Gascon, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Rhaetian, Romanian, Spanish.
[The Neo-Latin languages are further divided into three subgroups: Italic, Gallic and Iberian.]
7) Slavonic (10): Belorussian, Bulgarian, Czech, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovenian, Ukrainian.
[The Slavonic languages are further divided into three subgroups: Western, Eastern and Southern.]
The remaining six non-Indo-European languages represent four linguistic families:
• Altaic (1): Turkish;
• Caucasian (1): Basque;
• Uralic (3): Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian (Finno-Ugric Group);
• Hamito-Semitic (1): Maltese.
If the synoptic analysis – in the first version of the SM (which was later rejected) – were restricted only to the living official languages of Europe the General Model of Human Language (GML, Pic. 0.3⇧) – the top of the synoptic models hierarchy – might be created on the basis of five linguistic families:
▪ Indo-European Family Model,
▪ Uralic Family Model,
▪ Hamito-Semitic Family Model,
▪ Altaic Family Model,
▪ Caucasian Family Model.
If the GML were to be reliable, at least still another family should be included: the Sino-Tibetan one. Counting downwards, the family level is level two. At level three there are linguistic groups. The Indo-European Family is represented by seven groups out of twelve (cf.: Pic. 1.3):
▪ the Neo-Latin Group (10 languages),
▪ the Celtic Group (2 languages),
▪ the Greek Group (one language),
▪ the Germanic Group (14 languages),
▪ the Baltic Group (2 languages),
▪ the Slavonic Group (10 languages),
▪ the Albanian Group (one language).
Pic. 3.3. The Afro-Asiatic Family (= Hamito-Semitic Family)
[pic]
(1) The Uralic Family is represented by three groups:
- Ugric, with the Hungarian language;
- Lappic, with several Saami languages;
- Baltic Finnic, with two languages: Estonian and Finnish.
But these three groups are not at the same taxonomic level: Hungarian is at level 4, whereas the Saami languages and Estonian and Finnish are at level 8 (Pic. 3.1⇧).
(2) Turkish belongs to the Southern Group of the Turkic Sub-Family of the Altaic Family. But there are more levels than just two (family and group).
(3) The Caucasian Family represented by one group, and by one language: Basque. Again, there are more levels than just two (family and group).
(4) The Hamito-Semitic Family, also called the Afro-Asiatic Family, is represented by one group – the Arabic (Sub-)Group, and by one language – Maltese (Pic. 3.3⇧).
( ( (
3.5. Scripts of the European Languages
There are three basic forms of recording a language: alphabets, syllabaries and ideograms. In the alphabet each of the written symbols – a letter (the number of which ranges from 10 to 38) – roughly represents a phoneme, in the syllabary – a syllable (50-400 syllable-signs), and in the ideogram (thousands) – an idea.
All the European languages are graphically represented by one of the three alphabets: Latin, Cyrillic or Greek, and the 46 official languages spoken in Europe (like the remaining 98 ethnolects) may be divided accordingly into three groups:
1) the languages recorded with the Latin alphabet (40 languages);
2) the languages recorded with the Greek alphabet (just one language – Greek);
3) the languages recorded with the Cyrillic alphabet (six Slavonic languages: Belorussian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian[282], and Ukrainian).
The Latin alphabet is composed of 23 letters; a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, y, z. Later, to record some languages, three other letters were added:
▪ j,
▪ u,
▪ w;
the letters «j» and «u» are transformations of respectively «i» and «v», and «w» is a
double «v».
The languages that use the Latin alphabet have adopted it to their specific phonic structures by introducing new letters (or even graphemes); introducing new letters (or graphemes) consists in:
A) adding a diacritical sign to a existing letter;
B) joining two or three existing letters into a ligature (two-letter combinations = digraphs, three-letter combinations = trigraphs);
C) creating a new sign.
In the case of (A), for example:
1) A ( à, á, â, ã, ä, å, ă, ą;
2) C ( ç, ć, č, ĉ, ċ;
3) E ( è, é, ê, ë, ę, ė;
4) G ( ġ, ğ;
5) H ( ħ, ĥ;
6) I ( ì, í, î, ï, ĩ, ı (dotless «i», in Turkish);
7) L ( ł;
8) N ( ñ, ń, ņ;
9) O ( ò, ó, ô, õ, ö, ø, ő, ō;
10) R ( ŗ;
11) S ( ś, š, ŝ, ş;
12) T ( ţ;
13) U ( ù, ú, û, ü, ű, ŭ, ū, ų;
14) Z ( ź, ż, ž.
There are 17 diacritic(al) sub-signs (diacritics):
1) the cedilla (ç) – in Neo-Latin languages;
2) the caron (č, š, ž) – in Baltic and Slavonic languages;
3) the tilde – in Spanish (ñ), in Portuguese (ã, õ), and in Estonian (õ);
4) the acute accent (á, é, í, ó, ú) – in Neo-Latin languages;
5) the grave accent (à, è, ì, ò, ù) – in Neo-Latin languages;
6) the circumflex – in Neo-Latin languages (â, ê, î, ô, û) and in Esperanto – (ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ);
7) the umlaut – in German (ä, ö, ü), in Albanian (ë);
8) the diaeresis (ä, ë, ï, ö, ü) – the diaeresis looks like the umlaut, but its function is different: the umlaut changes the quality of the vowel, whereas the diaeresis indicates that two successive vowels do not form a diphthong;
9) the dot – in Maltese (ċ, ġ, ż), in Polish (ż), in Lithuanian (ė);
10) the ogonek (ą, ę, į, ų ) – in Polish and Lithuanian;
11) the macron (ā, ē, ī, ō, ū) – in Latvian:
12) the double acute accent (ő, ű) – in Hungarian;
13) the breve – in Romanian (ă), in Esperanto (ŭ), in Turkish (ğ);
14) the comma underneath – in Romanian (ş, ţ), in Latvian (ķ, ļ, ņ, ŗ);
15) the dotless ‘i’ – in Turkish (ı);
16) the ring (å) – in Scandinavian languages;
17) the crossing-out (ø) – in Danish.
In the case of (B), for example:
1) a+e = æ (lat),
2) c+h = ch (pql, por, frn),
3) g+n = gn (frn, itn),
4) l+h = lh (por),
5) l+l = ll (spn),
6) r+z = rz (pql),
7) d+z = dz (pql),
8) d+ż = dż (pql),
9) d+ź = dź (pql).
In the case of (C), for example:
- in Icelandic: Ð, ð [ð: dental, fricative, voiced] and Þ, þ [θ: dental, fricative, voiceless];
- in German: ß [= ss].
The Greek alphabet is used to record only one language (Greek); the present-day Greek alphabet – which differs in several details from its ancient form – is composed of 24 letters (Tab. 3.3⇩).
Β β [b] > [v]; Δ δ [d] > [ð]; Γ γ [g] > [ɣ / ʝ]; Φ φ [ph] > [f]; Θ θ [th] > [θ]; Χ χ [kh] > [x / ç]. The letters or letter clusters «Η η, Ι ι, ΕΙ ει, Υ υ, ΟΙ οι» are all pronounced as [i]; both «Ω ω» and «Ο ο» are pronounced as [o], and both «Ε ε» and «AΙ αι» as [e].
Tab. 3.3. The Greek alphabet letters and their phonic values
|No |Letter |Name |Phonic value |
| | |in Greek |in English |Ancient |Modern |
|1. |Α, α |Άλφα |Alpha |[a] |[a] |
|2. |Β, β |Βήτα |Beta (vita) |[b] |[v] |
|3. |Γ, γ |Γάμμα |Gamma |[g] |[ɣ/j] |
|4. |Δ, δ |Δέλτα |Delta |[d] |[ð] |
|5. |Ε, ε |Έψιλον |Epsilon |[e] |[e] |
|6. |Ζ, ζ |Ζήτα |Zeta |[zd/z] |[z] |
|7. |Η, η |Ήτα |Eta |[ɛ:] |[i] |
|8. |Θ, θ |Θήτα |Theta |[th] |[Ɵ] |
|9. |Ι, ι |Ιώτα |Iota |[i/i:] |[i] [j] |
|10. |Κ, κ |Κάππα |Kappa |[k] |[k/ts] |
|11. |Λ, λ |Λάμδα |Lamdda |[l] |[l/lh] |
|12. |Μ, μ |Μυ |Mu |[m] |[m] |
|13. |Ν, ν |Νυ |Nu |[n] |[n/nh] |
|14. |Ξ, ξ |Ξι |Xi |[ks] |[ks] |
|15. |Ο, ο |Όμικρον |Omicron |[o] |[o] |
|16. |Π, π |Πι |Pi |[p] |[p/ph] |
|17. |Ρ, ρ |Ρο / ρω |Rho |[r] |[r] |
|18. |Σ, ς / σ |Σίγμα |Sigma |[s] |[s/z] |
|19. |Τ, τ |Ταυ |Tau |[t] |[t] |
|20. |Υ, υ |Ύψιλον |Upsilon |[u/y] |[i] |
|21. |Φ, φ |Φι |Phi |[ph] |[f] |
|22. |Χ, χ |Χι |Chi |[kh/ks] |[h/ç] |
|23. |Ψ, ψ |Ψι |Psi |[ps] |[ps] |
|24. |Ω, ω |Ωμέγα |Omega |[o:] |[o] |
The Cyrillic alphabet or script (or azbuka, rus: азбука) has been adapted by six European languages:
▪ Belorussian,
▪ Bulgarian,
▪ Macedonian,
▪ Russian,
▪ Serbian,
▪ Ukrainian,
and each of the six graphic systems differs in some details from the other five (Tab. 3.4⇩).
Tab. 3.4. Comparison of some Cyrillic alphabets
|No |Name |ruw |blg |mkj |rus |src |ukr |
|1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 |8 |
|1. |A [a] |А, а |А, а |А, а |А, а |А, а |А, а |
|2. |Be [b] |Б, б |Б, б |Б, б |Б, б |Б, б |Б, б |
|3. |Ve [v] |В, в |В, в |В, в |В, в |В, в |В, в |
|4. |Ge [g] |Г, г [g] |Г, г [g] |Г, г [g] |Г, г [g] |Г, г [g] |Ґ, ґ [g] |
|5. |He [ɦ] |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |Г, г [ɦ] |
|6. |De [d] |Д, д |Д, д |Д, д |Д, д |Д, д |Д, д |
|7. | |--, -- |--, -- |Ѓ, ѓ [gj] |--, -- |Ђ, ђ [dj] |--, -- |
|8. |Ye |E, e [je] |E, e [ɛ] |Е, е [ɛ] |E, e [je] |Е, е [ɛ] |Е, е [e] |
|9. |Ukranian Ye |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |Є, є [je] |
|10. |Yo |Ё, ё [jo] |--, -- |--, -- |Ё, ё [jo] |--, -- |--- |
|11. |Zhe [ʒ] |Ж, ж |Ж, ж |Ж, ж |Ж, ж |Ж, ж |Ж, ж |
|12. |Ze [z] |З, з |З, з |З, з |З, з |З, з |З, з |
|13. |[dʐ] |--, -- |--, -- |Ѕ, ѕ |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |
|14. |I |--, -- |И, и [i] |И, и [i] |И, и [i] |И, и [i] |И, и [ɨ] |
|15. |Ukranian I |I, i [ɨ] |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |І, i [i] |
|16. |Short I |Й, й [ɪ] |Й, й [ɪ] |--, -- |Й, й [ɪ] | |Й, й [ɪ] |
|17. |Yi |--, -- |--, -- |Ј, j |--, -- |Ј, j [j] |Ї, ї [ji] |
|18. |Ka [k] |К, к |К, к |К, к |К, к |К, к |К, к |
|19. |El [l] |Л, л |Л, л |Л, л |Л, л |Л, л |Л, л |
|20. |[λ] |--, -- |--, -- |Љ, љ |--, -- |Љ, љ |--, -- |
|21. |Em [m] |М, м |М, м |М, м |М, м |М, м |М, м |
|22. |En [n] |Н, н |Н, н |Н, н |Н, н |Н, н |Н, н |
|23. |[ɲ] |--, -- |--, -- |Њ, њ |--, -- |Њ, њ |--, -- |
|24. |O [o] |О, о |О, о |О, о |О, о |О, о |О, о |
|25. |Pe [p] |П, п |П, п |П, п |П, п |П, п |П, п |
|26. |Er [r] |Р, р |Р, р |Р, р |Р, р |Р, р |Р, р |
|27. |Es [s] |С, с |С, с |С, с |С, с |С, с |С, с |
|28. |Te [t] |Т, т |Т, т |Т, т |Т, т |Т, т |Т, т |
|29. |[tj] |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |Ћ, ћ [tj] |--, -- |
|30. |[kj] |--, -- |--, -- |Ќ, ќ |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |
|31. |U [u] |У, у |У, у |У, у |У, у |У, у |У, у |
|32. |U short [w] |Ў, ў [w] |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |--, -- |
|33. |Ef [f] |Ф, ф |Ф, ф |Ф, ф |Ф, ф |Ф, ф |Ф, ф |
|34. |Kha [x] |Х, х |Х, х |Х, х |Х, х |Х, х |Х, х |
|No |Name |ruw |blg |mkj |rus |src |ukr |
|1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |7 |8 |
|35. |Tse [ʦ] |Ц, ц |Ц, ц |Ц, ц |Ц, ц |Ц, ц |Ц, ц |
|36. |Che [ʧ] |Ч, ч |Ч, ч |Ч, ч |Ч, ч |Ч, ч |Ч, ч |
|37. |[ʤ] |--, -- |--, -- |Џ, џ |--, -- |Џ, џ |--, -- |
|38. |Sha [ʃ] |Ш, ш |Ш, ш |Ш, ш |Ш, ш |Ш, ш |Ш, ш |
|39. |Shcha |--, -- |Щ, щ [ʃt] |--, -- |Щ, щ [ʃʧ] |--, -- |Щ, щ |
|40. |Hard sign or [ə] |--, -- |Ъ, ъ [ə] |--, -- |Ъ, ъ (Hs) |--, -- |--, -- |
|41. |Yery [ɨ] |Ы, ы |--, -- |--, -- |Ы, ы [ɨ] |--, -- |--, -- |
|42. |Soft sign [j] | Ь, ь |Ь, ь |--, -- | Ь, ь |--, -- |Ь, ь |
|43. |E [ɛ] |Э, э |--, -- |--, -- |Э, э |--, -- |--, -- |
|44. |Yu [ju] |Ю, ю |Ю, ю |--, -- |Ю, ю |--, -- |Ю, ю |
|45. |Ya [ja] |Я, я |Я, я |--, -- |Я, я |--, -- |Я, я |
( ( (
Chapter 4.
English as the Contemporary Lingua Franca
[pic]
Each academic discipline has its own selected fragment of the human reality (whether it is physical or virtual) to explore, and has its own instrumentarium to do so. The problem with Linguistics is that both its subject matter and instrumentarium are identical: it is language. It would be hardly possible to analyse one thing by the agency of the same thing (e.g. a hammer with a hammer). Therefore in a linguistic analysis it is necessary to go beyond language, to refer to a meta-language.
‘Linguistics faces the problem of treating language as a key to language, Sprache als die Sprache zur Sprache, according to Heidegger. [Consequently…] there are two terms: language – a phenomenon describing the real world – and meta-language – a scientific language describing the language that describes the real world.’[283]
‘Toda ciencia tiene por meta establecer un método por medio del cual se pueden describir objetos, de una naturaleza dada. Esto se hace siempre introduciendo una lengua que permite la descripción de los objetos en cuestión... La lingüística tiene por meta establecer un método por medio del cual se puedan describir las lenguas. Esto se hace introduciendo una lengua que permite la descripción de lenguas. Se llama metalengua la lengua descriptiva de esa índole y lengua-objeto la lengua descrita. En razón de su universalismo una lengua cotidiana puede servir de metalengua para describirse a sí misma como lengua-objeto... En general, sin embargo, habrá necesidad de modificar algo el uso de la lengua cotidiana introduciendo una serie de signos nuevos, los que se llaman o . También se puede sustituir total o parcialmente la lengua cotidiana por una lengua de fórmulas invetada especialmente y adaptada, en cuanto metalengua, a la descripción de otras lenguas... Puede haber lenguas de varios grados: lenguas de grado 1 y lenguas de grado 2, o metalenguas.’[284]
Meta-language may be a system of mathematicised symbols in which each symbol represents just one meaning; it may be a natural language; or it may be a mixture of both. Here the last option has been chosen: meta-language is a natural language with some mathematicised symbols, and English has been designated as the natural language.
