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Organic chemistry 2 notes form four

They are derivatives of alkanes where hydrogen has been replaced by hydroxyl group (OH); which is the functional group. They create a homologous series of the general formula CnH2n +1OH, in which OH can also be marked as ROH, where R is an alkyl group. NOTE: Alkanol is an IUPAC name while alcohol is the common name; e of the appropriate Elkin molecule replaced with ol suffix; The parent molecule is the longest chain containing the OH group; The nail of carbon atoms is done so that a carbon atom with hydroxyl OH group achieves the lowest possible number the constituent branch is called accordingly; Alcohols demonstrate location isomerism due to the fact that the location of the functional group's possession varies within the carbon chain; Examples of sea alcohol isomers of propanolNote: ethyl methyl site is not really alcohol as it lacks the OH group; They all have the molecular formula: C3H7OH Isomers of butanolNote: they all have the molecular formula: C4H9OH draw the Isomers of Panthenol, C5H11OH; Is alcohol where the OH group is attached to a carbon atom where 2 hydrogen atoms are connected; Therefore, they contain a CH2OH group; Examples : Is alcohol where hydroxyl group is connected to a carbon atom where only one hydrogen atom is connected; The carbon atom with the OH group is therefore linked to two carbon atoms; They contain a CHOH group; Examples: Hydroxyl group connected to carbon atom without hydrogen atoms connected to carbon atom with OH group connected to 3 other carbon atoms; Hence, methyl groups from 100 cm; Tertiary alcohol thus contains a COH group; Examples: Alkanols are prepared from three main methods. hydrolysis of the luganoelcans; Hydration of alcans and fermentation of starches and sugars (mainly for ethanol) halogenoalkanes are compounds where one or more hydrogen atoms in alken are replaced by halogens; Addition of KOH water or NaOH to haogenoalkane and heating results for appropriate alcohol; The reaction involves replacing halogen atoms with -OH from the alekali; Examples: preparation of methanol preparation of propaneol; NOTE: - The conversion of halogenoalkane to alcohol is known as hydrolysis; A reagent in this case is alekali and a condition of response is heat; Elkana's conversion to alcohol is known as hydration; A major reagent for the reaction is water; The conditions for the reaction are: acid catalyst, mainly conc. H2SO4 or phosphorus acid (H3PO4); High temperatures of about 80oC; High pressures of approximately 25-30 atmospheres; Examples: Preparation of ethanol from ethane. You made some thanol from Watten. It is prepared from fermentation of fermentation or sugars in the presence of yeast; Fermentation: It is a chemical decay brought to bacteria or yeast (anaerobic) usually accompanied by the evolution of carbon (IV) oxide and heat. The chemical starch process is divided into sugars by the action of enzyme amylase or ; Word equation break down into search molecule + water sucose molecules Chemical comparison amylase (C6H10O5)n nH2O + nC6H12O6Starch Water sudose molecules many when yeast is added to a thinning sucose solution (regular sugar); The enzyme socrates catalytic yeast from a sugar joint (sucrauz) into the simplest sugars, Glucose fructose i.e. equation: SucraseC12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) C6H12O6 (aq) + C6H12O6(aq)Glucose fructose sugar water finally zimes the enzyme, also produced by yeast converts coscose and fructose into ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide. Equation: ZymaseC6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + CO2(g)Glucose/Fructose Carbon Ethanol (IV) Oxide (IV) Optimal Conditions for Fermentation: Temperatures of 25-30oC; yeast catalyst; lack of oxygen (opaque); NOTE: When the reaction mixture contains approximately 12% by volume of ethanol, the activity of yeast stops. This is because higher ethanol concentrations kill the yeast cells; Fermentation provides approximately 10% alcohol by volume; The concentration of ethanol as a result can be increased by partial distillation. During the process, ethanol distills quickly due to its lower boiling point (78 degrees Celsius) and the refinery below 95 degrees Celsius was first collected (leaving water behind). The resulting fraction will be 95% alcohol by volume; and a sacred spirit is written; Absolute ethanol; which is 99.5% by volume and can be achieved by refining a revised ethanol between 78-82oC to remove all water in the mixture; This can be done in two main ways: the addition of a small amount of benzene to the spirit of the regulation and then distillation; (benzene dissolves in water in alcohol) distillation of purified wind across a suitable drying agent like calcium oxide and then on calcium; (Calcium reacts with steam, calcium oxide takes in concentrated water) This is a colorless liquid soluble, volatile in water in all proportions and forming a neutral solution; There is a characteristic smell and boiling at 78.5 degrees Celsius variation in the physical characteristics of Alkanols. Molecular Formula Name Boiling Point Molecular Mass (oC) Melting Point (oC) Soluble at 100g of Methanol Water CH3OH 32 64.5 -94 Ethanol Soluble C2H5OH 4 6 78.5 -117 Propaneol Soluble C3H7OH 60 97 -127 Botanyol Soluble C4H9OH 74 117 -90 Panthenol Slightly Soluble C 5H11OH 88 138 -79 Hexenol Slightly Soluble C6 H13OH 102 158 -52 Slighlty Hepatine Soluble C7H14OH 11 6 6 175 -34.6 Very slightly soluble octonol C8H16OH 194 194 -16 Very little soluble