The explanation for the choice of a natural language rather than a system of mathematicised symbols is simple: the system of a natural language is the most sophisticated code the human being has ever devised but many elements of this code are ambiguous, sometimes such ambiguous elements have several meanings at the same time or their meaning is not defined in a clear-cut manner. It is the strength of the system as the perceived reality very often is not obvious so the language must have some ways to describe it accordingly. On the other hand, it is the weakness of the system as the description is fraught with loopholes that might be interpreted in more than one ways. Creating a system of mathematical symbols would be an attempt to create another natural language, so it is much more reasonable to decide on a natural language, already existing. On the other hand, the academic discipline of a scientific description requires that there be no ambiguity, and if there is each meaning should be given with its probability, but to do so special devices are necessary, that is why the meta-language used here is primarily a natural language but it contains some mathematicised symbol as well.
Another thing that needs explaining is why English has been chosen as the natural language component of the meta-language used here. There are two reasons for this choice:
1) the fact that English has become the global lingua franca (italicising is no longer necessary) of the present-day world;
2) and the fact that English seems to be one of the most flexible languages of the world.
As for the first reason it is worth mentioning that ‘…about a quarter of the world’s population is already fluent or competent in English, and this figure is steadily growing – in the early 2000s that means around 1.5 billion people.’[285] The popularity of English is one of the globalising effects. ‘In communities where only two or three languages are in contact, bilingualism (or trilingualism) is a possible solution, for most young children can acquire more than one language with unselfconscious ease. But in communities where there are many languages in contact, as in much of Africa and South-east Asia, such a natural solution does not readily apply. The problem has traditionally been solved by finding a language to act as a lingua franca, or common language.’[286] In the globalising world there are many languages in constant contact and it is not feasible for most people to be able to communicate in several languages, so the only option seems a lingua franca: the English language.
4.1. The External Extension of English
According to the US linguist Braj Kachru[287] the English-speaking population may be divided into three groups, graphically represented as three concentric circles: the most central circle symbolises the L1 speakers (native speakers), the middle circle – the L2 speakers (English as a second language, ESL), and the outer circle – the ones who have learned English as a foreign language (EFL).
Native speakers (L1) of a language are those who have acquired it as children in a natural setting.[288] A second language is the language that is used on an everyday basis in some social situations parallel to the first language. Sometimes it is difficult to say which language is the first and which is the second: in Galicia – Galician (gallego) and Spanish, in Malta – Maltese and English, in Italy – a local dialect and Italian (Toscan Italian).
According to David Crystal[289] ‘the total of 329 million represents a conservative estimate of those who have learned English as a first language (L1)… Some reference books… seem to take a more inclusive stance, in this respect, citing as many as 450 million as a grand total at present. The main variable, however, is whether the various English-derived pidgins and creoles should be included under the L1 heading. If they are, a further 80 million must be added to the 329 million total – and it is this total of (approximately) 400 million which is the most commonly cited L1 total in the early 2000s. The total of 430 million represents an estimate of those who have learned English as a second language (L2)… A widely circulated British Council estimate… has referred to a billion (i.e. thousand million) people engaged in learning English.’
The above cited numbers mean that the population of native speakers of English (0.4 billion) has been by far outnumbered by the populations of non-native speakers of English (0.43 + 1.0 billion), and Salmon Rushdie[290] was right when he said that ‘…the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago.’ English, being the only language spoken by more non-native speakers than native speakers, has become the possession of the whole world, i.e. has become the global lingua franca.
English – either as L1 (first language / mother tongue) or L2 (second language) – is spoken in 99 countries or territories (the data taken from the Ethnologue website[291] and from the books written by David Crystal[292],[293]):
1) American Samoa ( Official language. L1: 2,000; L2: 65,000 (99% of the population).
2) Anguilla ( National language. L1: 950 (19).
3) Antigua and Barbuda ( National language. L1: 66,000; L2: 2,000.
4) Aruba ( The third most important language. L1: 9,000; L2: 35,000.
5) Australia ( National language. L1: 14,987,000 (2001); L2: 3,500,000.
6) Bahamas ( National language. L1: 260,000; L2: 28,000.
7) Bahrain ( Used for most business communication. Many Bahraini children learn English before Arabic.
8) Bangladesh ( L2: 3,500,000.
9) Barbados ( National language. L1: 262,000; L2: 13,000.
10) Belize ( National language. L1: 190,000; L2: 56,000.
11) Bermuda ( National language. L1: 63,000.
12) Bhutan ( Used as L2 by the Khengkha speakers.
13) Botswana ( Official language. L2: 630,000.
14) British Indian Ocean Territory ( Official language.
15) British Virgin Islands ( National language. L1: 20,000.
16) Brunei ( National language. L1: 10,000; L2: 134,000.
17) Cameroon ( Official language. L2 7,700,000.
18) Canada ( National language. L1: 20,000,000; L2: 7,000,000.
19) Caribbean Netherlands ( Together with Dutch and Papiamentu.
20) Cayman Islands ( National language. L1: 36,000.
21) Cook Islands ( National language. L1: 1,000; L2: 3,000.
22) Curação ( Used as L2 by the Papiamentu speakers.
23) Dominica ( National language. L1: 3,000; L2: 60,000.
24) Dominican Republic ( L1: 8,000 (1989).
25) Eritrea ( De facto national language.
26) Ethiopia ( Official language. L1: 1,990 (1994); L2: 170,000.
27) Falkland Islands ( National language. 1,991 (1993).
28) Fiji ( National language. F1: 6,000; L2: 170,000.
29) Gambia ( Official language. L2: 40,000.
30) Ghana ( Official language. L2: 1,400,000.
31) Gibraltar ( Official language. L1: 28,000; L2: 2,000.
32) Grenada ( National language. L1: 100,000.
33) Guam ( National language. L1: 58,000; L2: 100,000.
34) Guyana ( National language. L1: 650,000; L2: 30,000.
35) Honduras ( L1: 31,500 in Honduras (2001) and 22,500 Bay Islands English speakers on the north coast.
36) Hong Kong ( L1: 150,000; L2: 2,200,000.
37) India ( Official language. L1: 350,000; L2: 200,000,000.
38) Ireland ( National language. L1: 3,750,000; L2: 100,000.
39) Isle of Man ( L1: 85,000; used as L2 by the Manx speakers.
40) Israel ( Official language. L1: 100,000 (1993).
41) Jamaica ( National language. L1: 2,600,000; L2: 50,000.
42) Kenya ( Official language. L2: 2,700,000.
43) Kiribati ( National language. L2: 23,000.
44) Lebanon ( Official language. L1: 3,300 (2004).
45) Lesotho ( Official language. L2: 500,000.
46) Liberia ( Official language. L1: 600,000; L2: 2,500,000.
47) Malawi ( Official language. L2: 540,000..
48) Malaysia ( Official language. L1: 380,000; L2: 7,000,000.
49) Malta ( National language. L1: 16,200; L2: 360,000 [ELDIA 2012].
50) Marshall Islands ( L2: 60,000.
51) Mauritius ( Official language. L1: 2,000; L2: 200,000.
52) Micronesia (Federated States of) ( National language. L1: 4,000; L2: 60,000.
53) Midway Islands ( National language. L1: 40.
54) Montserrat ( National language. L1: 4,000.
55) Namibia ( Official language. L1: 14,000; L2: 300,000.
56) Nauru ( National language. L1: 900; L2: 10,700.
57) Nepal ( L2: 7,000,000.
58) New Zealand ( National language. L1: 3,700,000; L2: 150,000.
59) Nigeria ( Official language. L2: 60,000,000.
60) Niue ( National language. L1: 78 (2004); L2: 2,080.
61) Norfolk Island ( National language. L1: 1,678 (1980).
62) Northern Mariana Islands ( National language. The population of 71,912 (July 2000, est.) is composed of Filipinos (29%), Chinese (22.1%), Chamarros (21.3%), Carolinians, Japanese, and Koreans; 86% of the population speak a language other than English at home.[294] L1: 5,000; L2: 65,000.[295]
63) Pakistan ( Official language. L2: 17,000,000.
64) Palau ( National language. L1: 500; L2: 18,000.
65) Papua New Guinea ( Official language. L1: 150,000; L2: 3,000,000.
66) Philippines ( National language. L1: 20,000; L2: 40,000,000.
67) Pitcairn ( National language. L1: 48.
68) Puerto Rico ( National language. L1: 100,000; L2: 1,840,000.
69) Rwanda ( Official language. L2: 20,000.
70) Saint Helena ( National language. L1: 4,255 (2008).
71) Saint Kitts & Nevis ( National language. L1: 43,000.
72) Saint Lucia ( National language. L1: 31,000; L2: 40,000.
73) Saint Vincent & the Grenadines ( National language. L1: 114,000.
74) Samoa ( L1: 1,000; L2: 93,000.
75) Seychelles ( Official language. L1: 3,000; L2: 30,000.
76) Sierra Leone ( Official language. L1: 500,000; L2: 4,400,000.
77) Singapore ( National language. L1: 350,000; L2: 2,000,000.
78) Sint Maarten ( Official languages: Dutch and English.
79) Solomon Islands ( National language. L1: 10,000; L2: 165,000.
80) Somalia ( Official language.
81) South Africa ( Official language. L1: 3,700,000; L2: 11,000,000.
82) Sri Lanka ( L1: 10,000; L2: 1,900,000.
83) Suriname ( L1: 260,000; L2: 150,000.
84) Swaziland ( National language. L2: 50,000.
85) Tanzania (United Republic of) ( L2: 4,000,000.
86) Tokelau ( National language. L1: 40.
87) Tonga ( Official language. L2: 30,000.
88) Trinidad & Tobago ( National language. L1: 1,145,000.
89) Tuvalu ( L2: 800.
90) Turks & Caicos Islands ( National language. L1: 31,500.
91) United Kingdom Islands ( L1: 227,000.
92) United States of America ( Official language. L1: 215,424,000; L2: 25,600,000.
93) United States Virgin Islands ( National language. L1: 98,000; L2: 15,000.
94) Uganda ( Official language. L2: 2,500,000.
95) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ( National language. L1: 58,190,000; L2: 1,500,000.
96) Vanuatu ( National language. L1: 60,000; L2: 120,000.
97) Wake Islands ( National language. L1: 150.
98) Zambia ( Official language. L1: 110,000; L2: 1,800,000.
99) Zimbabwe ( Official language. L1: 250,000; L2: 5,300,000.
In 79 countries or territories English has the status of an official language; out of this number 49 recognise it as their National Language.
( ( (
4.2. The Internal Diversification of English
There are two main divisions of the varieties of the English language:
1) into the British English (BrE or UK English) and the American English (AmE or USA English);
2) into the rhotic varieties and the non-rhotic ones.
Before the 16th century English was only language spoken in the British Isles, and even there it was not the only native language. The British Isles have always been the starting point for all the world’s varieties, which means that the specificality of each one of these varieties may be traced back to a variety existing in the British Isles. Generally, the British English varieties may be divided into four groups:
1) the south of England,
2) the north of England,
3) Wales,
4) Scotland and the north of Ireland.
In a more detailed manner the varieties of the British English are as follows[296]:
1) Cockney,
2) Scouse,
3) Geordie,
4) West Country dialect,
5) East Anglia dialect,
6) Brummy / Brummie (Birmingham),
7) South Wales dialect,
8) Edinburgh dialect,
9) Belfast dialect,
10) Cornwall dialect,
11) Cumberland dialect,
12) Central Cumberland dialect,
13) Devonshire dialect,
14) East Devonshire dialect,
15) Dorset dialect,
16) Durham dialect,
17) Bolton Lancashire dialect,
18) North Lancashire dialect,
19) Radcliffe Lancashire dialect,
20) Northumberland dialect,
21) Norfolk dialect,
22) Newcastle Northumberland dialect,
23) Tyneside Northumberland dialect,
24) Lowland Scottish,
25) Somerset dialect,
26) Sussex dialect,
27) Westmorland dialect,
28) North Wiltshire dialect,
29) Craven Yorkshire dialect,
30) North Yorkshire dialect,
31) Sheffield Yorkshire dialect,
32) West Yorkshire dialect.
( ( (
4.3. Flexibility of English
In the 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) there are 615,100 word forms defined and/or illustrated.[297] In the Dictionary of the Contemporary Portuguese (Dicionário da Língua Contemporânea) published in 2001 there are 70,000 entries (plus 22,000 combinations).[298] In the Great French-Polish Dictionary there are 200,000 words and expressions.[299] The above quoted numbers indicate clearly that from the lexical point of view English is by far the richest language in the world; it means that the probability to find an English word to name an idea is a few times higher than in case of any other language. The situation described at the beginning of «Cien años de soledad» is hardly imaginable in English: “El mundo era tan reciente, que muchas cosas carecían de nombre, y para mencionarlas había que señalarlas con el dedo.” Within the English language there is always a ready-made word. At the same time, the language equipped with the best lexicographical tools is undoubtedly English.
It has been estimated that 12% of the English vocabulary is of Greek origin[300]. English has 60% lexical similarity with German, 27% with French, 24% with Russian.[301]
English has still another strength, which – paradoxically is considered its weakness – the spelling. Theoretically, English is recorded with the Latin alphabet, but in reality the English spelling more resembles the pictographical script of Chinese than an alphabet. And there must be some cause-effect relation between the fact that both Chinese and English are the two languages with the biggest populations of native speakers and the fact that both are recorded with pictographical scripts. Different people, let alone different ethnic groups of people, have different phonatory habits; pictographical scripts do not force anybody to any specific or standard pronunciation, everybody can read a pictographical script according to their own phonatory habits.
( ( (
4.4. Synoptic Meta-Language
In order to analyse languages – irrespective of the fact whether synoptically or otherwise – it is necessary to devise a meta-language. ‘To cope with the problem of circularity, one solution is to design a semantic meta-language with which to describe the semantic units and rules of all languages…’[302]
It has already been said that the Synoptic Meta-Language is based on English, or – to be exact – it is English enriched with some additional elements. The choice of the language has also been sufficiently justified. The additional elements are as follows:
1) the International Phonetic Alphabet (slightly modified);
2) some mathematical formulae;
3) some other signs and symbols.
The modification of the IPA consists in introducing an additional row called ‘lisped fricatives’. In the canonical IPA there are two phones – [ð] and [Ɵ] – that are sometimes called ‘interdental’ fricatives. The English words «this» and «cloth» are transcribed as [ˡðɪs] and [ˡklɒƟ] respectively; the Spanish words «mazmorra» and «caza» are transcribed as [maðˡmo.ra] and [ˡka.Ɵa] respectively. But the [ð] of «this» differs from the [ð] of «mazmorra» and the [Ɵ] of «cloth» from the [Ɵ] of «caza». In addition to this, in Cockney the words «this» and «cloth» are pronounced as [ˡvɪs] and [ˡklɒf], whereas in Spanish there is a phenomenon called «seseo» which consists in replacing in pronunciation the phones [ð] and [Ɵ] by [z] and [s] respectively. ‘Interdental’ might mean ‘lisped’, so the English [ð] and [Ɵ] can be transcribed as [vlisped] and [flisped] or simply [vl] and [fl]; whereas the Spanish [ð] and [Ɵ] can be transcribed as [zlisped] and [slisped] or simply [zl] and [sl]. The English [ð] and [Ɵ] are sometimes called ‘dental’ because they are not really lisped, so the best solution seems to leave the English symbols unchanged and introduce the new symbols – [zl] and [sl] – because the Spanish phones are clearly lisped.
Any set of words, lexemes, etc. may be treated as a mathematical set and recorded as a mathematical set, e.g. Sprep = {at, in, on…}. Any change of a into b may be treated as a mathematical function and recorded as a mathematical function f(a) = b. This notation is not only more useful and transparent than the traditional one, but also opens a possibility to make the description operational. In addition to this, mathematical logic may come in handy while describing semantic and syntactic elements.
Some other signs and symbols are simply taken from the tables of fonts, but the meaning of each sign or symbol is always precisely defined. And so are the meanings of all the key terms, collected in the Terminological Index at the end of the book.
( ( (
Chapter 5.
Synoptic Models
[pic]
5.1. Synoptic Model of the Spanish Language
5.1.1. Diacritic (Phonic) level of the Spanish Language[303]
The vocalic system (cf.: Pic. 2.9) of the Spanish language (Tab. 5.1⇩) is composed of:
▪ 10 oral vowels: [i], [į], [e], [ę], [a], [ɑ], [o], [ǫ], [u], [ų];
▪ 2 semi-consonants: [j], [w]; (and two semi-vowels: [ i̯ ] [ u̯ ])[304].
Tab. 5.1. The system of Spanish vowels
| | | |Palatal = Palatales |Central |Velar = Velares |
| | | |Front = Anteriores | |Back = Posteriores |
| | | |Non-labialised |Labialised |
|English |Spanish |No labializadas |Labializadas |
|High |Close |Altas |[ i ] | | |[ u ] | |Semi-h|Half-c|
| | | | | | | | |igh |lose |
|Plosive |V-less |
| |verbo |adjetivo |
| |conjugado | |
| |copulativo | |
| | |sustantivo |
| | |adverbio |
| | |pronombre |
| | |frase de dos o más palabras |
B. La oración simple no copulativa transitiva
Tab. 5.5. El esquema de la oración simple no copulativa transitiva
|sujeto |verbo conjugado |complemento directo |complemento indirecto |complemento circunstancial |
| |no copulativo | | | |
C. La oración simple impersonal ( {Ø + V}
D. La oración simple no copulativa intransitiva ( {sujeto + V}
“Un mismo verbo puede aparecer llenando un esquema impersonal («Es de día»), intransitivo («Dios es») o atributivo («La manzana es buena»). Una descripción completa de un verbo sólo se puede hacer inventariando los esquemas que puede recubrir y actualizar en la comunicación.”[318]
A. La oración atributiva:
1) Verbos copulativos:
➢ ser ( estar ( parecer ( semejar
➢ Es bueno. ( Lo es. ( Es buena ( Lo es. ( Son buenos. ( Lo son. ( Son buenas. ( Lo son.
2) Verbos seudo-copulativos:
➢ hallar(se) ( encontrar(se) ( permanecer ( persisitir ( perdurar ( mantener(se) ( andar ( ir ( continuar ( seguir ( quedar ( acabar ( terminar ( hacer(se) ( volver(se) ( tornar(se) ( poner(se) ( llegar ( aparecer ( ofrecer(se) ( resultar ( salir ( caer ( ver(se) ( venir
➢ Los amigos permanecieron silenciosos.
B. La oración transitiva:
1) verbos con complemento directo (acusativo):
a. verbos que expresan ideas u objetos preexistentes a la actualización del verbo:
tener ( poseer ( ver ( observar ( querer ( exigir ( modificar ( transformar ( invadir ( ganar
Tengo muchos amigos.
b. verbos que expresan ideas u objetos que surgen como resultado de la realización del verbo:
hacer ( fabricar ( decir ( expresar ( sobrevivir ( avanzar ( subir ( costar
Te diré la verdad.
2) verbos con doble acusativo (complemento directo de cosa & complemento indirecto de persona):
Aristóteles enseñó Gramática a Alejandro.
3) verbos con complemento directo de duración y valer:
Corrí cinco kilómetros. ( Corrí cinco minutos.
4) verbos con complemento indirecto (dativo):
a. verbos que expresan a la persona que recibe las consecuencias y resultados de la acción ( Entregó algo a Pablo.
b. verbos que expresan al poseedor del complemento directo ( Le arde la frente. [pic]His / Her forehead is burning. ( Los ojos se me llenaron de lágrimas. [pic]My eyes filled up (with tears).
c. el complemento indirecto expresa la persona para la que es válido (importante) lo que el verbo enuncia ( Le pareció magnífico. [pic]It seemed magnificient to him / her.
5) verbos con complemento circunstancial:
a. de tiempo;
b. de lugar;
c. de modo;
d. de materia;
e. de instrumento;
f. de compañía.
C. La oración impersonal; el elemento más importante en todas las oraciones es el verbo y, por consiguiente, es el verbo que determina las subcategorías de la oración; también diferentes tipos del verbo constituyen diferentes subcategorías de la oración simple impersonal:
1) verbos unipersonales[319], un grupo de los verbos que expresan fenómenos de la naturaleza:
alborear [pic]to dawn ( Alboreaba la paz.
amanecer [pic]to dawn
anochecer [pic]to grow dark / dusk
diluviar [pic]to pour with rain
escampar [pic]to stop raining / to clear up
escarchar [pic]to crystallize / to frost up
granizar [pic]to hail
helar [pic]to freeze
llover [pic]to rain
lloviznar [pic]to drizzle
nevar [pic]to snow
relampaguear [pic]to flash / to lighten
tronar [pic]to thunder
ventear [pic]to blow
ventiscar [pic]to snow with a strong wind / to blow a blizzard
2) verbos impersonales más típicos:
haber ( Hay tres libros sobre la mesa.
hacer ( Se hace tarde.
ser
bastar (con) ( Basta con media docena de obreros.
D. La oración intransitiva:
1) verbos existenciales:
abundar [pic]to be abundant / to abound
estar
existir
morir
parecer
permanecer
quedar
ser
subsistir [pic]to subsist / to persist
vivir
2) verbos de movimiento:
andar
bajar
bascular [pic]to tilt / to tip up / to swing
caer
caminar
circular
desfilar [pic]to parade / to march
entrar
errar
evolucionar
ir
marchar
oscilar
partir
planear [pic]to plan / to soar / to plane / to glide
salir
saltar
subir
titubear [pic]to stutter / to hesitate
vacilar
venir
viajar
volver
3) verbos de acción:
acezar [pic]to pant / to gasp
balar [pic]to bleat
chiar = piar [pic]to chirp / to tweet
croar [pic]to croak
crujir [pic]to creak / to rustle / to crack / to crunch / to grind
debutar [pic]to make one's debut
estornudar [pic]to sneeze
fracasar [pic]to fail
galopar [pic]to gallop
gañir [pic]to yelp / to howl / to croak
gesticular [pic]to gesticulate
gimotear [pic]to whine / to whimper
gritar [pic]to shout
gruñir [pic]to grunt / to growl / to grumble
jadear [pic]to pant
ladrar [pic]to bark / to yell
llorar [pic]to cry / to weep
mayar = maullar [pic]to mew / to miaow
reír [pic]to laugh / to guffaw
rezongar [pic]to grumble
rugir [pic]to roar / to howl / to rumble
sobresalir [pic]to project / to protrude / to stand out
sudar [pic]to sweat / to perspire
susurrar [pic]to whisper / to murmur / to sigh / to rustle
temblar [pic]to shiver / to shake / to tremble / to twitch
toser [pic]to cough
trotar [pic]to trot
vociferar [pic]to shout / to vociferate / to scream
volar [pic]to fly
zozobrar [pic]to founder / to capsize
4) verbos pseudo-impersonales:
bastar
caber
convenir ( Me conviene quedarme en casa hoy.
disgustar
divertir
encantar
faltar
gustar
importar
impresionar
interesar
molestar
ocurrir
ofender
parecer
pasar
sobrar
Oraciones compuestas (esquemas sintácticos)
1. Oración compuesta coordinada
1. consecutivas
2. copulativas
3. adversativas
4. disyuntivas
5. explicativas
2. Oración compuesta subordinada
1. sustantivas
2. adjetivas (relativas)
3. adverbiales
1. de tiempo
2. de lugar
3. de modo
4. de comparación
4. lógicas
1. de causa
2. de consecuencia
3. de concesión
4. de finalidad
5. de condición
Nexos conjuntivos: el sistema
1) conjunciones:
a. conjunciones coordinantes (coordinativas):
i. consecutivas (una frase es el resultado de la otra):
con que…
luego…
así que…
ii. copulativas:
y (e) …
ni…
que…
iii. adversativas:
mas…
pero…
aunque…
sin embargo…
empero…
con todo…
no obstante…
más bien…
excepto…
salvo…
menos…
antes bien…
al contrario…
iv. disyuntivas:
o (u)…
o bien…
v. explicativas:
o sea…
esto es…
es decir…
mejor dicho…
es más…
vi. distributivas:
o…, o…
tanto…, como…
b. conjunciones subordinantes (subordinativas):
i. subordinadas sustantivas: que
ii. subordinadas adjetivas: cual
iii. subordinadas adverbiales:
de tiempo ( cuando… ( mientras… ( después de que… ( antes de que…
de lugar ( donde… ( adonde… ( por donde… ( en donde… ( desde donde…
de modo ( como… ( según… ( conforme… ( como si… ( de la forma que… ( de la manera que… ( del modo que…
de comparación ( tan… como… ( más… que… ( menos… que…
iv. lógicas:
de causa ( porque…
de consecuencia ( así que… ( por tanto… ( pues… ( conque… ( así pues… ( de forma que… ( de manera que... ( de modo que… ( de suerte que…
de concesión ( aunque… ( por más que… ( a pesar de que... ( con + inf ( pese a que…
de finalidad ( para que… ( a fin de que... ( con el cometido de que… ( con la intención de que… ( con el propósito de que… ( a fin de + inf
de condición ( si ( caso que… ( en el caso de que… ( de + inf ( como...
2) giros conjuntivos (frases de infinitivo):
a. al + inf = cuando + v conjugado: Al entrar en la habitación vio a su mujer.
b. por + inf = porque + v conjugado: Por venir tarde, no obtuvo nada.
c. con + inf = aunque + v conjugado: Con trabajar tanto no pasó el examen.
d. de + inf = si + v conjugado: De llover hoy no iremos a la playa.
e. para + inf = para que + v conjugado: He venido para decírtelo.
3) predicativos absolutos
a. gerundio / participio…, {oración principal}
Concluido el negocio, salieron de la sala.
Abriendo yo la puerta, se produjo el apagón. [pic]...power cut / blackout.
b. adj / participio en trance de gramaticalización:
salvo…
excepto…
incluso…
supuesto…
dado…
4) adverbios conjuntivos:
cuando…
mientras…
donde…
como…
5) pronombres conjuntivos:
que…
quien(es) …
el / la / los / las cuales…
6) locuciones conjuntivas:
de manera que…
así que…
a fin de…
por más que…
pese a que…
antes de que…
después de que…
7) conjunciones correlativas:
hasta tal punto…, que…
Nexos conjuntivos: la lista (un conjunto cerrado)
▪ a fin de + inf
▪ a fin de que... [pic]in order to / so as to
▪ a menos que... [pic]unless
▪ a no ser que... [pic]unless
▪ a pesar de que... [pic]in spite of / even though
▪ a pesar de todo… [pic]despite everything
▪ adonde…
▪ ahora bien… [pic]however
▪ al + inf = cuando + v conjugado
▪ al contrario…
▪ antes bien…
▪ antes de que… [pic]before
▪ así como… [pic](in the same way) as
▪ así pues… [pic]so
▪ así que… [pic]so
▪ aun cuando… [pic]even though
▪ aunque…
▪ bien…
▪ caso que…
▪ como…
▪ como si… [pic]as if...
▪ con + inf = aunque + v conjugado
▪ con el cometido de que…
▪ con el propósito de que…
▪ con la intención de que…
▪ con que…
▪ con todo… [pic]all the same / even so
▪ conforme… [pic]as
▪ conque… [pic]so
▪ cual…
▪ cuando…
▪ dado que… [pic]given that...
▪ de + inf = si + v conjugado
▪ de forma que…
▪ de la forma que…
▪ de la manera que…
▪ de manera que... [pic]so (that)...
▪ de modo que… [pic]so...
▪ de suerte que…
▪ del modo que… [pic]in such a way
▪ desde donde… [pic]from where
▪ desde que… [pic]since
▪ después (de) que… [pic]after
▪ después de todo… [pic]after everything
▪ donde…
▪ el / la / los / las cuales…
▪ empero…
▪ en cuanto a… [pic]as for
▪ en donde…
▪ en efecto… [pic]as a result
▪ en el caso de que…
▪ en tanto que… [pic]during
▪ en vista de que… [pic]in that case / for that reason / on account of that
▪ entretanto… [pic]meanwhile / in the meantime
▪ es decir… [pic]that’s to say
▪ es más…
▪ esto es… [pic]i.e.
▪ excepto…
▪ hasta que… [pic]up to
▪ hasta tal punto…, que…
▪ luego…
▪ luego que… [pic]as soon as
▪ más bien…
▪ mas…
▪ más… que…
▪ mejor dicho…
▪ menos…
▪ menos… que…
▪ mientras…
▪ mientras tanto… [pic]whereas
▪ ni…
▪ ni…, ni…
▪ no bien… [pic]as soon as
▪ no obstante… [pic]however
▪ o (u)…
▪ o…, o…
▪ ora…, ora…
▪ para + inf = para que + v conjugado
▪ para que… [pic]in order to
▪ pero…
▪ pese a que…
▪ por + inf = porque + v conjugado
▪ por consiguiente… [pic]on account of that
▪ por cuanto… [pic]inasmuch as
▪ por donde…
▪ por ende… [pic]therefore
▪ por eso… [pic]that’s why
▪ por lo demás… [pic]otherwise / for the rest
▪ por lo tanto… [pic]so / therefore
▪ por más que…
▪ por mucho que… [pic]however...
▪ por si… [pic]in case
▪ por tanto… [pic]so / therefore
▪ porque…
▪ pues…
▪ pues bien… [pic]well then
▪ puesto que… [pic]since
▪ que…
▪ quien(es) …
▪ salvo…
▪ sea…, sea…
▪ según…
▪ si…
▪ siempre que… [pic]whenever
▪ sin embargo… [pic]however
▪ sino…
▪ siquiera… [pic]at least
▪ sólo que
▪ es que… [pic]the fact is that
▪ supuesto que… [pic]since / inasmuch that
▪ tan…, como…
▪ tan pronto como… [pic]as soon as
▪ tanto…, como…
▪ y (e)…
▪ ya…, ya… = [pic]now..., now...
5.1.3.2. Oraciones compuestas coordinadas[320]
Las conjunciones coordinadas:
y (e)
o (u)
ni
pero
mas
sino
pues
luego
así
conque
entonces
Las locuciones coordinadas:
ahora bien [pic]however
a pesar de todo [pic]despite / in spite of everything
así que [pic]so
así pues [pic]so
en efecto [pic]in fact / as a result
en vista de que [pic]in view of the fact that
es decir [pic]i.e. / that's to say
esto es [pic]i.e. / that's to say
no obstante [pic]nevertheless / nonetheless
por consiguiente [pic]consequently
por eso [pic]that's why
por lo demás [pic]apart from that / otherwise
por lo tanto [pic]that's why
por ende [pic]therefore
por tanto [pic]therefore
pues bien [pic]well then
puesto que [pic]since
sin embargo [pic]however / nevertheless
sólo que [pic]but
es que [pic]the fact is that
Las oraciones compuestas coordinadas:
1. copulativas (
Él vive más lejos que tú y llega puntual.
Antes no tenía dinero y ahora no tiene salud.
2. adversativas (
Me gustaría ir, pero estoy cansado.
Es español, pero no le gustan los toros.
3. disyuntivas (
Bien contigo, bien sin ti, haré el viaje.
Sea tu amigo, sea tu enemigo, respétalo.
Que quiera que no quiera, tendrá que ayudarnos.
4. explicativas (
Se vendían también, o por lo menos se exhibían, peces estrafalarios.
5. consecutivas[321] (
Él no estuvo allí, conque no puede saberlo.
Hacía tal calor que no pudimos dormir.
Yo no estuve allí; por eso, no puedo hablar.
Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas
(Las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas de sujeto
Que vengas un poco antes o un poco después no tiene importancia.
(Las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas de complemento
No sabe que / si estoy todavía aquí.
Te expones a que se enfade.
Oraciones subordinadas relativas
(conjunciones relativas / pronombres relativos: que ( cuyo/a(s) ( quien(es) ( cual(es) ( cuanto/a(s)
Te presento al amigo de cuyos méritos te hablé. [pic]May I present you the friend the merits of whom I told you about.
El trabajo que me propones no me conviene. [pic]The job you are offering me doesn't suit me.
El museo que quisiera visitar es muy famoso. [pic]The museum I'd like to visit is very famous.
El asunto de que me hablas, ya lo conozco. [pic]I already know the matter you're talking about.
El hombre a quien te dirigiste resultó ser el mismo director. [pic]The man you'd talked to turned out to be the director.
Quien sabe mejor soy yo. [pic]I am the one who knows best.