note: solubility of alkanols decreases with increase in molecular mass; Both the smudding and boiling points increase with an increase in the relative molecular mass; due to a gradual increase in the number of van der Waal's forces; Alkanols have higher melting and boiling points than their corresponding alkanes with the same molecular formula; The reason: Alkanols have hydrogen bonding between their molecules, caused by the presence of the OH group; The Balkans have Van der Waal among its molecules; Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van der Wad is weak; Hydrogen Among 2 ethanol molecules are chemical properties/main reactions of ethanol. Note; The main reactions of ethanol are those of its oh;(i) combustion groupProcedure and some drops of ethanol are placed in watch and illuminated glass. A jar of dry gas is held over the blaze and the gas collected is tested with Lym water. Lookout: It burns in a blue flame, which is almost colorless. The resulting gas turns Lye water into white sediment, indicating that it is carbon oxide (IV). Explanations: Ethanol (alcohol) burns in the air (oxygen) that produces carbon oxide (IV), water and heat energy; The low members of the homological series are burned in a blue or doesn't glow flame and leave no residi; As the carbon chain increases the flame becomes more luminous and smoky and black residue remains; EquationsC2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)Note: If alkanol is burned in a limited supply of oxygen, Then the combustion is incomplete and the products include carbon (II) oxide or carbon and waterEquations C2H5OH(l) + 2O2(g) 2CO(g) + 3H2O(l) 2C2HOH5(l) + 202(g) 4C(s) + 6H2O(l)(ii) response with metals Procedure: Tiny pieces of sodium one at a time; Added 1cm? of pure ethanol in a boiling tube. observation; Semi-metal sodium on the surface of ethanol and then dissolves/disappears; The indignation heats up and testifies to an exothermic response. Whispers occur and bubbles of colorless gas are seen; Gas burns with a pop voice. Explanation: Sodium reacts with alcohol like it does with water but the reaction is more subtle. Sodium reacts with ethanol to produce hydrogen gas, which is on burn tests with a pop sound. The reaction is exothermic to produce heat hence it will also be warmer. A clear solution of sodium thyself remains formed in the boiling tube. Equation;2C2H5OH(l) + Na(s) 2CH3CH2ONa(l) + H2(g)Note: Alkanols react with electrophostic metals such as sodium, potassium and aluminum to release hydrogen gas and form a solution of metal salt, metal alexoid; Examples2CH3CH2CH2OH (l) + Na(s) 2CH3CH2CH2ONa(l) + H2(g)Propane Sodium Metal Sodium Propidoxid HydrogenCH3CH2CH2CH2CHOH(l) + K(l) s) 2CH3CH2CH2CH2CHOK (l) + H2(g)Potassium panthenol potassium pentoxide hydrogen note: responsiveness of alkanols with decreasing metals as hydrocarbon chain grows;(iii) Esterification; It is the production of esters (alkaline alkanoates) from the reaction between alcohol and carboxylic acids; Procedure 2-3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid are added to a mixture of equal proportions of ethanol and pure ethnic acid in a vaping dish. The mixture heats up gently in a water bath for a while. The mixture pours into well and smells; Ethanol explanation reacts with anethic acid in the presence of several drops of concentrated sulfuric acid to form ethanoate ethanoate and water. The reaction is very slow and so sympathetic by the hydrogen ions from the sulfur acid. Conc equations. + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COOC2 H5(l) + H2O(l)Ethanol Ethyl Ethnoate (Ester) WaterStructurally; The alkyl part of ester is derived from alkanol, while the alcanate part is derived from alcanic acid; Hulknol connects to the group in carboxylic acid and thus displaces a hydrogen atom; Under normal conditions the reaction occurs slowly; But in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid which act as a catalyst and hot (heat) conditions, the response is improved; More examples:Write balanced equations for each of the following esterification responses: ethanol and propanoic acid; Propaneol and ethnic acid; Ethanol and methanoic acid; NOTE: Usually a reaction between alcohol and carboxylic acid (-COOH-) produces ester and water in a process called Esterification; General equation: Conc. H2SO4; Hot organic acid + Aster Thyre alcohol + water (Esterification), whereas;non-organic acid + alequili salt + water (neutralization)The differences between neutralizing ester and astration is slower than neutralization as the reaction is between molecules rather than ions as neutralizing Esterification is reversible; The forward response is esterification and the backlash is hydrolysis. Esterification results in esters that are a covalent compound; Neutralization creates salts that are electrolyntic. Name and formula of some common esters. Alcanoi Acid Ester Methanol CH3OH Propanoi Acid Methylprofenoate Ethanol C2H5OH Methanui Acid Ethylmatanoate Propane-1-ol C3H7OH Ethnoic Acid Propylethanoate Botanol C4H9OH Ethnoic Acid Butylethanoate (iv) Oxidation of Primary Alcanol; On heating in the presence of oxidation agents, major alkanols are oxidized in alcanic acids; NOTE: During the oxidation of alcohol, they first lose hydrogen to form compounds called aldhide (compounds ending in al) aldhides (alkanal) as a result and then get oxygen to form alcanic acids. Equations: Alcnol + Hydrogen Alkanal + WaterThen; Alkanal + oxygen alcanic acid; General equation:Example: Oxidation of ethanol like all other alcohols is oxidized