Hay quienes no son tan enterados como tú. [pic]There some who are not so well informed as you are.
El puente bajo el cual había pasado tantas veces se derribó. [pic]The bridge beneath which I had passed so many times collapsed.
Esa mujer para la cual desistí de una prometedora carrera me dejó apenas nos conocimos. [pic]Hardly had we met when the woman I gave up / sacrificed my promising career walked out on me.
¿Quién es el hombre al que me presentaste? [pic]Who is the person you presented me to?
Lo que has dicho es muy interesante. [pic]What you've said is really interesting.
Dime lo que piensas. [pic]Tell me what you think.
Cual (es) el padre, tal (es) el hijo. [pic]Like father, like son.
Hay que vender cuanto se pueda. [pic]Everything possible should be sold.
Todos cuantos lo sabían guardaban silencio. [pic]Everybody who knew about it stayed silent.
Oraciones subordinadas adverbiales
(Las oraciones subordinadas adverbiales temporales
(conjunciones temporales: cuando ( mientras ( entretanto
Yo descansaba mientras todos trabajaban. [pic]I was having a rest while everybody else was working.
Mientras no te arregles no salimos. [pic]We shan't go out unless you have tidied / spruced yourself up.
Hablaremos cuando termine de atender al cliente. [pic]We'll talk as soon as I have finished serving the client.
Yo estaba muy intranquilo y no podía hacer otra cosa que dar vueltas, entretanto los demás parecían quietos como si no hubiera pasado nada. [pic]I was very restless and couldn't stay motionless, whereas the others seemed very quiet as if nothing had happened.
(Las oraciones subordinadas adverbiales de lugar[322]
(conjunciones: donde
Aquí es donde ocurrió la catástrofe.
(Las oraciones subordinadas adverbiales de modo[323]
(conjunciones de modo: como ( según ( conforme ( como si ( de la forma que ( de la manera que ( del modo que
Nos comíamos las patatas según las iban sacando de la sartén.
Según que haga frío o calor me pondré un traje u otro.
Te lo advertí a tiempo, de manera que no puedes echarme a mí la culpa.
Hazlo del modo que más te guste.
(Las oraciones subordinadas adverbiales de comparación
(conjunciones de comparación: tan… como… ( más… que… ( menos… que…
No será tan insensato que rechace esa oferta.
Juega más que estudia.
Oraciones subordinadas (lógicas) causales
(conjunciones causales: porque ( como
No voy porque no quiero. [pic]I'm not going because I don't want to.
Como no cumple con los requisitos, lo borramos de la lista. [pic]As he doesn't comply with the requirements, he'll be crossed off the list.
Oraciones subordinadas (lógicas) consecutivas
(conjunciones consecutivas: conque ( luego ( así que ( de forma que ( de manera que ( de modo que ( de suerte que
Ya se ha terminado, conque podemos irnos. [pic]As we've finished we can go.
Él no estuvo allí, conque no puede saberlo. [pic]He wasn't there so he can't know about it.
No te necesito para nada: de forma que no te molestes.
Oraciones subordinadas (lógicas) concesivas
(conjunciones concesivas: aunque ( siquiera ( a pesar de que ( pese a que
Aunque eres muy joven, te recomendaré para ese puesto. [pic]Although you are very young I'll recommend you for the post / job.
Aunque haga buen tiempo desistimos de la excursión. [pic]Although the weather is nice, we(‘ll) give up the trip.
Oraciones subordinadas (lógicas) finales
(conjunciones finales: a fin de que ( para que ( con el cometido de que ( con el propósito de que
Hemos venido a fin de hacerlo.
Vengo a / para despedirme.
Le riño para que se enmiende. [pic]I'm telling him off so that he will make better progress.
Oraciones subordinadas (lógicas) condicionales
(conjunciones condicionales: si ( a menos que ( a no ser que ( como si ( siempre que ( a condición de que ( caso que ( en el caso de que ( como
{si + presente del indicativo / perfecto del indicativo} + {presente del indicativo / futuro del indicatico / imperativo}
Si continúas trabajando así te echarán.
Si no me dices la verdad te mato.
Te lo diré si me prometes no contárselo a nadie.
Si lo sabe, nos lo dirá.
Si tardas, me marcharé sin ti.
Si no ha escrito, piensa volver pronto.
{si + imperfecto del subjuntivo / imperfecto del indicativo} + {condicional simple / imperfecto del indicativo / imperfecto del subjuntivo}
Si tuviera más tiempo, escribiría poesías.
Si fuese posible, me gustaría quedarme aquí unos días más.
Si tenía más tiempo, escribiría poesías.
Si tuviera más tiempo, escribía poesías.
Si tuviera más tiempo, escribiera poesías.
{si + pluscuamperfecto del subjuntivo} + {condicional compuesto / pluscuamperfecto del subjuntivo}
Si no me hubieran detenido en casa, habría estado aquí mucho antes.
Si no se hubiera dado prisa hubiera perdido el tren.
{otros casos}
Te dejaré mi coche a condición de que lo trates bien.
Me alegro tanto como si me lo hubiesen dado a mí.
No vendré esta tarde, a menos que me necesitéis para algo.
No vengas, a menos que vengas a ayudar (= No vengas si no vienes a ayudar).
Te llevaré conmigo siempre que me prometas ser formal.
( ( (
5.2. Synoptic Model of the Portuguese Language
5.2.1. Diacritic (Phonic) Level of the Portuguese Language
The phonetic system of the Portuguese language is composed of:
▪ 9 oral vowels:
[a], [ɐ], [ɛ], [e], [ɨ], [i], [ɔ], [o], [u];
▪ 5 nasal vowels:
[ɐ̃], [ẽ], [ĩ], [õ], [ũ];
▪ 2 semivowels:
[j], [w];
▪ and 20 consonants:
[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [l], [ɫ], [λ], [m], [n], [ɲ], [ɾ], [ʀ], ([r] [β], [δ], [γ]).
Altogether there are 36 phones.
Tab. 5.6. The system of Portuguese vowels
| | |Palatal=Front |Central |Velar=Back |
| | |Oral |Nasal |Oral |Nasal |Oral |Nasal |
|High |Close |[i] |[ĩ] |[ɨ] | |[u] |[ũ̃] | |
|Plosive |V-less |[p] |
|front |i – ĩ – y | |
All these vowels might[328] be described in a very objective and precise way with the use of the vocalic quadrilateral presented in Subsection 2.2.1 (Pic. 2.9⇧); for example, the French vowel [y] would symbolised by the pair of numbers (1;13), and the Portuguese [ɨ] – by (8;13). The common part of the vocalic phones of these four languages is shown in Pic. 5.2⇩.
Pic. 5.2. The common part of the vocalic phones of spn, frn, por and itn
In four Neo-Latin languages – Spanish, Portuguese, French and Italian – there are five common vocalic phones ([a], [ɛ], [e], [o] and [ɔ]); one phone is common for Spanish and French; and there are seven phones exclusive to Portuguese, and six – exclusive to French.
The consonantal phones are more numerous than the vocalic ones:
1) the common set for all the four languages: [p,b,m,ɱ,f,t,d,n,ɲ,ŋ,k,g,s,z,l,j,w];
2) the common set for frn and por and itn: [v,ʃ];
3) the common set for spn and por and itn: [λ,ɾ];
4) the common set for por and frn: [ʃ,ʒ];
5) the common set for spn and itn: [ʧ];
6) the exclusive set for spn: [r,β,δ,γ,sL,zL,x,(ʝ)];
7) the exclusive set for itn: [ʦ,ʣ,ʤ];
8) the exclusive set for frn: [ʁ,ɥ];
9) the exclusive set for por: [ʀ,Ɨ].
Tab. 5.10. The consonantal grid of some selected Neo-Latin languages[329]
|CONSON|PLACE |Bilabial |Labio-dental |
|ANTAL | | | |
|GRID | | | |
| |General number |Germanic language |
| |(GN) | |
| | |English meaning |English |
| | |no | |
| |1. |2. |3. |
| |1. |1. |ability |
| |2. |2. |abrogation |
| |3. |3. |absence |
| |4. |4. |absent |
| |5. |5. |absolute |
| |6. |6. |absurdity |
| |7. |7. |accept |
| |8. |8. |acceptable |
| |9. |9. |accident |
| |10. | | |
| |11. |10. |account |
| |12. | | |
| |13. |11. |accusation |
| |14. |12. |ache [=pain] |
| |15. | | |
| |16. | | |
| |17. |1. |Explanation |
| |18. |13. |acid |
| |19. |14. |acquisition |
| |20. |15. |absolution |
| |21. | |(acquittal) |
Tab. 5.12. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (2)
| | | | |
| | |Slavonic language | |
| |Polish |Polski = Polish |grammatical |
| |meaning | |category |
| |No | | |
| |4. |5. |6. |
|1. |1. |zdolność; umiejętność |n |
|2. |2. |uchylenie; anulowanie |n |
|3. |3. |nieobecność; brak |n |
|4. |4. |nieobecny; brakujący |adj |
|5. |5. |absolutny |adj |
|6. |6. |absurdalność |n |
|7. |7. |zaakceptować |v |
|8. |8. |mile widziany; możliwy do przyjęcia |adj |
|9. |9. |wypadek |n |
|10. |10. |przypadek | |
|11. |11. |konto; rachunek |n |
|12. |12. |wytłumaczenie; powód; wzgląd | |
|13. |13. |oskarżenie |n |
|14. |14. |ból |n |
|15. |15. |boleć |v |
|16. | | | |
|17. | | | |
|18. |16. |kwas |n |
|19. |17. |nabytek; nabycie; akwizycja |n |
|20. |18. |uniewinnienie |n |
|21. | | | |
Tab. 5.13. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (3)
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| |Neo-Latin languages | |
| |Español = Spanish |Ending |
| | | |
| |7. |8. |
|1. |habilidad [f] |~dad |
|2. |abrogación [f] |~ción |
|3. |absencia [f] |~cia |
|4. |absente |abs~ |
|5. |absoluto/a |~o/a |
|6. |absurdidad [f] |~dad |
|7. |aceptar |~cep~ |
|8. |acceptable |~able |
|9. |accidente [m] |~te |
|10. | |~cc~ |
|11. |cuenta [f] |~a |
|12. | |~ue~ |
|13. |acusación [f] |~ción |
|14. |dolor [m] |~or |
|15. | | |
|16. |doler |~er |
|17. |The blue font means: 'This word is of Latin origin'[332] |
|18. |ácido [m] |~o |
|19. |adquisición [f] |~ción |
|20. |absolución [f] |~ción |
|21. | | |
Tab. 5.14. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (4)
| | | |
| |Neo-Latin languages |
| |Português = Portuguese |Ending |
| | |
| |9. |10. |
|1. |habilidade [f] |~dade |
|2. |abrogação [f] |~ção |
|3. |ausência [f] |~cia |
|4. |ausente |aus~ |
|5. |absoluto/a [ɐbsulutu] |~o/a |
|6. |absurdidade [f] |~dade |
|7. |aceitar |~cei~ |
|8. |aceitável [ɐsɐjˡtavɛɫ] |~ável |
|9. |acidente [m] |~te |
|10. | |~c~ |
|11. |conta [f] |~a |
|12. | |~o~ |
|13. |acusação [f] |~ção |
|14. |dor [f] |~or |
|15. | | |
|16. |doer |~er |
|17. | | |
|18. |ácido [m] |~o |
|19. |aquisição [ɐkɨzisɐ̃̃w] [f] |~ção |
|20. |absolvição [f] |~ção |
|21. | | |
Tab. 5.15. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (5)
| | | | | |
| |Neo-Latin languages |
| |Français = French |Ending |Neo-Latin meaning |Differences |
| | | |(A) | |
| | | | | |
| |11. |12. |13. |14. |
|1. |habilité [f] [1365] |~té |1. | |
|2. |abrogation [f] [1354] |~tion |2. | |
|3. |absence [f] [1370] |~ce |3. | |
|4. |absent(e) [fin XIIIe s.] |abs~ |4. | |
|5. |absolu(e) [1080] |~X/e |5. | |
|6. |absurdité [f] [XIVe s.] |~té |6. | |
|7. |accepter [XIIIe s.] |~ccep~ |7. | |
|8. |acceptable [1170] |~able |8. | |
|9. |accident [m] [1170] |~t |9. | |
|10. | |~cc~ | | |
|11. |compte [f] ['cunte'; 'compte', fin XIIIe s.] |~e |10. | |
|12. | |~o~ | | |
|13. |accusation [f] [1275] |~tion |11. | |
|14. |douleur [f] ['dolur', 1050] |~eur |12. | |
|15. |avoir mal ['se douloir', jusqu'à la fin du XIXe s.] | |1. |
|16. | |13. |1. |
|17. |The blue background means: 'This is of Latin origin'. | |
|18. |acide [1545, à propos d'un fruit] |~e |14. | |
|19. |acquisition [f] [1283] |~tion |15. | |
|20. |absolution [f] [1172] |~tion |16. | |
|21. |acquittement [m] [XIIIe s.] |~ment | | |
Tab. 5.16. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (6)
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| |lingua Latina |Latin origin |
| | |no |
| |15. |16. |
|1. |habilitas [f] < habilis |1. |
|2. |abrogatio, abrogationis [f] < abrogare |2. |
|3. |absentia, absentiae [f] < abesse |3. |
|4. |absens, absentis |4. |
|5. |absolut(i)us |5. |
|6. |absurditas [f] |6. |
|7. |acceptare < accipere |7. |
|8. |acceptabilis |8. |
|9. |accidens, accidentis [n] |9. |
|10. | | |
|11. |computus [m] < computare |10. |
|12. | | |
|13. |accusatio, accusationis [f] |11. |
|14. |dolor, doloris [m] |12. |
|15. |dolere |13. |
|16. | | |
|17. | | |
|18. |acidus [m] |14. |
|19. |acquisitio, acquisitionis |15. |
|20. |absolutio / absolvere < absolvere |16. |
|21. |quitare / quitus < quietus |17. |
Tab. 5.17. The synoptic lexicon of some Neo-Latin languages (7)
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| |Other Neo-Latin languages… | |
| |Italiano = Italian |Ending | |
| | | | |
| |19. |20. | |
|1. |abilità [f] |~tà | |
|2. |abrogazione [f] |~zione | |
|3. |assenza [f] |~za | |
|4. |assente |asse~ | |
|5. |assoluto/a |~o/a | |
|6. |assurdità [f] |~tà | |
|7. |accettare |~ccet~ | |
|8. |accettabile |~abile | |
|9. |accidente [m] |~te | |
|10. | |~cc~ | |
|11. |conto [m] |~o | |
|12. | |~o~ | |
|13. |accusa [f] |~a | |
|14. |dolore [m] |~ore | |
|15. |fare male | | |
|16. |dolere |~ere | |
|17. | | | |
|18. |acido [m] |~o | |
|19. |acquisizione [f] |~zione | |
|20. |assoluzione [f] |~zione | |
|21. | | | |
5.3.3. Syntactic Stratum of the Neo-Latin Languages
The syntactic stratum of some selected Neo-Latin languages has been described and synoptically analysed in: Wahl, P.; 2010.
Clauses[333]
1.
[pic]Estos estudiantes son inteligentes.
[pic]Estes estudantes são inteligentes.
[pic]Ces étudiants sont intelligents.
[pic]These students are intelligent.
2.
[pic]Los amigos permanecieron silenciosos.
[pic]Os amigos permaneceram silenciosos.
[pic]Les amis sont restés silencieux.
[pic]The friends kept silence.
3.
[pic]Tengo muchos amigos.
[pic]Tenho muitos amigos.
[pic]J’ai beaucoup d’amis.
[pic]I have a lot of friends.
4.
[pic]Te diré la verdad.
[pic]Te direi a verdade.
[pic]Je te dirai la verité.
[pic]I’ll tell you the truth.
5.
[pic]Aristóteles enseñó la Gramática a Alejandro.
[pic]Aristóteles ensinou a Gramática ao Alexandre.
[pic]Aristote a enseigné (enseigna) la grammaire à Alexandre.
[pic]Aristotle taught Alexander the Grammar (the Grammar to Alexander).
6.
[pic]Corrí cinco kilómetros.
[pic]Corri cinco quilómetros.
[pic]Je suis couru (courus [passé simple]) cinq kilomètres.
[pic]I have run (I ran) five kilometres.
7.
[pic]Entregó algo a Pablo.
[pic]Entregou alguma coisa ao Paulo.