by powerful oxidant agents such as potassium dichromate (VI) and manganese potassium (VII) to form an ethnic acid. Reaction with acidic potassium dichromate (VI): A small solution procedure of acidic potassium dichromate (VI) is added to a small solution of ethanol in vitro and then gently warmed;observation:-the solution (dichromate) changes yellow to green; Explanation- acidic potassium dichromate (VI) ethanol oxidation ethanol then ethnoic acid, While dichromate undergoes reduction (chromate (VI) to Cr3+ yellow color change to green; equations naturally:Then; general equation response with acidic potassium manganese (VII). The smell of a noticeable acid. Explanation - Ethanol is oxidized for ethanol and then for ethnic acid. Reducing excused permanganate (transforms from purple to color);-H+/KMnO4 is decolourised due to the reduction of manganat (VII) ions Mn2 + general equation: catalytic oxidation of Alkanols.-catalytic oxidation of alkanols results in dehydration (hydrogen removal) resulting in the formation of alal (aldehyde);-these are mounted with coh Example: Catalytic oxidation of ethanol with hot copper metal-When ethanol is transported on heated copper at about 300?C, it is dehydrogenated meaning hydrogen is removed.-This result for the formation of ethanel; And hydrogen gas is released. (e) Dehydration responses of alcohol. Dehydration is the removal of water molecules from a compound; Excess concentrated sulfur (VI) acid dries alkanols forming appropriate alkenes. Required conditions: - High temperatures of 140-180?C. Catalysts such as conc. sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid and aluminum oxide; Example: Dehydration of ethanolApparatusProcedure 15 cm3 of absolute ethanol put around a vial at the bottom and 5cm3 of H2SO4 con added. The contents are thoroughly mixed by the vial vortex. The bottle is then heated (heated) gently with a little tremor for about a minute. The collected gas is tested with acidic potassium manganat (VII) and brominate water. Evolution observations of colorless gas decrypting the purple acidic potassium manganat (VII) generated also decrypted the red brown brumby water. Explanations of alknol heating (ethanol) undergo elimination response. It also loses hydrogen (H) and hydroxyl (OH) from two adjacent carbon atoms. H and OH combine to create water; And the movies make Athena. The sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst. NOTE: Disadvantage of concentrated sulfuric acid on phosphoric acid.- Being a potent oxidative agent and concentrated sulfuric acid oxidation part of alkanol formed in CO2 and it itself reduced SO2 ;-it reduces the volume and purity of alkanol as a result; And it is also a potential source of infection; EquationNote:With cold concentrated sulfuric acid (VI), alkanols react to form hydrogen alkal sulfur. Example: ethanol and sulfuric acid. C2H5OH + H2SO4(l) C2H5HSO4(l) + H2O(l)Ethanol Ethyl Hydrogen Sulfate (ethoxythyl) Uses of Ethanol Used as Solvents; Making drugs, perfumes, liquor, disappearing and drawing. Fuel source e.g. ethanol when mixed with gasoline to create gasohol. Note:- The addition of ethanol to fuel improves the correct antinoke of fuel, due to its low ignition point;- Alkanol also absorbs any traces of moisture that may enter and damage the fuel system;- Alkanols also ignite on their own to release heat; Example: CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) H = -1368KjMol-1 Initial Material for the Production of Polyvinyl Chloride (P.V.C) Ethanol Is Used as a Starting Material (disinfection) in special concentrations such as for cleaning tissues and surgical equipment during surgeries and in dressing wounds; The production of alcanic acids e.g. ethanol ethnoic acid is used as a thermometer fluid for measuring low temperatures; The production of alcoholic beverages and large quantities of methanol are used in the production of formaldehyde chemical used to preserve bodies; They are used as anti-freeze mixtures in car radiators e.g. a mixture of ethanol and freezing water at lower temperatures that pure water; production of

esters to give fruity flavors for confectionery and beverages; Tests for initial Alkanols response with metal sodium- Alkanols release hydrogen gas, colorless gas burns with pop sound; Equation:2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) 2CH3CH2ONa(l) + H2(g) Reaction with Phosphorus (V) Chloride:Alkanols release foggy fumes of hydrogen chloride gas; Equation:PCl5 (s) + CH3CH2OH(l) 2CH3CH2OP(l) + HCl2(g)Note:- Both alkenes and alkanols decipher the purple acidic potassium manganese (VII);- However, alkenes decolourise red broome water; Whereas Alcanol doesn't. A summary on the preparation of Alkanols (ethanol) summary on reactions of AlkanolsALKANOIC acids (CARRBOXYLIC acids) is also called organic acids and form a homologous series with a general formula of CnH2n-1OOH formula can also be written as CnH2n +1COOH; In this case n= (no. of carbon atoms (1) members differ from each other by another CH2 group. Their functional group is the carboxylic group (-COOH) which is connected to the Alkil group. A graphical representation of carboxyl group is shown below; note: All carboxylic acids have COOH as a functional group but alcanic acids are only alkanoic acids derived from alcans no mih of alcanic acids the end of alcanos is suitable for replaced by oic acid . Replacing one of the hydrogen atoms by the COOH group. NOTE: - Unlike the functional group alkanols (COOH) in alcanic acids can only be at the end of the carbon chain. C in COOH always