[pic](Il /Elle) a remis quelque chose à Paul.
[pic](S)he handed something to Paul.
8.
[pic]La herida le ardía mucho.
[pic]A ferida ardia-lhe muito.
[pic]La blessure le / la brûlait beaucoup.
[pic]The wound hurt (burnt) him / her a lot.
9.
[pic]Le pareció magnífico.
[pic]Pareceu-lhe magnífico.
[pic]Cela le paraissait [imparfait] (le parut [passé simple] / l’a paru [passé composé]) magnifique.
[pic]It seemed magnificient to him / her.
10.
[pic]Llueve. / (Está lloviendo.)
[pic]Chove. / (Está a chover. / Está chovendo.)
[pic]Il pleut.
[pic]It rains. / It is raining
11.
[pic]Hay cuatro libros sobre la mesa.
[pic]Se hace tarde.
[pic]Há quatro livros sobre a mesa.
[pic]Faz-se tarde.
[pic]Il y a quatre livres sur la table.
[pic]Il se fait tard.
[pic]There are four books on the table.
[pic]It’s getting late.
12.
[pic]Sus abuelos ya no viven. [[pic]his / her / their]
[pic]Os seus avós já não vivem. [[pic]his / her / their]
[pic]Os avós dele / dela / deles / delas…
[pic]Ses grands-parents ne vivent plus. [[pic]his / her / their]
[pic]Leurs grands-parents ne vivent plus. [[pic]their]
[pic]Her / his / their grandparents do not live any longer.
13.
[pic]Vamos a la playa.
[pic]Vamos à praia.
[pic]Allons-nous à la plage.
[pic]Let’s go to the beach.
14.
[pic]Los perros ladran.
[pic]Os cãos ladram (latem).
[pic]Les chiens aboyent.
[pic]Dogs bark.
15.
[pic]Me falta dinero.
[pic]Falta-me dinheiro.
[pic]Il me manque d’argent.
[pic]I don’t have enough money.
[pic]
Compound Sentences[334] – [pic]Orationes compositae cum partibus aequivalentibus
1.
[pic]Antes no tenía dinero y ahora no tiene salud.
[pic]Antes não tinha dinheiro e agora não tem saúde.
[pic]Avant il n’avait pas d’argent et maintenant il n’a pas de santé.
[pic]Before he didn’t have money and now he doesn’t have health.
2.
[pic]Me gustaría ir, pero estoy cansado.
[pic](Eu) gostaria de ir, mas estou cansado.
[pic]Ça me plairait d’aller (Je voudrais aller), mais je suis fatigué.
[pic]I’d like to go, but I’m tired.
3.
[pic]Ora le va a matar la enfermedad, ora será el médico.
O será él, o seré yo.
[pic]Ou a doença vai matá-lo, ou será o médico.
Ou será ele, ou serei eu.
[pic]Ou la maladie vous tuera, ou ce sera le médecin.
Ou c’est lui, ou c’est moi.
[pic]Either the illness will kill you, or it’ll be the doctor.
Either he or me.
4.
[pic]Debemos reducir el personal, que quiere decir que el paro puede aumentar.
[pic]Devemos reduzir o pessoal, que quer dizer que o desemprego pode aumentar.
[pic]Nous devons réduire le personnel, c’est-à-dire que le chômage peut augmenter.
[pic]We’ve got to reduce the staff, which means that the unemployment might increase.
5.
[pic]Él no estuvo allí, conque no puede saberlo.
[pic]Ele não esteve ali, logo não pode sabê-lo.
[pic]Il n’était pas là, il ne peut donc pas le savoir.
[pic]He wasn’t there, so he cannot know it.
Complex Sentences – [pic]Orationes compositae cum partibus non aequivalentibus
1.
[pic]Me parece que él ya ha partido.
[pic]Parece-me que ele já partiu.
[pic]Il me semble qu’il est déjà parti.
[pic]It seems to me that he has already left.
([pic]Hay que hacerlo.)
([pic]É preciso fazê-lo.)
([pic]Il faut le faire.)
([pic]It should be done.)
2.
[pic]Dudo que ustedes digan la verdad.
[pic]Duvido que os senhores digam a verdade.
[pic]Je doute que vous disiez la vérité.
[pic]I doubt whether you are telling the truth.
3.
[pic]Busco un obrero que conozca este trabajo.
[pic]Procuro um operário que conheça esse trabalho.
[pic]Je cherche un ouvrier qui connaisse ce travail.
[pic]I’m looking for a worker who would know this job.
4. [pic]Time clause
[pic]Cuando ustedes hayan terminado, podrán irse.
[pic]Quando vocês tiverem terminado, poderão sair.
[pic]Quand vous aurez fini vous pourrez partir.
[pic]When you’ve finished, you’ll be allowed to leave.
5. [pic]Time clause
[pic]No hable usted antes de que él haya terminado.
Vete antes de que cambie yo de idea.
[pic]Não fale antes que ele tiver terminado.
Vai-te antes que mudar eu de opinião.
[pic]Ne parlez pas avant qu’il ait fini / qu’il n’ait fini.
Va-t’en avant que je change d’avis.
[pic]Don’t talk until he has finished.
Go away before I change my mind.
6. [pic]Other adverbial clauses
[pic]Él hizo como quiso.
[pic]Ele fez como quis.
[pic]Il a fait comme il a voulu.
[pic]He did as he wanted.
7.
[pic]No salí porque llovía.
[pic]Não saí porque chovia.
[pic]Je ne suis pas sorti parce qu’il pleuvait.
[pic]I didn’t go out because it was raining.
8.
[pic]Trabaja tanto que siempre es el primero.
[pic]Trabalha tanto que sempre é o primeiro.
[pic]Il travaille tant qu’il est toujours (le) premier.
[pic]He works so much that he is always the first.
9.
[pic]Aunque sea tarde terminaré este trabajo.
[pic]Embora seja tarde terminarei esse trabalho.
[pic]Quoiqu’il soit tard, je terminerai ce travail.
[pic]Although it’s late, I’ll finish this job.
10.
[pic]Pongan (aquí) estos cuadernos para que se los pueda ver mejor.
[pic]Ponham (aqui) essos cadernos para que se possa / se puder vê-los melhor.
[pic]Mettez ces cahiers afin qu’on les voie mieux.
[pic]Put these exercise books (here), so that they may be seen better.
11.
[pic]Si llegas bastante temprano, iremos verlo juntos.
[pic]Se chegas suficientemente cedo, iremos vê-lo juntos.
[pic]Si tu arrives assez tôt, nous irons le voir ensemble.
[pic]If you come early enough, we’ll go together to see it.
12.
[pic]No comería tanto, si no tuviera hambre.
[pic]Não comeria tanto, se não tivesse fome.
[pic]Il ne mangerait pas tant, s’il n’avait pas faim.
[pic]He wouldn’t eat so much, if he weren’t hungry.
13.
[pic]Si hubiera hecho buen tiempo ayer, habría salido.
[pic]Se tivesse feito bom tempo ontem, eu teria saído.
[pic]S’il avait fait beau hier, je serais sorti.
[pic]If the weather had been nice yesterday, I would have gone out.
[pic]
Texts[335]
[pic]Matthaeus 25:14-30
14
[pic]El reino de los cielos será también como un hombre que, al emprender un viaje, llamó a sus siervos y les encargó sus bienes.
[pic]Porque é assim como um homem que, ausentando-se do país, chamou os seus servos e lhes entregou os seus bens:
[pic]Il en sera comme d'un homme qui partit pour un voyage: il convoqua ses serviteurs et leur confia l'administration de ses biens.
[pic]Again, it will be like a man going on a journey, who called his servants and entrusted his property to them.
[pic]sicut enim homo proficiscens vocavit servos suos et tradidit illis bona sua
15
[pic]A uno le dio cinco mil monedas de oro, a otro dos mil y a otro sólo mil, a cada uno según su capacidad. Luego se fue de viaje.
[pic]a um deu cinco talentos, a outro dois, e a outro um, a cada um segundo a sua capacidade; e seguiu viagem.
[pic]Il remit à l'un cinq lingots, à un autre deux, et à un troisième un seul, en tenant compte des capacités personnelles de chacun. Puis il s'en alla.
[pic]To one he gave five talents of money, to another two talents, and to another one talent, each according to his ability. Then he went on his journey.
[pic]et uni dedit quinque talenta alii autem duo alii vero unum unicuique secundum propriam virtutem et profectus est statim
16
[pic]Él que había recibido las cinco mil fue en seguida y negoció con ellas y ganó otras cinco mil.
[pic]O que recebera cinco talentos foi imediatamente negociar com eles, e ganhou outros cinco;
[pic]Celui qui avait reçu les cinq lingots se mit sans tarder à les faire fructifier, de sorte qu'il en gagna cinq autres.
[pic]The man who had received the five talents went at once and put his money to work and gained five more.
[pic]abiit autem qui quinque talenta acceperat et operatus est in eis et lucratus est alia quinque
17
[pic]Así mismo, él que recibió dos mil ganó otras dos mil.
[pic]da mesma sorte, o que recebera dois ganhou outros dois;
[pic]Celui qui en avait reçu deux fit de même et en gagna deux autres.
[pic]So also, the one with the two talents gained two more.
[pic]similiter qui duo acceperat lucratus est alia duo
18
[pic]Pero él que había recibido mil fue, cavó un hoyo en la tierra y escondió el dinero de su señor.
[pic]mas o que recebera um foi e cavou na terra e escondeu o dinheiro do seu senhor.
[pic]Quant à celui qui n'en avait reçu qu'un, il s'en alla creuser un trou dans la terre pour y cacher l'argent de son maître.
[pic]But the man who had received the one talent went off, dug a hole in the ground and hid his master's money.
[pic]qui autem unum acceperat abiens fodit in terra et abscondit pecuniam domini sui
19
[pic]Después de mucho tiempo volvió el señor de aquellos siervos y arregló cuentas con ellos.
[pic]Ora, depois de muito tempo veio o senhor daqueles servos, e fez contas com eles.
[pic]Longtemps après, le maître de ces serviteurs revint et leur fit rendre compte de leur gérance.
[pic]After a long time the master of those servants returned and settled accounts with them.
[pic]post multum vero temporis venit dominus servorum illorum et posuit rationem cum eis
20
[pic]Él que había recibido las cinco mil monedas llegó con las otras cinco mil. "Señor – dijo –, usted me encargó cinco mil monedas. Mire, he ganado otras cinco mil."
[pic]Então chegando o que recebera cinco talentos, apresentou-lhe outros cinco talentos, dizendo: Senhor, entregaste-me cinco talentos; eis aqui outros cinco que ganhei.
[pic]Celui qui avait reçu les cinq lingots se présenta, apportant les cinq lingots supplémentaires qu'il avait gagnés. «Maître, dit-il, tu m'avais remis cinq lingots, j'en ai gagné cinq autres. Les voici.»
[pic]The man who had received the five talents brought the other five. 'Master,' he said, 'you entrusted me with five talents. See, I have gained five more.'
[pic]et accedens qui quinque talenta acceperat obtulit alia quinque talenta dicens domine quinque talenta mihi tradidisti ecce alia quinque superlucratus sum
21
[pic]Su señor le respondió: "¡Hiciste bien, siervo bueno y fiel! En lo poco has sido fiel; te pondré a cargo de mucho más. ¡Ven a compartir la felicidad de tu señor!"
[pic]Disse-lhe o seu senhor: Muito bem, servo bom e fiel; sobre o pouco foste fiel, sobre muito te colocarei; entra no gozo do teu senhor.
[pic]«Très bien, lui dit son maître, tu es un bon serviteur, en qui l'on peut avoir confiance. Tu t'es montré fidèle en peu de choses. C'est pourquoi je t'en confierai de plus importantes. Viens partager la joie de ton maître!»
[pic]His master replied, 'Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master's happiness!'
[pic]ait illi dominus eius euge bone serve et fidelis quia super pauca fuisti fidelis super multa te constituam intra in gaudium domini tui
22
[pic]Llegó también él que recibió dos mil monedas. "Señor – informó –, usted me encargó dos mil monedas. Mire, he ganado otras dos mil."
[pic]Chegando também o que recebera dois talentos, disse: Senhor, entregaste-me dois talentos; eis aqui outros dois que ganhei.
[pic]Celui qui avait reçu les deux lingots se présenta aussi et dit: «Maître, tu m'avais remis deux lingots, j'en ai gagné deux autres. Les voici.»
[pic]The man with the two talents also came. 'Master,' he said, 'you entrusted me with two talents; see, I have gained two more.'
[pic]accessit autem et qui duo talenta acceperat et ait domine duo talenta tradidisti mihi ecce alia duo lucratus sum
23
[pic]Su señor le respondió: "¡Hiciste bien, siervo bueno y fiel! Has sido fiel en lo poco; te pondré a cargo de mucho más. ¡Ven a compartir la felicidad de tu señor!"
[pic]Disse-lhe o seu senhor: Muito bem, servo bom e fiel; sobre o pouco foste fiel, sobre muito te colocarei; entra no gozo do teu senhor.
[pic]«Très bien, lui dit son maître, tu es un bon serviteur, en qui l'on peut avoir confiance. Tu t'es montré fidèle en peu de choses. C'est pourquoi je t'en confierai de plus importantes. Viens partager la joie de ton maître!
[pic]His master replied, 'Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things. Come and share your master's happiness!'
[pic]ait illi dominus eius euge serve bone et fidelis quia super pauca fuisti fidelis supra multa te constituam intra in gaudium domini tui
24
[pic]Después llegó él que había recibido sólo mil monedas. "Señor – explicó –, yo sabía que usted es un hombre duro, que cosecha donde no ha sembrado y recoge donde no ha esparcido."
[pic]Chegando por fim o que recebera um talento, disse: Senhor, eu te conhecia, que és um homem duro, que ceifas onde não semeaste, e recolhes onde não joeiraste;
[pic]Enfin, celui qui n'avait reçu qu'un lingot vint à son tour et dit: «Maître, je savais que tu es un homme dur: tu moissonnes là où tu n'as rien semé, tu récoltes où tu n'as pas répandu de semence.»
[pic]Then the man who had received the one talent came. 'Master,' he said, 'I knew that you are a hard man, harvesting where you have not sown and gathering where you have not scattered seed.'
[pic]accedens autem et qui unum talentum acceperat ait domine scio quia homo durus es metis ubi non seminasti et congregas ubi non sparsisti
25
[pic]Así que tuve miedo, y fui y escondí su dinero en la tierra. Mire, aquí tiene lo que es suyo."
[pic]e, atemorizado, fui esconder na terra o teu talento; eis aqui tens o que é teu.
[pic]Alors, j'ai pris peur et je suis allé cacher ton argent dans la terre. Voilà: prends ce qui t'appartient.»
[pic]So I was afraid and went out and hid your talent in the ground. See, here is what belongs to you.'
[pic]et timens abii et abscondi talentum tuum in terra ecce habes quod tuum est
26
[pic]Pero su señor le contestó: "¡Siervo malo y perezoso! ¿Así que sabías que cosecho donde no he sembrado y recojo donde no he esparcido?"
[pic]Ao que lhe respondeu o seu senhor: Servo mau e preguiçoso, sabias que ceifo onde não semeei, e recolho onde não joeirei?
[pic]Mais son maître lui répondit: «Vaurien! Fainéant! Tu savais que je moissonne là où je n'ai rien semé et que je récolte là où je n'ai pas répandu de semence!»
[pic]His master replied, 'You wicked, lazy servant! So you knew that I harvest where I have not sown and gather where I have not scattered seed?'
[pic]respondens autem dominus eius dixit ei serve male et piger sciebas quia meto ubi non semino et congrego ubi non sparsi
27
[pic]Pues debías haber depositado mi dinero en el banco, para que a mi regreso lo hubiera recibido con intereses.
[pic]Devias então entregar o meu dinheiro aos banqueiros e, vindo eu, tê-lo-ia recebido com juros.
[pic]Eh bien, tu aurais dû placer mon argent chez les banquiers et, à mon retour, j'aurais récupéré le capital et les intérêts.
[pic]Well then, you should have put my money on deposit with the bankers, so that when I returned I would have received it back with interest.
[pic]oportuit ergo te mittere pecuniam meam nummulariis et veniens ego recepissem utique quod meum est cum usura
28
[pic]"Quítenle las mil monedas y dénselas al que tiene las diez mil.