gets the first position, while the replacement gets locants (numbers in reference to the first position). Examples: Name of old IUPAC (traditional) where structural formula formic acid ethnoic acid ethnoic acid propionic acid propionic acid oxalic acid Butanedioic concise acid Aceinian acid branched alcanoic acids naming of branched alcanic acids follow the same general rules as that of alkanes; As long as the carbon atom with the COOH group gets the first position. The branch could be an alkyl or halogen group other than hydrogen. Examples: IUPAC Name Consists of 2 - Chlorothanophic Acid 3 - Methylopropnoic Acid 2 - Hydroxyprofenoic Acid 2 - Hydroxy, 2 - Methylopropnoic Acid 4 - Bromo, 3 - Chlorobotanoic Acid Isomerism in Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to The Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid Due to the Existence of Alcanic Acid due to the existence of alcanic acid due to the existence of alcanic acid due to the existence of alcanic acid due to the Alkanoic acids, can be obtained from various isomers for given alkanoic acid; Example: Draw all the pantanoic acid sommers. (3 signs) preparation of industrial alcanic acids manufacturing- is done by oxidation of primary alkanols using air (oxygen) as an oxidation agent. Conditions:- Mild temperatures- 5 ATM pressure- hot copper catalyst; Laboratory preparation.- Made by oxidation of main alkanols using acidic potassium dichromate (VI). Example: Preparing a laboratory of acthic acid. ApparatusProcedure- An oxidized potassium dichromate (VI) heated in a water bath and ethanol added slowly from a water bath.- The mixture is further heated and then distilled.- The distillery collects about 105oC.Observations and explanations.-Color of potassium dichromate (VI) varies from orange to green. Cause: -Dichromate ions are reduced to chromium ions (III). Equation: Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H +(aq) + 6e- 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)- Ethanol is oxidized ethanel (acetaldehyde); Which is further oxidized into alkanoic acid. Equations naturally:Then; General equation properties of alkanoic acids rank in physical properties of alcanic acids where acid formula (structural) molecular formula M.P oC B.P oC soluble methanoic acid HCOOH CH2O2 8.. 8.4 101 Most Soluble Atanoic Acid CH3COOH C2H4O2 16.6 118 Increasing Soluble Propanoic Acid CH3CH2CO COH3H6O2 -20.8 141 Boolean Acid CH3CH2CH2COOH C4H8O2 -6.5 164 Pantanoic Acid CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH5H10O2 -164 Pentanoic Acid CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH5H10O2 -16 34.5 186 Hexanoic Acid CH3(CH2)4COOH C6H12O2 -1.5 205 At least soluble physical properties of colorless liquid ethnoic acid with pungent odor And sharp. A cell is 118o C and freezes at 17 degrees Celsius and creates ice like crystals called glacial athyst. It is water-soluble and is weakly acidic with a P.H. of approximately 4.8.A concentrated ethnoic acid note is only slightly ionized and is poorly conductive of electricity for dilution and its conductivity steadily improves as the ion circumference increases chemical properties (reactions) of Alkanols. Reaction with carbon.- Alcanoi acids react with carbon metal to form salt (metal alcanoate), carbon (IV) oxide and water. Examples: Ethnoic acid and sodium carbonate- Anethic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethnoate and water with carbon oxide gas release (IV). EquationNa2CO3(s) + 2CH3COOH(l) 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)Sodium carbonate sodium athanoate zink carbonate and ethnoic acid. ZnCO3(s) + 2CH3COOH(l) (CH3COO)2Zn(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)Zinc Carbonate Zinc Ethnoate Reaction with Metal Hydroxides (Neutralized)-Alkanols neutralize alislka as sodium hydroxide and creates salt (metal alcanoate) and water only. Examples: Sodium hydroxide and esthyl acid. CH3COOH(l) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Sodium Ethnotapotassium Hydroxide and Dies We are HCOOH(l) + KOH(aq) HCOOK(aq) + H2O(l)Methanoic Acid Potassium Potassium Methanoate Reaction with Metal Oxides Alcanic acids react with metal oxides to produce salt (metal and water alcanate only. Examples: Ethnoic acid and copper (II) oxide.2CH3COOH(l) + CuO(s) (CH3COO)2Cu(aq) + H2O(l)Copper ethnoic acid (II) copper oxide ethnoate reaction with alkano-metals react with reactive metals to form salt (alkanoate metal) and hydrogen gas; Examples:Ethnoic acid and sodium recipe2CH3COOH(l) + Na(s) 2CH3COONa(aq) + H2(g)Ethnoic acid sodium ethnoate acid Propanoic & Magnesium metal2CH3CH2COOH(l) + Mag(s) (CH3CH2COO)2Mg(aq) + H2(g)Magnesium Propanoi Accessory Reaction With Alkanols (Esterification)- alcanic acids react with alkanols to form esters; Conditions:- Drops of concentrated sulfuric acid.- Gentle warming. A reaction of athanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of several drops of concentrated sulfuric acid forming a sweet fruity odor compound called ester.- The process is called esterification. Procedure- 2-3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid are added to the mixture of equal proportions of ethanol and pure ethyl acid in the test.- The mixture gently warms in a water bath for a while.- The mixture spills into the coating and smell;observation- a fruity sweet smell (of ethyl ethnoate); Explanation- Ethanol reacts with ethyl acid in the presence of several drops of concentrated sulfuric acid to form ethyl ethnoate and water.