[pic]Tirai-lhe, pois, o talento e dai ao que tem os dez talentos.
[pic]Qu'on lui retire donc le lingot et qu'on le donne à celui qui en a déjà dix.»
[pic]Take the talent from him and give it to the one who has the ten talents.
[pic]tollite itaque ab eo talentum et date ei qui habet decem talenta
29
[pic]Porque a todo él que tiene, se le dará más, y tendrá en abundancia. Al que no tiene se le quitará hasta lo que tiene.
[pic]Porque a todo o que tem, dar-se-lhe-á, e terá em abundância; mas ao que não tem, até aquilo que tem ser-lhe-á tirado.
[pic]Car à celui qui a, on donnera encore, et il sera dans l'abondance. Mais à celui qui n'a pas, on ôtera même ce qu'il a.
[pic]For everyone who has will be given more, and he will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what he has will be taken from him.
[pic]omni enim habenti dabitur et abundabit ei autem qui non habet et quod videtur habere auferetur ab eo
30
[pic]Y a ese siervo inútil échenlo afuera, a la oscuridad, donde habrá llanto y rechinar de dientes."
[pic]E lançai o servo inútil nas trevas exteriores; ali haverá choro e ranger de dentes.
[pic]Quant à ce vaurien, jetez-le dans les ténèbres du dehors, où il y aura des pleurs et d'amers regrets.
[pic]And throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.'
[pic]et inutilem servum eicite in tenebras exteriores illic erit fletus et stridor dentium
Most (if not all) possible syntactic constructions of the selected languages have been presented in the above examples. At the same time they – the syntactic constructions – have been juxtaposed so that the similarities and differences between them may be not only visible but highlighted and thus more easily memorised.
( ( (
Chapter 6.
Synoptic Functions
[pic]
Finally, it has been decided to base the Synoptic Analysis (SA) on three types of Synoptic Functions (SFs):
1) the infralingual Synoptic Vertical (↕) Functions (SVFs)[336] that generate a language from its lowest stratum (diacritic) up to its highest stratum (syntactic);
2) the (group→language) Synoptic Oblique (↘) Functions (SOFs)[337] that generate a language out of the group the language belongs to;
3) the interlingual Synoptic Horizontal (↔) Functions (SHFs)[338] that transform one language into another.
The results of all the SFs are Synoptic Models (SMs); the SMs are all constructed within the same format so that they may be synopticised.
The SVFs generating languages may be treated as tools to analyse ethnic languages; thanks to the SVFs it is possible to assemble a language (i.e to put it together) out of its constituent parts, going upwards; and to dismantle it (i.e. to take it to pieces, to factorise it) (back). The raison d’être for the SVFs is rather cognitive; nevertheless, without them the creation of the SHFs would be hardly possible.
The rôle of the SOFs is also supportive, as thanks to them it is easier to construct the SHFs: e.g. if the Latin cluster ~act~ is changed into the Spanish ~ech~ and the Portuguese ~eit~, it becomes evident why the Latin word «factum» gives the Spanish «hecho»[339] and the Portuguese «feito». And vice versa: if there is a Spanish word «leche» (la leche, [fem]) and the Portuguese «leite» (o leite, [masc]), it is almost 100% certain there must have been a Latin word «lac, lactis» [neutrum]. By the way, there is no neuter gender in Spanish and Portuguese, so the Latin neuter gender had to be turned into masculine or feminine genders.
The procedure of assembling a language is inductive, the reverse procedure – dismantling a language – is deductive. The SOFs are usually deductive. There is no analogous term for the procedure used by the SHFs.
The SHFs transforming one language into another may be treated as translating machines (translating black boxes). Speaking more precisely, the SHFs constitute a theoretical basis for computer programmers to write fully operational computer programs to translate one language into another.
All the three types of SFs are not single functions but sets of functions: if a SHF transforms Language A into Language B, it means it transforms:
1) the diacritic (phonic and graphic) stratum of Language A into the diacritic (phonic and graphic) stratum of Language B;
2) the signific stratum of Language A into the signific stratum of Language B;
3) the syntactic (two-level) stratum of Language A into the syntactic (two-level) stratum of Language B [(3a) + (3b)].
6.1. Synoptic Vertical Functions (SVFs)
If the diacritic substantival stratum is phonic, its units are either sounds or phones; if the diacritic substantival stratum is graphic, its units are either letters or graphes. As the sounds have not been described yet so precisely as to operate on them, the only units that may be analysed now are phones, whereas in the case of graphic substance analysing letters seems a more useful procedure. Assembling a language starts with identifying the complete set of the phones of the language that is being analysed, together with its suprasegmentals (the Phonic Set, PS), and the complete set of its letters. Next, we go up to the signific stratum and combine the phones and letters (usually clusters of them) with the semantemes and the resulting combinations are lexemes (Lexical Set, LS) and words (Word Set, WS). Some of the lexemes are words (WS). At the substratum of (simple) clause the lexemes from the Lexical Set are used to build all the possible clause patterns of the language (Simple Syntactic Set, SSS). Having the SSS and the WS it is possible to produce utterances.
The number of the clause patterns is finite (at least for one generation). The Lexical Set keeps changing (and so does the WS), but not too fast so as not to hinder the communication. On the other hand, the number of utterances is really infinite.
At the highest stratum the clause patterns are combined to build (compound and complex) sentence patterns (the Complex Syntactic Set, CSS). And again, their number is limited and may be precisely defined, whereas the number of complex utterances is infinite
The above described procedure may be presented in a mathematicised form as follows:
1) At the diacritic stratum: PS = {p1, p2… pn}; PS = Phonic Set, p = phone; and GS = {g1, g2… gk}, GS = graphic set, g = graphe.
2) At the signific stratum: PS = {p1, p2… pn} is changed (generated) into MS (the set of morphes, morphological set) = {m1, m2… mn}, i.e. p1+p2… = m1, p3+p4…= m2… pn-1+pn = mk; most phonic morphes (mP1, mP2… mPn) are composed of several phones; similarly, the graphes (g) are changed (generated) into graphic morphes (letters): p1+p2… = mG1, p3+p4…= mG2…
pn-1+pn = mGk; so there are phonic morphes (mP) and graphic morphes (mG); for example, por: mporG = {tradu-cao/tradu-ção} and mporP = [tɾɐdu-sɐ̃w]; pql: mpqlG = {milo-sc/miło-ść} and mpqlP = [mjiwo-ɕʨ].
3) Still at ethe signific stratum: the lexical function combines or blends morphes (m) with semantemes (s); Flex = (m1, s1), (m2, s2)… (mn, sn) = l1, l2… ln; Flex = Lexical Function; m1 = morphes 1; m2 = morphes 2… ; s1 = semanteme 1; s2 = semanteme 2…; l1 = lexeme 1…; LS = {l1, l2… ln}; LS = lexical set, the set of lexemes; for example, por: [pic] = ([pic];[pic]) = ({traducao/tradução} or [tɾɐdusɐ̃w] + ) and pql: [pic] = ([pic];[pic]) = ({milosc/miłość} or [mjiwoɕʨ] + ); these lexemes[340] are ready-made words (w): [pic] = tradução [tɾɐduˡsɐ̃w] and [pic] = miłość [ˡmjiwoɕʨ] (j means palatalisation).
4) At the simple syntactic stratum (sss), the lexical set (LS) and the word set (WS) are changed (generated) into a (simple) clause pattern set ((S)CPS) and a set of (simple) utterances ((S)US): Fsss(LS) = (S)CPS; (S)CPS = {CP1, CP2… CPn}; CP = clause pattern; and Fsss(WS) = (S)US; (S)US = {(S)U1, (S)U2… (S)Un}; (S)U = (simple) utterance. For example: Fsss(miłość [ˡmjiwo+ɕʨ]LOVE) + (być [ˡbɨʨ]; present, 3rd person singular = [jest]) + (piękny [ˡpjiẽŋknɨ]; feminine: piękny > piękna [ˡpjiẽŋkna]) = Miłość jest piękna .
5) Fcss (CPS) = SPS; SPS = {SP1, SP2… SPn}; SPS = sentence pattern set.
( ( (
6.2. Synoptic Oblique Functions (SOFs)
6.2.1. Diachronic Linguistic Change
In the ninth century Classical Latin was probably a literary language, mainly written, and if spoken it was restricted to a relatively small percentage of the whole Latin-language population, the majority – if not all – of whom spoke a variety of vernacular dialects which might still have been dialects of Latin or already new languages; Vulgar Latin or Sermo Vulgaris (Vulgar Speech) is a blanket term covering all these dialects; and in the ninth century Sermo Vulgaris was in its final phase of development before budding into various separate languages. Vulgar Latin differed from Classical Latin at all the three strata: phonic, signific and syntactic. Vulgar Latin must have started functioning much earlier and what seems the most probable hypothesis is that there had always been a literary standard Latin and its spoken version (as it is in most known languages), and with the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the second half of the fifth century A.D. Vulgar Latin lost contact with its classical literary version, or at least the links between Classical Latin and its spoken regional varieties became much weaker, and each of its regional variety started developing on its own.
‘At the third Council of Tours in 813 [the ninth century], priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language in order to be comprehensible – either the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin now recognisably distinct from the frozen Church Latin) or German. This could be a documented moment of evolution. Within the space of a single human being’s lifetime after the Council of Tours, in 842, the Oaths of Strasbourg, recording an agreement between two of Charlemagne’s heirs[341], were spoken in a Neo-Latin language that was obviously not Latin:
|Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, |For the love of God and for Christendom and our common salvation, from |
|d’ist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si |this day onwards, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall |
|salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in aiudha et in cadhuna |protect this brother of mine Charles, with the aid or anything else, as|
|cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dift, in o quid il me|one ought to protect one’s brother, so that he may do the same for me, |
|alter si fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui, |and I shall never knowingly make any convenant with Lothair that would |
|meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit. |harm this brother of mine Charles.’[342] |
The changes that affect languages at the phonic level may be classified in the following way[343]:
1. Assimilation
1. Place and/or manner of articulation: the Spanish word mismo is pronounced [mizmo], i.e. consonant [s] becomes voiced and converts into [z] in order to be more similar to the next sound [m] which is voiced.
2. Palatalisation: the Latin word centum [kentum] is pronounced in French cent [sɑ̃] and in Italian cento [ʧento]; the Latin word gentum [gentum] is pronounced in French gens [ʒɑ̃], in Italian gente [ʤente], in Spanish gente [xente], and in Portuguese gente [ʒẽtɨ].
3. Nasalisation: the Latin word unum [unum] is pronounced in French un [œ̃] and in Portuguese um [ũ].
4. Umlaut: for example, the plurals of the pre-Old English words gōs and mūs were formed by adding suffix ~i, which changed the vowel in the preceding syllable: gø̄si and mȳs; later, the final i was lost, and the [ø]̄ and [ȳ] converted into [i:] and [aj].
2. Dissimilation is the process whereby adjacent elements become more different, e.g. the Late Latin word anma (n-m: nasal-nasal) became alma (l-m: lateral-nasal) in Spanish, the Latin word arbor (~r-~r) became arbol (~r-~l) in Spanish.
3. Epenthesis consists in adding an extra sound; e.g. all the Spanish words that originally began with s + consonant have been equipped with an e~ initial: escuela, esfera, espacio, esqueleto, estable.
4. Metathesis occurs when two sounds change their sequence from a-b into b-a, e.g. Latin mīrāculum > Spanish milagro.
5. Weakening / deletion of vowels:
5.1. Vowel weakening usually precedes its reduction and disappearance: {[i] / [e] / [a] / [o] / [u]} ( [ə] (schwa).
5.2. Syncope: the lost vowel was situated in the middle of a word.
5.3. Apocope: the lost vowel was the last sound in a word.
6. Weakening and deletion of consonants: consonant reduction and disappearance may also be preceded by consonant weakening; consonant reduction is a process whereby consonants lose their strength. The hierarchy of consonants from the strongest to the weakest is as follows: geminates ( non-geminates ( voiceless stops ( voiced stops ( voiceless fricatives ( voiced fricatives ( nasals ( liquids ( glides. Consequently, the subsequent phases of consonantal weakening are:
6.1. degemination,
6.2. voicing,
6.3. and frication.
Another type of consonantal weakening is the change of [s] into [r] called:
6.4. rhotacism.
Finally, the consonant may disappear altogether:
6.5. consonantal deletion.
7. Haplology (deletion of syllables), e.g. spn tragi-cómico for trágico-cómico, and mineralogía for minera-lo-logía.
8. Consonantal strengthening: the most common consonantal strengthening is the change of a glide into an affricate, e.g. the Latin word iuvenis [juvenis] changed into the Italian word giovane [ʤovane].
9. Deaffrication consists in simplifying an affricate: [ʤ] ( [ʒ] / [ʧ]( [ʃ].
10. Substitution is an auditory-based simplification, e.g. replacing [Ɵ] or [x] by [f].
The sound changes may affect the phonological system of a language. Phonological changes may be grouped into:
1) splits: for example, the English phoneme /ŋ/ (and phone [ŋ]) is the result of a phonological split of /n/ into /n/ and /ŋ/ (sin and sing);
2) mergers: for example, in Cockney the phonemes /Ɵ/ and /f/ have been reduced to /f/;
3) and shifts: for example the so-called Great English Vowel Shift, which began in the Middle English and finished in the eighteenth century..
The lexicons of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin (and consequently the ones of the Neo-Latin languages) are partly different. For example:
▪ classical equus, ~i (= horse) was consistently replaced by caballus, ~i (which meant ‘nag’ in Classical Latin);
▪ classical aequor, ~oris (= sea) by mare, maris;
▪ classical sidus, sideris (= star) by stella, stellae;
▪ classical pulcher (= beautiful) by bellus;
▪ classical ferre; gerere (= carry) by portare;
▪ classical ludere, ludo, lusi (= play) by jocare;
▪ classical os, oris (= mouth) by bucca;
▪ classical domus (= house) by casa or mansio, mansionis;
▪ classical magnus (= big) by grandis;
▪ classical emere, emereo (= buy) by compare, comparo or captare.
The definite articles, absent in Classical Latin and typical of the Neo-Latin languages, evolved from the Latin demonstratives ille, illa (and illud).
Tab. 6.1. The appearance of Neo-Latin articles
|ille> |>le |frn |la< |el |spn |la< | |
| |>il |itn |la< | |
| |>o |por |a< | |
Only Sardinian definite articles come from other Classical Latin forms: ipsum > su, and ipsa > sa. Definite articles are put before the noun (or nominal group), only in Romanian they are put after the noun: lupul (lup = wolf, ul = the), omul (om = man,
ul = the).
The indefinite articles come form the Classical Latin numerals unum and unam; but the tradition to use them dates back even to Cicero who writes ‘cum uno gladiatore nequissimo’ (= with a quite immoral gladiator).
To sum up, the transformation of sermo vulgaris linguae Latinae into modern Neo-Latin languages proceeded simultaneously at three levels:
1) phonic: some sounds changed in other sounds;
2) lexical (signific): some words changed in other words;
3) gramatical:
a. in the morphological sphere (understood traditionally): some grammatical tenses changed into other grammatical tenses, declensions disappeared and were replaced by analytic forms, etc.
b. in the syntactic sphere there were many changes as well.
The phonic changes proceeded at the diacritic stratum; the lexical changes – at the signific stratum. The grammatical changes took places partly at the signific stratum, and partly at the syntactic stratum. There is no problem with the latter: a Latin syntactic construction changed into Neo-Latin syntactic constructions; there is a problem with the former because – for example – one Latin word (pauper, pauperior) changed into two Neo-Latin words (más pobre, mais pobre, plus pauvre, più povero).
6.2.2. The Rôle of the SOFs
At the diachronic stratum[344]:
If we know that the initial Latin pl~ (e.g. pluvia, ‘rain’) changes diachronically into:
▪ Spanish ll~ (ll-uvia);
▪ Portuguese ch~ (ch-uva);
▪ Italian pi~ (pi-oggia);
▪ in French the initial pl~ does not change: pl~ (pl-uie);
we should suppose that the Latin word plenus will be transformed into:
▪ Spanish ll~ (ll-eno);
▪ Portuguese ch~ (ch-eio);
▪ Italian pi~ (pi-eno);
▪ French pl~ (pl-ein).