- The reaction is very slow and therefore is scavengered by hydrogen ions from sulfuric acid. equations and H2SO4; warmC2H5OH(l) + CH3COOH (aq) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)Ethanoate Ethnoate Ethnoate (Ester)Structural- Alkyl part of ester derived from alkanol, While the alcanate part is derived from the acid;- alkanol connects to the group in carboxylic acid and thus displaces a hydrogen atom;- under normal conditions the reaction occurs slowly; But in the presence of concentrated sulfate catalyst and hot (heat) conditions, the response is improved; - If propaneol was used instead of ethanol, the reaction would yield the ethnoate ester profile, according to the following equation; CH3COOH(aq) + CH3CH2CH2OH(aq) CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) + H2O(l)Propanol PropylethanoateNote: - Ester react with water to create respective alkanoic acid and alcanol.- This reaction is called hydrolysis and occurs in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid and heat as conditions. Example: Conc. H2SO4CH3COOCH3(aq) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(l) + CH3OH(l)Methyl Ethnoate Heat Ethnoic Acid Methanol Response With sonia amm.- Alcanic acids react with ammonia to produce the ammonium salt of the acid.- A general formula of ammonium alcanate salt is RCOONH4 and disappears:athnoic acid and ammonia gas. CH3COOH(l) + NH3(g) CH3COONH4(aq) uses of alkanoic acids (ethno acid) in pharmaceuticals, for example e.g. ethnoic acid is used in the production of aspirin. Manufacturing colors and insecticides channeling food like clotting vinegar of latex rubber of polyethenyl ethnoate and cellular ethnoate used to produce artificial fibers such as the same same threads. Making soaps. Making perfumes and artificial goodies used to make food. Tests for alcanic acids can be used in the following tests to test for alcanic acids. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates Astrifiction Summary: Draw a summary flowchart to show all reactions of alkanoic acid in the name. Fats and oils are esters of long chain carboxylic acids and glycerol oils occur naturally in plants and animals. Examples: whale oil, ground oil, corn oil and oil. Oils are liquids at room temperature. Cause: They have high rates of esters derived from unsaturated oleic acid in them. Fats. These occur naturally in animals only. Examples: milk, buttermilk, pig fat etc. Fats are solid at room temperature and oils can be converted into fats/hardened fats by hydrogeon. It is a conversion of oils to fats by using hydrogen; And creates the basis of margarine production. During hydrogen:- Hydrogen bubbling into oils under high pressure and temperatures of about 400oC in the presence of the nickel catalyst note- fats and oils are important raw materials in the production of soaps. Soaps and soap-free detergents are a variety of compounds produced when oils or fats react with sodium hydroxide. They are similar in that they contain a long hydrocarbon chain that ends in anion carboxylaate which is attracted to sodium cation. A typical soap is sodium stearate; C17H35COO-Na+Structural preparation of 2cm3 soaps of castor oil and 10cm3 of 4M sodium hydroxide are poured into 100cm3 into 100cm3. The mixture is then heated for about 10 minutes, stirring continuously and adding distilled water to compensate for the evaporation. Explanation: On the alekali boil with fat or oil, a hydrolysis reaction occurs. Equation: When a hydrolysis reaction occurs in the presence of alecal (sodium hydroxide), the process is known as saponification (the chemical reaction between alasal fat) in fat hydrolysis and NaOH neutralizes the resulting acid (i.e. stearic acid) to create the sodium salt of the acid removing it from the gag mixture. So, while Alekali, all fat is utilized. Sodium salt (sodium stearate) of the acid will be recognized as soap if the number of carbon atoms per molecule is more than eight. NOTE: KOH may be used instead of NaOH as Alekali. The cooked mixture is added to 3 sodiumchlorins, mix well and allow to cool. Cause:- NaCl helps separate the soap from the gritrol.- This step is called salt and it reduces the solubility of the soap in the degenerate layer.- The lower layer consists of glycerol, salts and unused alecal solution. General formula of regular soapCnH2n +1COO-Na+ where n> 8 (n is greater than eight) the solid is filtered and washed with cold distilled water, to remove pollutants like the solid sample NaCl is In a parking lot with distilled water, then tap water. Note:- The resulting soap may not have easily been foaming with tap water. Cause:- Some tap water contains a high rate of calcium or magnesium ions that make it difficult to water. Summary on soap preparation The soap role in CleaningNote: Soap functions in this water make the water more effectively wet material by lowering surface voltage. Oil and fat emulsia.