At the signific stratum:
Even if we know that the Latin domus changes diachronically into:
▪ Spanish casa (de la palabra latina «casa»);
▪ Portuguese casa (da palavra latina «casa»);
▪ Italian casa (della parola latina «casa»);
▪ French maison (du mot latin «mansio, mansionis»);
we were not able to predict that the Latin word gladius will be transformed into:
▪ Spanish espada (del latín «spatha» e< or >i< as [sL] instead of [s].
ceneme ( is a term invented by Hjelmslev; a ceneme is the form of the language sign at the highest possible level of abstraction, i.e. deprived of any substance; when the ceneme acquires phonic substance it becomes a phoneme.
centum ( is one of the two boughs of the Indo-European languages.
ceteris paribus [ltn] ( with all other factors or things remaining the same.
cf. [abbreviation of confer (ltn); second person singular imperative of conferre, confĕro, contŭli = 'to compare'] ( Compare!
chrestomathy [chllñószdźćśąmlt< is a symbol of Maltese in the ISO 639-1 code; >gle< is a symbol of Irish in the ISO 639-3 code. According to some sources there is hardly any difference between Serbian and Croatian; >hbshrv< and >srp< are symbols of – respectively – Serbo-Croatian, Croatian and Serbian in the ISO 639-3 code (cf.: Bosniak and Montenegrin).
[35] The term ‘national language’ is not perfectly synonymous with the term ‘official language’.
[36] In this book the term «Slavonic» is preferred to the term «Slavic».
[37] On the basis of Webster’s; 1986; p. 1316 (the sequence of the definitions has been changed again).
[38] Dalby, A.; 2004; p. 513.
[39] Dalby A.; 2004; p. 514 (Lingua Franca song of 1521, after Harvey L. P., et al., Lingua Franca in a villlancico by Encina, in: “Revue de littérature comparée”, vol. 41 [1967], pp. 572-579).
[40] McCrum, R. & Cran, W. & MacNeil, R.; 1992; p. 22.
[41] Op. cit.; p. 31.
[42] Op. cit.; p. 42.
[43] It is possible to propose another hypothesis: all languages are acquired or learnt synoptically, i.e. through juxtaposing them side by side with another language, already known, preferably the native one, which may be called the reference language. In the case of the first tongue(s) the reference language might be the General Model of Language (GML).
[44] [2008].
[45] [2008].
[46] [2008].
[47] [2008].
[48] Cf.: Chapter Three.
[49] The terms ‘requirements’ (or limitations) and ‘features’ (or characteristics) are used interchangeably; when the potential to produce a language is imagined as a spacious solid, then looking from outside, the space closed by this solid is limited by the outer surface of the solid; inside this solid, its outer surface (limitation) imposes a certain inner structure.
[50] Supplements are an integral part of the book; without them the text might be incomprehensible.
[51] Only the first type of the SMs has been explored (the one in bold); the other two remain unexplored options (for possible further exploration, in another book).
[52] Only the first type of the SHFs has been explored (the one in bold); the other two remain unexplored options (for possible further exploration, in another book).
[53] Only the first type of the SVFs has been explored (the one in bold); the other three remain unexplored options. There is a qualitative difference between option one and the other three.
[54] Science < ltn (= Latin): scientia (= knowledge) < scīre (= know).
[55] Frankfort-Nachmias, C. & Nachmias, D.; 2001; pp. 20-32.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Ibid.
[58] The New Encyclop(a)edia Britannica, 15th Edition; 1993; Propaedia, Part Ten. The Branches of Knowledge; pp. 479-523.
[59] The term ‘functional model linguistics’ [Polish: językoznawstwo funkcjonalno-modelowe] was used by Weinsberg [Weinsberg, A.; 1983; p. 131].
[60] Op. cit.; p. 162.
[61] It is a very important remark: this text is a translation of the text in Polish taken from the book written by Weinsberg [1983; pp. 131, 162, 267], who took this text from the Russian translation of the book «Meaning and the Structure of Language» (Značenie i struktura jazyka [Значение и структура языка]) written in English by Wallace Chafe [rus: Уоллес Чейф] {and translated into Russian (Пер. с англ.) by G. S. Ščur [rus: Г. С. Щур]}. The Russian translation was published in 1975. The original text (in English) was published in 1970: Chafe, W(allace). L.; Meaning and the Structure of Language; 1970; University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Weinsberg claims the English original was published in 1971. The situation resembles the game called ‘Chinese whispers’. The implications of Chinese whispers in Linguistics will be discussed in Chapter Seven. Cf.: Pic. P.2.
[62] [The original Polish text:] „Przedstawiciele stanowisk językoznawczych, które obejmujemy tu zbiorczą nazwą lingwistyki funkcjonalno-modelowej, nie traktują ich na ogół (z wyjątkiem Melčuka 1974, 19-47) jako odmian jednej wspólnej postawy. Reprezentanci każdego z tych stanowisk stanowią odrębną i ekskluzywną szkołę językoznawczą. Spośród tych szkół do najważniejszych zaliczylibyśmy te, w których powstały ujęcia teorii języka (wszystkie tylko szkicowe) o następujących nazwach:
▪ gramatyka stratyfikacyjna, stworzona przez Sidneya Lamba (1966);
▪ teoria Wallace’a Chafe’a, nazwana przez niego samego (1975, 79) semantyczną koncepcją języka;
▪ model lingwistyczny ‘smysl-tekst’ [eng: meaning – text; frn: sens – texte], opracowany przez Igora Melčuka (1974).
O innych teoriach zasługujących, jego zdaniem [Mel’čuka], na nazwę funkcjonalno-modelowych pisze Melčuk 1974, 15-17.’
[63] Saeed, J.; 2004; pp. 342-343.
[64] Traditionally, morphology is a branch of grammar that studies the structure of words [Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language; 1992; p. 90]. In this book morphology is used in its etymological meaning and refers to the form of the sign.
[65] Weinsberg, A.; 1983; p. 46.
[66] Hjelmslev, L.; 1976; pp. 49-52.
[67] Martinet, A.; 1987; p. 33 (translated from Syntaxe générale; Armand Colin Éditeur; Paris 1985).
[68] The term used by Martinet – el monema (eng: the moneme) – is the equivalent of the L-Sign used in this book.
[69] Op. cit.; p. 41.
[70] Wittgenstein, L.; 2006; p. 64 (5.6).
[71] Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 37.
[72] Whorf, B. L.; 1956; in: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 42.
[73] It is the ‘bilateral concept of the sign’.
[74] The opposite directions of analysis are also feasible.
[75] Crystal, D.; 1992; p. 284.
[76] O’Grady, W. & Dobrovolsky, M. & Katamba, F.; 1996; p. 373.
[77] In many cases it is hardly possible to define the difference between a language and a dialect, and so far nobody has invented a better definition of the two terms as the humorous aphorism attributed to Max Weinreich: a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.
[78] An ethnolect, a generic term, used by Majewicz [1989], is very useful in this context; it covers all the levels of the units in a chosen classification of the world’s languages. It may be further defined as any linguistic code used by any human group (ethnos) to communicate.
[79] Serbian and Croatian are regarded as two different languages (and undoubtedly they are two dialects of one language, Serbo-Croatian, mutually intelligible in almost 100%); Chinese is generally considered to be one language, while actually it is a group of many languages mutually unintelligible; Dutch and German around the border area between Germany and Holland are mutually intelligible (and according to any other criteria they are two different languages).
[80] O’Grady, W. & Dobrovolsky, M. & Katamba, F.; 1996; p. 377.
[81] Genealogical trees (Stammbaumtheorie) were introduced into Linguistics by August Schleicher (1821-1868), both a linguist and a botanist.
[82] According to Louis Hjelmslev the world’s linguistic variety may be classified into the following taxonomic categories (in descending order): family, class, group, branch [El lenguaje; 1976; p. 87].
[83] Weinsberg, A.; 1983; p. 89: ‘... rodzina językowa jest to zbiór języków spokrewnionych ze sobą, a nie spokrewnionych [...] z żadnym innym językiem.’
[84] There are linguists who disagree with this opinion: different families may have emerged from one source, evolutionarily (i.e. naturally) or in some other way (cf.: the next Footnote).
[85] The opposite view is called ‘monogenesis’ (= all languages have emerged from a common source).
[86] There is no scientific evidence which of the two views – monogenesis or polygenesis – is correct.
[87] There is no scientific evidence that there are 28 families, and not more (or fewer).
[88] Connected with August von Schlegel (1767-1845).
[89] An ethnolect is a generic term for the following words: language, tongue, speech, idiom, dialect, patois, vernacular, jargon, cant, argot. Cf.: Footnote 25, p. 56.
[90] The geographical (horizontal) varieties of a language are called dialects (patois, vernaculars); the social (vertical) ones – jargons (slangs, cants, argots).
[91] Included in the presidential address to the Bengal Asiatic Society ((Crystal, D.; 1992; p. 296.)
[92] Lachur, C.; 2004; p. 287.
[93] The terms ‘Slavonic’ and ‘Slavic’ are synonymous, but as the word ‘Slavic’ resembles too much its etymological root (French esclave, Late Latin sclavus, Late Greek Έσκλαβήνος ‘slave’) the other term is preferred and consistently used.
[94] ‘Linguistics is part of semiotics [= semiology]’ [(Saussure, F. de; 1991; p. 44].
[95] Carnap, R.; 1942; p. 9; cited in: Morris, C.; 1955; p. 218; and in: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 17.
[96] In Spanish the inverted question mark is put at the beginning of the question; in this way the question is precisely marked, e.g. ¡Pedro!, ¿cómo estás? (Peter, how are you?). This spelling custom is worth introducing into other languages.
[97] “Semiotics or semiotic is the study of signs’ [(The Linguistic Encyclopedia; 2004]. “Semiotics / semiotic is a general philosophical theory of signs and symbols that deals especially with their functions in both artificially and natural languages and comprises three branches of syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics’ [(Webster’s; 1986]. “Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning, and is the area of linguistics which is closest to the philosophy of language’ [(The Linguistic Encyclopedia; 2004].
[98] A slightly modified definition of Adam Weinsberg [(Weinsberg, A.; 1983; p. 10].
[99] Phonic = acoustic = concerning the sounds of speech; phonal = concerning the production of speech sounds; audible = able to be heard; aural = of or related to the sense of hearing; oral = spoken.
[100] What is perceived by the senses of taste and smell is usually beyond the scope of linguistic analysis.
[101] As a result, Linguistics may analyse the information perceived by three senses: hearing, vision and touch ((The previous Footnote).
[102] Weinsberg [op. cit.; p. 36] uses the term ‘realisational sub-codes’.
[103] Aas is the name of a French village of about a hundred inhabitants in the commune of Eaux-Bonnes, Ossau valley, historical province of Haut-Béarn, departement Pyrénées-Atlantiques
[, Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques – 11 Aug 2014].
[104] Morera, M.; 2007; pp. 28-29.
[105] [11 Aug 2014].
[106] The Turkish >ş< is pronounced as [ ʃ ].
[107] The creator of the term ‘diacritic’ is L. Zawadowski [(Zawadowski, L.; 1966].
[108] ltn: infra ‘below, beneath’.
[109] Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 5.
[110] Op. cit.; p. 6.
[111] Op. cit.; p. 44.
[112] Cf.: the beginning of Section 1.3 and Pic. 1.1.
[113] A dictionary definition [(Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary; 1994; p. 906].
[114] Such labels as structuralism or functionalism or any other ‘~isms’ are always simplifications. For example, Saussure, who was concentrated on structures and therefore is considered to be a structuralist, was also aware of the importance of functions, as the following quotation proves: “…forms and functions are interrelated and dividing ones from the others is difficult if not impossible’ [(Saussure, F. de; 1991; p. 161].
[115] Saussure, F. de; 1991; p. 129.
[116] Among the supporters of the theory that the clause was the linguistic unit there were: G. Frege [(Grundlagen der Arithmetik; 1884]; B. Croce [(Estetica come scienza dell’espressione e linguistica generale; 1903] and L. Wittgenstein [(Tractatus logico-philosophicus; 2006].
[117] [31 Aug 2014].
[118] Chomsky, N.; 1995; The Minimalist Program; the MIT Press, Cambridge; the Spanish edition: Chomsky, N.; 1999; El Programa Minimalista; Alianza Editorial; Madrid.
[119] Op. cit.; p. 10.
[120] It seems a development of the earlier Chomskyan/Chomskian concept of LAD.
[121] The notion of Chomskian Universal Grammar resembles Jungian collective unconscious.
[122] [31 Aug 2014].
[123] Ibid.
[124] [31 Aug 2014].
[125] ols.umontreal.ca/FrEng/melcukColldeFr.pdf [2008; all the quotations have been taken from that website in 2008].
[126] [12 Aug 2014; in 2014 the site from the previous footnote was no longer accessible, but the text reappeared at another address given in this footnote].
[127] [31 Aug 2014].
[128] [31 Aug 2014].
[129] [31 Aug 2014].
[130] Ibid.
[131] O’Grady, W. & Dobrovolsky, M. & Katamba, F.; 1997; p. 680.
[132] Factorised = reduced to their minimal components.
[133] According to the definition given above ((Section 1.2) in order to call something an ethnic language it has to have a phonic system. The sensorial form of a message may be chosen from five sensorial continua ((Subsection 1.7.1), but the phonic continuum is the primary one. The visible continuum may be called the secondary one, and the other three continua – the tertiary ones.
[134] ‘Signific’ = acting as, concerning a sign.
[135] ‘Morphological’ is meant here etymologically: the Greek word μορφή (morphe) = form, shape; within the biological sciences morphology is a discipline dealing with the shapes and structures of plants and animals.
[136] The word ‘semasiology’ comes from the Greek word σημασία (semasia) = meaning.
[137] The word ‘semantic’ comes from the Greek word σήμα (sema) = a sign. ‘Semantic’ means here: ‘concerning the (whole of the) sign’.
[138] The word ‘sensorial’ is in brackets because the form may be perceived both sensorially and mentally.
[139] For example the tonic vowels may be treated as separate phonemes: in the Spanish word casa /’ka-sa/ the first syllable is stressed, so the first /á/ (the stressed one) would be treated as an additional phoneme different from the atonic /a/, the second /a/ in the word /’kasa/.
[140] To be consequent, it should be «’graphological’ and graphic»; but ‘graphological’ has its own meaning that has nothing to do with what is being discussed here.
[141] The Webster’s Third New International Dictionary knows the word ‘semanteme’ and defines it as: ‘a word (as the noun ‘dog’) or a base (as Latin can~ in canis ‘dog’) that expresses a definite image or idea – distinguished from morpheme.
[142] Martinet, A.; 1987; p. 28.
[143] It is the question of linguistic units; according to Saussure the existing linguistic units had been wrongly defined [(Saussure, F. de; 1991; p. 134].
[144] Cf.: Footnote 43 in Subsection 1.7.1.
[145] A grapheme is, for example, ‘two vertical bars jointed in the middle by a horizontal bar’, and the physical (i.e. perceived by the sense of sight) representations of this grapheme may be the following graphes: Η, H, H, H, H, H, H, etc. As a result there are phones and graphes (singular: graphe) – sensorial objects – and phonemes and graphemes – their mental representations.
[146] However tempting the creation of such a term seems, there is no theoretical justification to do it; this problem will be dealt with later [(the beginning of Section 2.2] (semante = semanteme).
[147] It looks like a return to the concept rejected in Section 0.4, but actually it is a new direction of reasoning.
[148] In Spanish literature this phoneme is usually represented by /ŷ/.
[149] Rey, A. (editor); 2006; A-E; pp. 1179-1182.
[150] [17 July 2014].
[151] Although models equipped with functions are dynamic.
[152] A Synoptic Model may also be considered a function; it is the function that generates a message out of la langue the message is produced in. It is the function that encodes mental ideas into sensorial messages and decodes sensorial messages back into mental ideas.
[153] The SFs have already been defined in the Introduction and in Section 0.4.
[154] There might be still another stratum, the stratum of text (only in the Parole band).
[155] Welfe, A.; 2003; p. 24.
[156] Instead of using the awkward form grapheme / graphe just the form grapheme will be used. The term graphe will be used only when it is necessary to emphasise the difference between these two terms.
[157] Traditionally, the signs added to letters, as described – for example – in points (b) and (c), are called diacritic signs. In this book, the term ‘diacritic’ has a bit different meaning: it refers to the stratum of linguistic analysis below the level of the sign. But in both cases it may be defined as a constituent element of the sign (phonic or graphic) that changes its overall meaning.
[158] [website of the RAE; 13 Aug 2014].