- Soap molecules have two different ends: a non-polar hydrocarbon chain that has no attraction to water, hence soluble oil and a carboxylaate tip, which is polar and attracted to water; That's why he's water soluble. NOTE: The Carboxylate tip is actually negatively charged in water because after decomposition, sodium ion and carboxylate ion exist as separate entities. Illustration: Effects of soap on oil water mixture (removing oils and fat during washing)Note: Schematic representation of soap molecule on adding soap into oil water mixture The following accumulation occurs: a molecule of soap has polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) parts. The nonpolar tip dissolves in oil and the polar circle dissolves in water. When the mixture is agitated (thoroughly shaken) the carbon chain (tail) dissolves in oil while the sodium carboxylate tip of the soap molecule (head) remains dissolved in water. Diagram: A role of soap in cleaning.NB: micelle is created when a variety of molecules including soaps and detergents are added to the water. The molecule may be fatty acid, fatty acid salt (soap), phospholipids, or other similar molecules. Each drop of oil ends in a large cloud of negative charging around it when the polar heads are charged negatively. As a result, the oil droplets push each other away, preventing them from merging. Water-soluble sodium heads on the surface of the drops keep the emulsity drop (depending) on the water. During rinsing the water carries the oil droplets. The effect of hard water on calcium and magnesium ion soap in hard water reacts with soap (sodium sodium) and removes it as a soluble gray slurs of magnesium or calcium. Equations: 2C17H35COO-Na+(aq) + Ca2+(aq) (C17H35COO-)2Ca2+(s) + 2Na+(aq)Sodium stearate (soap) calcium stearate 2C17H35COO-Na +(a q) + Mg2+(aq) (C17H35COO-)2Mg2+(s) + 2Na+(aq)Sodium stearate (soap) magnesium stearate soap is wasted this way until all calcium (II) and magnesium (II) stearate has been removed. The resulting scumbags are deposited on fabrics, giving them an ugly dim look. Therefore, in harsh water districts, it is clear that the straws must be removed before rinsing. Removing rigidity:- Depends on whether the hardness is temporary or permanen temporary rigidityCause:- The presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate dissolved in water. Removal:- By boiling the water- during the process soluble calcium or magnesium hydrogen carbonate is rushed out like Calcium or magnesium carbonate. Equation: HeatCa(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) Fixed Rigidity Reason:- Presence of calcium or magnesium aslorides and body Serpents- Can be removed using the following methods: distillation- distilled water The dissolved materials are left behind as water will dissipate and the condensed addition of soda washing (Na2CO3)- the soda for washing tools reacts with ions Mg2+ and Ca2+(aq) accelerate them like sea-soluble carbon:2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2Cl- + Ca2+(aq) CaCO 3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)CO32-(aq) + Mg2+(aq) MgCO3(s)Disadvantage of using soda as Water softener- it is alkaline and can damage the process of replacing wool and silk ion (e.g. permutit water softener)- it involves the use of resin and compounds which will replace their Na+ for Ca2+ or Mg2+ dissolved in hard water- so that as Na?+ enter the water remains in the resin. Equation:2Na+(residing-)(aq) + Ca2 +(aq) Ca2+(residing)2(aq) + Na+(aq) Advantages and disadvantages of hard water These are good for drinking purposes like calcium contained in it helps create strong bones and teeth. When soft water flows in lead pipes some lead is dissolved hence lead poisoning. However, when lead dissolves in hard water PbCO soluble 3 are formed, coating the inside of lead pipes preventing any further reaction is good for cooking and tanning industries; Disadvantages of hard soap and soluble salt forms with magnesium and calcium ions; Scum (calcium or magnesium stearate) thus wasting soap. Note: For this reason soap-free detergents are better than regular soaps because they don't create scumbags; But create soluble salts with Mg2+ and Ca2+- examples of soap-free detergents: brand names such as Omo, perfix, persil, and fab e.t.c. Deposition of soluble magnesium and calcium carbonate and gorpates created from hard water as a result of blockage of water pips due to the formation of boiler scales and kettle fur formation which make appliances inefficient and increase operational costs. Soap effects and pollution. The rinsing water with soap and dirt (grease) ends up in rivers and lakes thus affecting marine life; Since plants do not grow well in soapy water. Note: Soaps are as bodes as it is and therefore do not last long in the environment. Soapfree detergents (synthetic detergents) are detergents lacking carboxylate ions; But also act like soap in the cleaning process instead they have sulfates (-OSO3-Na+) or sulphonate groups (-SO3-Na+) groups. They are so of two main types: sodium alekal sulfate sodium alkilbenzen sulphonate. Sodium alekal sulfate. They are detergents with the formula R - OSO3NaIllustration. Consider the structure of sulfuric acid replacing one of the hydrogen atoms with the alkyl group, results in R into the R-OSO3H compound; It is known as Alkyl hydrogen sulfate; If an alchyl group (R) is a long chain such as dodecyl; CH3(CH2) 10CH2- ; Then The compound's transforms CH3(CH2)10OSO3H (alchilhydrgen sulfate) response to alchihydrigan sulphate with alakli (NaOH) results into a compound with the formula CH3(CH2)10OSO3Na. It is a soap-free detergent and is known as sodium dodecyl sulfate. Sodium alkyl benzene sulphonates are formed when one OH - groups in sulfuric acid is replaced by the benzene alkyl group. There is the general figure formula if benzene alchemy is of ch3(CH2)10CH2 formula - ; So the resulting compound is of a formula (hydrogen dodsil benzene sulphonate) and sodium alcilbenzen sulphonate neutralized using sodium hydroxide to obtain the detergent, the compound called sodium dodecyllbenzene sulphonate. Conclusion: The two main types of soap-free detergents are: sodium alekal sulfates; CH3(CH2)10OSO3Na Sodium Alkilebanzen Sulfont; Note:- Due to a lack of carboxylae pigeons, soap-free detergents do not create scumbags with hard water. Advantage over soap - They are not affected by hard water, because they do not create scum in hard water as follows: preparation of soap-free detergents Most of them are made of hydrocarbon crude oil recoil treated with concentrated sulfuric acid (instead of alkalis in cases of soap)Procedure - about 10 cm of olive oil in a small bag, which then stands in a larger serving with ice-cold water. Concentrated sulfuric acid is carefully added to the olive oil through descending pipette.- The acid is added until the yellow oil turns uniformly brown.- 20cm3 of 6M NaOH is then added; To neutralize the acid solution, resulting in a slightly basic product. The soap was then tested with tap water and distilled water. Explanation- Certain compounds like olive oil contain double bonding which can respond to concentrated sulfuric acid to form compounds of alchilhydogenexample sulphate:- in this case; R=alkyl group, insostrated or straight; While Est = ester group.- On adding NaOH, a neutralized hydrogen alekal sulphate where hydrogen sulfate is replaced by a sodium atom.- The resulting compound is sodium al kilsulphate; Equation:Note:- Alchihydrigan sulfates can also be from alcohol. Example: Most soap-free detergents are sodium alchyl sulfate with general formula ROSO3Na- sodium alchilbensen Soap-free detergents are manufactured industrially from alcilevenzen;- In this process alchilbensen (petroleum product) reacts with SO3 to form sulfuric acid- with neutralization with NaOH, sulfuric acid that creates sodium alcalvenzen sulfate, a detergent. Summary: Production of soapless detergentSupering soapless detergents without soapless detergent has two ends; A long hydrocarbon part, the tail and a short ion part, the head. Simple representation of a detergent molecule. Examples: Sodium lauryl sulphonate sodium sulphonate- the tail is not polar and dissolves in oil or fat (waterphobic) while the head is polar and dissolves in waterphilic.- All oil Grease gets sorrounded by detergent molecules hence a cloud of charged heads and therefore fends off each other rather than blending in.- The dirt (Grease loses its direct contact with the washed fabric.- Any fermentation at this point then removes the dirt from the object. The benefits of soap-free detergents on soap are water easily with hard water since suitable calcium and magnesium salts are soluble in water due to lack of carboxylate ions. are mainly prepared from non-food raw materials. Note:- Soapless detergents with branched chain alkle groups are not easily broken down by bacteria so they are the cause of foam in sewage plants, rivers etc. - as a result the modern industry is overcoming this disadvantage by making detergents from alkylbenzene with straight chain alkiling groups. , therefore accumulate water sources eventually in human bodies. Some supplements such as phosphats cause utrophy hence excessive accumulation of algae (algae blossoms) which change the taste of water and smell, and also reduce oxygen supply hence poor growth of marine organisms. Due to their high tendency to whisk, they cause excessive foam and foam in water sources especially after heavy rains. Comparisons between soaps and soap-free detergents and soaps have a strong cleansing operation and have a weaker cleansing and acrtion are very water soluble; Therefore acidic or hard water can be used and are not soluble in water and tend to be wasted when using hard water they cannot be used in acidic water made from oil industry byproducts; Which helps save fats and edible oils made from fats and edible oils they cause contamination and water are perishable and have minimal pollution effects are expensive and are cheaper than polymer detergents and polymer is a macromolecule created when two or more molecules link together to form a larger unit. Polymers have different properties than monomers. The process of polymer formation is called polymer. There are two types of polymers; Natural and synthetic/artificial polymers. Natural polymers and fabrics Natural polymers occur naturally in living systems. Examples:- Rubber (latex), eilan, cellulose, wool and protein. Natural rubber. Rubber trees give a liquid called latex, which is collected from cuts in trunks of rubber trees. Natural rubber made of latex from rubber trees. Latex is a C5H8 hydrocarbon, called isoprene (2, methylbot 1,3 diene). A formula of clotting isoprene of latex leads to the formation of a hydrocarbon polymer consisting of isoprene (2, methylbot-1, 3-diene) units. This polymer is called polyesophrenic with the formula; Characteristics of natural rubber. Soft and sticky; Low durability and low tensile strength; So easily broken on stretches; Losing his rubber like Temperatures above 60oC; Note:- These are not good features and for industrial purposes this quality needs to be improved.- This is done through the volcanization of rubber. Vulcanization of rubber.- is a chemical reaction in which raw rubber is heated with sulfur and is done deliberately to improve the wear quality of rubber. The process of vulcanization;- Heated rubber with sulfur- sulfur atoms form links between chains of rubber molecules.- This reduces the number of double bonds in polymer; Which makes the material harder, less flexible and less soft.During the process sulfur atoms connect to the rubber molecule in such a way that the molecules lock in place and avoid smoothing. Note: - Soft rubber has about 2% sulfur, while hard rubber about 10 % sulfur.- Rubber can also be made artificially in industries and it gives a form of synthetic rubber.