[159] The original German name is «Stettin».
[160] The Polish graphic signs «dz, dż, dź, sz, rz, ch» are all letters, too; they are Polish digraph(e)s.
[161] This closes up the problem raised by Footnote 15, p. 82.
[162] Heuristically, Tab. 2.1 transforms into Tab. 2.2. The Reader is requested to keep comparing the two tables for a while.
[163] The use of inverted question marks has already been explained [cf.: Footnote 43, p. 63]. But what needs explaining is why the inverted question marks have been used here. They have been used here to signal again [cf.: the third paragraph on page 81] the possibility of a third band in the linguistic analysis [cf.: Tab. 2.1, p. 78], the real-world band (Parole), with sounds (or letters), words (and ¿affixes?), and utterances (and, possibly, texts). In such a case the Langue band would be divided into two sub-bands: the completely abstract one with phonemes (or graphemes), L-Signs (¿monemes?), syntagmas and complex syntagmas; and the other one, saturated with some substance, with phones (or graphes), lexemes, and clauses and sentences. The heuristic process is in action here.
[164] Alonso, A.; 1961; p. 147.
[165] Franch, J. A. & Blecua, J. M.; 1975; pp. 333-354.
[166] Thus, a certain heuristic cycle has been concluded.
[167] Zap = spn: liquidar / borrar / ir corriendo (zapear = go thorough…); sap = spn: savia / debilitar.
[168] Phonological notation: /…/; phonetical notation: […].
[169] The term phoneme was introduced by the French phonetician A. Dufriche-Desgenettes in 1873 as a counterpart to the German term Sprachlaut. Saussure picked up the term and used it in his Mémoires sur le système primitive des voyelles dans les langues indoeuropéennes (1879) defining it as an invariant phonic unit in diachrony. It was M. Kruszewski (Die Laute und ihre Gesetze, 1883) who gave the term its present-day meaning. [(Footnote 1, p. 65, in the Polish edition of Cours de linguistique générale, PWN, Warszawa 1991]
[170] Cf.: pp. 91-92.
[171] The mystery behind the term ‘the native speaker’s competence’, never defined.
[172] Tauste, A. M. Vigara; 1980.
[173] The transcription based on the one used in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary [(Wells, J. C.; 1990; Longman Pronunciation Dictionary; Longman House] with some modifications.
[174] [24 July 2014].
[175] The consonantal grid is based on the International Phonetic Alphabet commonly accessible.
[176] According to Ferdinand de Saussure a linguistic sign is the relationship between significant (the thing that signifies, signifier) and signifié (the thing signified).
[177] It means that the Synoptic Analysis concentrates on la Parole rather than on la Langue. Yet in some cases the opposite may be stated. This apparent discrepancy is dealt with later.
[178] There are two features more: the source of the airstream and the direction in which the airstream flows. This analysis is restricted to the pulmonic airstream mechanism and the egressive sounds.
[179] The description of the sounds is much more complicated than the description of the phones, let alone the phonemes. The descriptions of the phonemes, the phones and the sounds may be visualised as three concentric circles, the smallest being the circle symbolising the description of the phonemes.
[180] In the synoptic description of the Neo-Latin languages there is an additional row, called ‘Lisped fricatives’.
[181] The Vocalic Quadrilateral is a more sophisticated form of Hellwag’s Vocalic Triangle i-e-a-o-u (1781).
[182] In the combination of /u/ and /i/ one of these two elements usually keeps its vocalic value and the other becomes a semiconsonant (or semivowel): /i/ + /u/ = [ju] or [iw], and /u/ + /i/ = [wi] or [uj].
[183] The author of this definition is Tomás Navarro Tomás [(Blecua, J. M. & Franch, J. A.; 1975;
p. 455].
[184] Mā 妈 = mother; má 麻 = hemp; mă 马 = (a) horse; mà [诅]咒 = (to) curse.
[185] The terms oxytone, paroxytone, proparoxytone are listed in English language dictionaries; the term protoxytone is a new term created for the sake of this text; from grc: πρωτο ‘first’.
[186] Even the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is not ideal, as it is constantly modified. The first official version of the IPA appeared in 1888; since that moment the Alphabet has undergone a lot of modifications, including some major ones codified by the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics [= signs added to letters], and four prosodic marks in the IPA ⇨ [26 July 2014].
[187] Cf.: Subsection 5.1.1.
[188] Cf.: Section 4.4.
[189] In the synoptic description of the Neo-Latin languages the transcription system has been enriched with an additional category called ‘lisped frivatives’. In English there two lisped fricatives [Ɵ] and [ð]; in Spanish there are also two lisped fricatives: [sL] and [zL] (L for ‘lisped’).
[190] Lyons writes [(Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics, CUP, Cambridge 1968; Polish edition PWN, Warszawa 1976, p. 208]: ‘If a word may be divided into (meaningful) segments, the segments are called morphes.’
[191] Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, 1986, does not know the word ‘morphe’, but lists the word ‘morph’, and defines it as either an ‘allomorph’ or ‘a phoneme or sequence of phonemes that is presumably an allomorph but that is not considered as assigned to any particular morpheme’. The word ‘allomorph’ is – in turn – defined as ‘one of two or more forms that a morpheme has at different points in the language’.
[192] Morphemes are formal models of L-Signs, and morphes are sensorial (physical) forms of lexemes. Actually, morphemes are mental descriptions of the sensorial form of L-Signs, whereas morphes are the physical forms of lexemes.
[193] Sapir, E.; 1949; Language: an Introduction to the Study of Speech; Harcourt Brace; New York; pp. 33-34; quoted in: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 57.
[194] Bloomfield, L.; 1984; Language; University of Chicago Press; Chicago; p. 178; quoted in: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 57.
[195] Op. cit.; p. 181; quoted in: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 57.
[196] Interjections, the traditional eighth class, being emotional exclamations, do not constitute integral elements in the system of a language, but being part of the real-world objects are within the scope of the synoptic analysis. (There are still other two classes: numerals and articles; they will be discussed later on.)
[197] Palmer, F.; 1978; p. 58.
[198] Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. & Leech, G. & Svartnik, J.; 1990; p. 74.
[199] Alcina Franch, J. & Blecua, J. M.; 1975; p. 486.
[200] Cf.: the remark below Tab. 2.2.
[201] Saussure, F. de; 1991; p. 154.
[202] This system of syntactic constructions is based on the system used in the Oxford University Press publications. All the examples have been taken from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary; 1992; OUP; p. xvii.
[203] It is only one of the infinite options.
[204] The examples taken from: Abtowa, J. & Piasecki, K. & Różański, T. & Świtalski, Z.; 2000; Matematyka [eng: Mathematics]; Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu; pp. 89-91.
[205] In the upper half of Pic. 2.11 once again the first concept of the SVFs is explored (cf.: Tab. 0.5). The reason for that will become clear while Pic. 2.12 is being explained.
[206] As the Synoptic Functions have been preseneted at the very beginning of this book (the first paragraph of the Introduction, p. 11).
[207] Menéndez Pidal, R.; 1999.
[208] Spanish is here the source language and Portuguese – the target language.
[209] The other change – the generative one – is simbolised by the Synoptic Vertical Functions (SVFs).
[210] As the complete and perfect description of the Parole band seems impossible, only an approximation to it is feasible.
[211] Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 9.
[212] Rudzka-Ostyn, B.; Introduction; in: Geiger, R. & Rudzka-Ostyn, B.; 1993; p. 2.
[213] Saeed, J.; 2004; pp. 247-250.
[214] All the sensorial things may be also seen inside the human mind, which means that all sensorial objects have their mental counterparts.
[215] The word ‘London’ is a good example of the idea expressed in the previous footnote, that material (sensorial) objects always have their mental counterparts: ‘London’ as an existing city is a material object, and as a point on a map it is a mental idea.
[216] Kirkpatrick, B. (editor); 1987.
[217] Op. cit.; pages vii-ix.
[218] Examples taken from: Saeed, J.; 2004; p. 300.
[219] From a formal point of view the English clause ‘I want A to do B’ is not a sentence (a complex clause), it is a (simple) clause, but in most languages such a construction is expressed in a sentence, for example spn: Quiero que A haga B.
[220] In Tab. 2.5 in the simple clause in its extreme form there are ten elements (components), but verb (predicate) [3] cannot be expanded into a subordinate clause, and on the other hand elements (1), (4) and (6) may be expanded into one subtype of subordinate clauses: the relative clause; and elements (2), (5) and (7) may also be expanded into one subtype of subordinate clauses: the noun clause (the subject clause or the object clause). In consequence, there are five subtypes of subordinate clauses.
[221] These five subtypes of subordinate clauses constitute a group (type) which may be called ‘endogenous’.
[222] These five subtypes of subordinate clauses constitute another group (type) which may be called ‘exogenous’.
[223] Wahl, P.; 2010; Book Two; Cycle 19; pp. 3-5.
[224] Huntington, S.; 1993; The Clash of Civilisations; (an article) in: “Foreign Affairs”, Summer 1993, v. 72, n. 3, p. 22 [].
[225] Huntington later expanded his thesis on the clash of civilisations in his 1996 book The Clash of Civilisations and the Remaking of World Order.
[226] The sign ✞ means ‘extinct’.
[227] The classification of the linguistic families and the structure of the Indo-European Family based on: Majewicz, A.; 1989; Języki świata i ich klasyfikacja [English: The World’s Languages and their Classification]; Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe; Warszawa.
[228] Dalby, A.; 1989; p. 546.
[229] Op. cit.; p. 6.
[230] Op. cit.; p. 661.
[231] Op. cit.; p. 18.
[232] This family is – in some classifications – included in the previous family (Altaic).
[233] Op. cit.; p. 155.
[234] Op. cit.; p. 47.
[235] O’Grady W. & Dobrovolsky, M. & Katamba, F.; 1997; p. 399.
[236] Dalby, A.; 2004; p. 43.
[237] [31 July 2014].
[238] Op. cit.; p. 434.
[239] Weinsberg, A.; 1983; p. 92.
[240] Cf:: Annex 1.
[241] In Section 3.1 some words have been underlined only to highlight them.
[242] The numbers of the languages and the numbers of their populations (and both keep changing) taken from: [2008-2014].
[243] Dalby, A.; 2004; p. 271.
[244] Majewicz, A. F.; op. cit.; p. 27.
[245] The numbers in brackets are the numbers of the languages identified and described so far; it means that there might be more; it justifies the phrase ‘at least’. [On the other hand, in reality there might be fewer languages, depending on classifying methodology.]
[246] SIL (Summer Institute of Linguistics) is the three-letter code for identifying languages that are listed in the Ethnologue – (over 7,200 languages); the SIL codes are upper case letters. ISO-1 and ISO-2 are respectively ISO 639-1 alpha-2 and ISO 639-2 alpha-3 codes used by the Library of Congress, the largest library in the world (); some languages have two ISO-2 codes, one for bibliographic use (B) and the other for terminological use (T); the ISO 639 codes are lower case letters; ISO 639-1 is two-digit, and ISO 639-2 is three-digit. All the language codes are always preceded by an arrow (().
[247] The Dardic languages are a transitional group between the Indic Group and the Iranian Group; that is why the group is classified either within the Indic Group or within the Iranian Group.
[248] The Avestan languages are usually listed in the North-Eastern Group.
[249] Majewicz [1989] lists Dari in the Southern Section of the Western Iranian Languages.
[250] (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2003, Columbia University Press).
[251] Crystal, D.; 1992; p. 300.
[252]
[253] Either a separate language or a dialect of Northern Frisian, together with Mooringer, Ferring and Helgoland; has 64% lexical similarity with Standard German, 61% with English, 79% with Mooringer, 85% with Ferring [ – 2008].
[254] New Norwegian, Faeroese, Icelandic and Norn compose the West Nordic Section, and Danish, Norwegian and Swedish – the East Nordic Section.
[255] Vandalic may be added here.
[256] Długosz-Kurczabowa, K. & Dubisz, S.; 2003; p. 27.
[257] The Obodrit languages became extinct about AD 1500, and may be considered as some of the Mecklemburg dialects.
[258] Majewski [1989] lists Banat here as a Slavonic language used in Rumania; Banat is a region of southeast-central Europe extending across western Romania, northeast Yugoslavia, and southern Hungary, and the ethnolect spoken in that region is considered to be a dialect of Romanian, a Neo-Latin language. A sample of this language with English translation: (2008). In addition to that, there is a Gypsy group called the Bayash that have lost their language and now speak Romanian based on the Banat dialect with Romani and Hungarian influences.
[259] After the break-up of Yugoslavia, Serbo-Croatian became officially considered as three languages: Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian.
[260] It should be noted that most Slavonic linguists do not recognise Rusyn / Ruthenian as a distinct language and consider Rusyn dialects as regional versions of Ukrainian or transitional dialects between the Ukrainian and Slovak languages. Nevertheless, Rusyn has been recently recognised as an official language in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina and as a minority language in Slovakia. Rusyn has two distinct dialects:
1) Carpatho-Rusyn is close to Ukrainian and Russian languages. It is spoken in the Transcarpathian Oblast of Ukraine, Poland, Slovakia and Romania. In Ukraine, Rusyn is sometimes called a dialect of Ukrainian, but speakers frequently are reported to consider themselves distinct from Ukrainians.
2) Panonian-Rusyn is closer to West Slavonic languages, to Slovak in particular. It is spoken in Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Croatia and the Serbian province of Vojvodina. According to the 1991 census, it had 50,000 speakers, and in 1993 some 100,000 speakers, in the Presov region of Slovakia.
Source: [2008].
[261] Some linguists regard Baltic and Slavonic as branches of a single Balto-Slavonic division of the Indo-European family.
[262] Traditionally the Celtic languages are divided into four groups: Gaulish, Brythonic, Celtiberian and Goidelic; these four groups are split into two branches: the first two groups represent the P-Celtic languages and the other two – the Q-Celtic languages; the differences between P and Q languages are most easily seen in the word for ‘son’, mac in Q (hard K sound) and map in P languages. The Q-languages retained the /k/ sound of Proto-Indo-European which later developed into /p/.
[263] In Poland it is called ‘szkocki’, but then it may be confused with Scots (a Germanic language) which should be called ‘szkocki’, so the best name for Scottish Gaelic seems ‘szkocko-gaelicki’; the word ‘szkocko-’ is necessary, as Irish is sometimes called Irish Gaelic.
[264] In some sources the Gaulish subgroup is classified as an independent subgroup at the same level as the Goidelic and Brythonic subgroups.
[265] According to some sources – Majewski [1989] included – the Picts might not have belonged to the Celtic culture. “Pict = one of a possibly non-Celtic people older than the Gaelic and Brythonic people who once occupied Great Britain, were in many places displaced by the Britons, carried on continual border wars with the Romans, and about the 9th century became finally amalgamated with the Scots.’ Source: Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1986, page 1711. Still in another classification Pictish is included in the Brythonic group ( – 2008).
[266] [2008].
[267] Italian may be divided into Gallo-Italian, Napoletano-Calabrese and Sicilian ((SCN); the first group may be further split into: Piemontese ((PMS), Ligurian ((LIJ), Lombard ((LMO), Emilio-Romagnolo ((EML) and Venetian.
[268] There is still one more variety called Sassarese (SDC.
[269] Catalogue of the Rhaeto-Romance Collection, Ithaca, N. Y., 1894 (collected by D. Willard Fiske), lists 16 Rhaeto-Romance dialects: Bergell, Engadine, Fassa, Friulan, Gardena, Grisons, Istria, Lower Engadine, Münsterthal, Noce, Oberland, Rendena, Roveretano, Surmeir, Tyrol, Upper Engadine.
() [2008].
[270] Posner, R.; 2004; p. 213.
[271] It may be Southern Romance instead of Italo-Western.
[272] Posner, R.; 2004; pp. 192-193.
[273] Op. cit.; p. 195.
[274] The Basque language is usually treated as an isolate, but according to some sources (Lachur, 2004) it might be classified as a language belonging to the Caucasian Family.
[275] Lachur, C.; 2004; p. 277.
[276] [2008].
[277] Sometimes Mansi / Vogul (pql: mansyjski / wogulski) is listed together with Hungarian [Majewicz, 1989], and sometimes with the Khanty (pql: chantyjski) / Ostyak languages it composes a separate sub-group of Ob-Ugric languages.
[278] Lachur, C.; 2004; p. 278.
[279] [2008].
[280] Close to Turkish ( ................
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