- Besides undergoing volcanism it has chemicals that give it the desired properties.- It is made from oil industry byproducts.- Examples of synthetic rubber include neoprene and thiokol. NOTE: Neoprene is made by chlorofrene polymer (2, chlorobot 1,3 diene), C4H5ClEquation:Synthetic rubber properties. They are inactive, so they do not react with industrial chemicals like oils, grease, gasoline etc. They are not inflammatory, as they do not catch fire easily. Capable of meeting a wide range of temperatures without changing shape. There's high mechanical power. Synthetic rubber uses. Manufacture of consulate materials for electrical connections. Making conveyor belts and seat belts. Manufacturing tires and car pipes. Making gaskets, flexible tubes. Advantages and disadvantages of natural polymers. Advantages. They are bodes and therefore not a likely cause of environmental pollution. Made of renewable resources such as wool and trees; That's why it's not easy to make the most of it. Most of them are not easily flammable so materials are good for items like clothing. Disadvantages are often very expensive compared to synthetic polymers. Some don't last long. Easily affected by acids, alkalis, air etc. Synthetic polymers are known by humans e.g. polyethylene, and perspex are of two main types; Thermoplastic polymers and thermostats. Thermoplastic softens in heating and becomes rigid with the cooling. Examples: nylon, polyethylene, polystyrene, etc. Thermostating: Do these become difficult to heat and cannot be softened by heating. Benefits of synthetic polymers and fibers over natural polymers are easily made into different forms. They're cheaper. Ac, alkalis, water and air ids are often not affected. They are generally less dense yet stronger than the disadvantages of synthetic polymers and fibers on plastic and natural polymers are not consumable and therefore causes much if problems in plastic disposal burn more easily than natural material and some synthetic polymers give toxic gases when they burn. For example, polyurethane emits cyanide and carbon monoxide Polymer's: Polymer additionally occurs when non-hesitant molecules (monomers) join to form a long chain molecule (polymer) without the formation of any other product. Usually the monots must be at least a double or triangular knot. One of the bonds in the double or triple bonds in the monomer opens, and the unrelated electrons form bonds with neighboring molecules. - Conditions for polymer. Polymer of athene polyethylene calculations involving polymers. The polyisoprene molecule is represented as: given that the relative formula mass of polyisoprene is 748 000, calculate the number of isoprene units in polymer. Summary on common polymers. Monomer polymer properties uses ethylene polyethylene light; Hard and durable polyethene bags; packing bowls; electrical insulation; Plastic tubes etc propane polypropylene light;hard and durable making crates, boxes and plastic wires chloroethene polychlroethene (polyvinylchloride) strong and hard (not as flexible as polyethylene) making plastic tubes, electric predictors, floor tiles, crdit cards phenylatan (steyrn) polyphenyltan (polyesterine) light; Poor heat bearer; fragile isolation; Packaging materials and food containers Tetrafluoroethene Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon) No - stick surface; Meets high temperatures without - coating relieves pans; insulation of polymethylate polymethylate acrylate (perspex) optical components; transparent doors and windows; display signs; Dental fillings and polymer preoccupation occurs when monomers (similar or different) combine to form a long chain molecule; With the loss of small molecules like ammonia or water. The mooters should have at least two functional groups. Cause: For molecules to join at both ends allowing chain formation;Figure to consider two molecules A and B; Each with 2 functional groups: Molecule A; Oh - A - Oh, with two OH functional groups; Molecule B; HOOC - B - COOH, with two -COOH functionality on engagingHO-A-O H + HOOC - B - COOH + HO - A - OH + ... therefore; Lost to create waterHO - A - OH + HOOC - B - COOH [HO-A-OOC-B-CO]n+ 2H2O(l) Types of preoccupation polymers.- Are of two types: polyester- are polymer formed by ester link; Usually with the release of a water molecule. Example : Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) (Trillen) Polyamides- are an occupational polymer involving monomers that have at least a reliable group (at least one of them); And so usually the result of the evolution of ammonia gas or water. Example: Nylon 6,6 or examples of occupational polymers and their uses character. Polymer Polymer uses polyvinyl chloride vinylchloride making raincoats, plastic discs, Plastic water pipes electric insulation starch glucose laundry cellulose paper and clothing produce silk and wool proteins (amino acids) making polyester clothing (trillen/Dacron) steadfast prey acid 1,2 diol (ethylene glycol) clothing and seat belts Bakelite Urea and Ethan 1,Ethan 2 diol (ethylen glycol) clothing and seat belts Bakelite Urea and Ethan 1.2 diol (ethylen glycol) clothing and seat belts Bakelite Urea and Ethan 1.2 diol (ethylen glycol) clothing and seat belts Bakelite Urea and Electrical Accessories Perspex Methylmethcarilate Seat Belts, Windshield & Plastic Lenses Nylon Hexan - 1,6 - Diol Dichloride; and hexane - 1,6 - Hexane acid xenoic hexane diamineor - 1,6 - diamine used for making safety glass, reflective, contact lenses; Dentures

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