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Creating High Quality Chocolate Muffins Using Egg-ReplacersKNH 404 Advanced Food ScienceMay 5, 2013ABSTRACTRoller, Lynne. Creating high quality chocolate muffins using egg replacers. KNH 404- Advanced Food Science, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, Spring 2014. The purpose of this study was to create a high quality chocolate muffin using egg replacers. Three variations of egg replacers were used to completely replace the use of egg within a chocolate muffin recipe: applesauce, potato starch, and mashed potatoes. The study was completed in the Miami University dietetic food science laboratory. The muffins were prepared according to a standard recipe (see Appendix A), which was altered through recipe development to include a lower fat and higher fiber content. There were no modifications in the original recipe procedure. After preparation, the muffins were objectively tested for volume and tenderness. Volume was tested using a seed displacement test, and tenderness, using the Texture Analyzer, TA.XT21. The reliability and validity were ensured by testing three samples of each variation on three different days. The ingredients were precisely measured using a metric scale, and the muffins were baked in the same oven for the same amount of time to confirm reliability. The muffins were subjectively tested by a panel of three semi-trained Miami University senior dietetic students using a high quality muffin scoresheet. Each panelist was given three samples in varying order on each of the three testing days. The panelists scored the muffins, and the means of the scores were used as data to determine results. The panelists assessed crust color, volume, tenderness, flavor, and lack of off-flavored aftertaste. The reliability and validity were ensured by presenting the muffins to panelists in a different order on each day, and were placed on a white plate in a semi-secluded area. Panelists were given a glass of room temperature water and were not aware of the variations being tested. After all of the data was collected from the objective and subjective tests, results were analyzed. The objective data gained from the seed displacement concluded that the muffins made with mashed potatoes held the greatest volume. The data gained from the Texture Analyzer concluded that the muffins made with mashed potatoes were the most tender. The subjective data gained from the sensory panel concluded that the crust color, volume, flavor, and lack of off-flavored aftertaste of the muffins containing mashed potatoes were the most desirable. However, panelists concluded the muffins containing applesauce were just as tender as the muffins containing mashed potatoes. The best quality muffin was ascertained to be the muffin containing mashed potatoes, determined by collaborating both objective and subjective test results. INTRODUCTIONThe concern with high cholesterol, related to heart disease, is an increasingly prevalent health concern in the United States. Egg protein contains natural amounts of dietary cholesterol. Although having high cholesterol can be harmful, discrepancy remains concerning the linkage between chicken eggs and increased blood cholesterol levels (Behrenbeck, 2012). Research has found that eating four egg yolks or fewer during the week is not harmful in the fight against heart disease (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Nonetheless, if an individual is concerned about their cholesterol levels, it is important to limit the amount of yolk consumed through various products. A second prevalent health concern in the United States is egg-allergies. Egg- allergies are one of the eight most common allergies in the United States, especially among children (FARE, 2013). Symptoms of egg allergies can include skin rashes, hives, nasal inflammation, vomiting, and digestive problems (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Egg allergies are caused by an immune system overreaction. When the body comes in contact with egg proteins, the immune system releases histamine and other chemicals to combat the unknown substance, creating the symptoms listed above. Typically, a baked product, such as chocolate muffins, contains eggs and would not be tolerable for individuals with these concerns. Because of these health problems, traditional foods should be altered in order for individuals to consume. Recipes do not usually take these issues with eggs into account. Altering the egg within a recipe poses challenges. In muffins, eggs contribute to the color, nutrients, thickening, flavor, tenderness, and binding of ingredients. Removing eggs from chocolate muffins could impair these characteristics, changing the quality of the final product. Bananas, applesauce, potato starch, mashed potatoes, soy-wheat egg-replacer, and whey protein are some of the egg-replacers that might be used to replace eggs within muffins. However, these ingredients all have the potential to change the product’s quality, specifically altering the color, volume, increasing or decreasing tenderness, changing the flavor, or creating an unwanted off-flavored aftertaste. Because of these possible quality changes, it can be difficult to replace the egg in a chocolate muffin recipe. Current published research about egg-replacers commonly focuses on commercially produced products, and further research is needed to support the use of more consumer-available ingredients. In the Journal of Food Processing and Preservation (Ratnayake, 2011), research was done to test the use of soy/wheat egg replacer, whey protein egg replacer, and fiber/gum-based egg replacers in yellow cake. This study proved that the use of these commercially made products as complete egg-replacers does not create high quality results. However, several consumers have left comments on websites and Internet blogs supporting the use of applesauce, potato starch, and mashed potatoes as appropriate egg-replacers for muffins. Since there was a lack of available published research using these ingredients as egg-replacers in muffins, further research was needed. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMThe purpose of this study was to create a high quality chocolate muffin using egg-replacers. HYPOTHESESThree hypotheses were developed for this study:The muffin made with applesauce would be the most tender. The muffin made with potato starch would have the best flavor. The muffin made with mashed potatoes would have the greatest volume. DEFINITION OF TERMSCoronary heart disease: Disease in which plaque builds up inside the coronary arteries, reducing the supply of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle (Coronary, 2012).Egg-Allergy:An immune system overreaction that occurs when egg proteins are seen as harmful by the body. The immune system will release histamine and cause allergic signs and symptoms (Mayo Clinic, 2013). Egg-Replacer: Product or ingredient that does not contain any egg (Michael, 2014).Potato Starch: Starch extracted from potatoes. The starch is washed out and dried to a powder. Often used as a stabilizing agent when gelatinized by heat (Bender, 2005). REVIEW OF LITERATUREThe use of eggs within food products can have an impact on an individual’s cholesterol levels. Egg protein has been shown to be a major source of dietary cholesterol, with one egg containing around 200mg of cholesterol (Weggemans, 2001). It is important for one’s diet to stay within healthy limits of total cholesterol. It is recommended to stay below 200mg/dL a day for a desirable cholesterol intake. Levels of 200-240mg/dL are considered too high according to U.S. guidelines (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Because of the high content of cholesterol in eggs, it is important to be aware of food products that contain eggs, since these foods may increase cholesterol levels. There are two types of cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL cholesterol is considered “bad,” and is the main source of cholesterol buildup in the arteries. When an individual is at risk for heart disease, it is usually found that their LDL cholesterol levels are too high. HDL cholesterol, or “good” cholesterol helps in preventing the buildup of cholesterol in the arteries (Mayo Clinic, 2014). It is important to have a balanced LDL-HDL ratio in order to fight against coronary heart disease. Consuming one egg will not increase bad cholesterol levels, however, eating more than one egg a day could eventually lead to increased cholesterol levels. Therefore, it is important to monitor the food products that have hidden eggs, such as chocolate muffins, since these additional foods may affect cholesterol levels. Another group of individuals that need to be mindful of egg consumption, are those with egg-allergies. Eggs are one of the eight most common food allergies, along with peanuts, tree nuts, milk, wheat, soy, fish, and shellfish (FARE, 2013). Both egg yolks and egg whites contain proteins, which could lead to allergic reactions. Mild cases of allergic reactions to eggs can cause skin hives, eczema, itchy mouth, nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, nasal congestion, or sneezing. In more severe cases, symptoms may consist of obstructive swelling of the lips, tongue, throat, trouble swallowing, shortness of breath, turning blue, drop in blood pressure, loss of consciousness, chest pain, or a weak pulse. The most severe reaction to food is anaphylaxis where breathing and blood circulation are impaired. This reaction could be life threatening if action is not taken immediately (FARE, 2013). There are certain factors that may place an individual at greater risk for developing an egg allergy. Having a family history of food allergies, asthma, hay fever, hives, or eczema, or atopic dermatitis may place someone in greater risk. Also, egg allergies are seen mostly in children when their digestive systems are not completely mature yet. In children, egg allergies often increase the risk of developing allergies to other foods such as milk, soy, or peanuts, since these foods have the same immune system reaction as eggs (Mayo Clinic, 2013). In order to adjust to these health concerns, food products must be created or bought without the use of egg. However, products that are created without eggs should be held at the same high quality standards as foods that contain egg. The outside characteristics of chocolate muffins would be a dark brown color and a rounded top. The internal standards would be tenderness, good volume, desirable flavor, and lack of off-flavor (Michael, 2014). Eggs play a crucial role in many food items. When baking muffins with eggs as an ingredient, there are specific roles and characteristics in which the egg is responsible for producing. Eggs tenderize, leaven, emulsify, and provide structure to muffins. Since eggs have high water content, they hold moisture, which tenderizes the other ingredients during baking. Eggs are used as a leavener by trapping air in the foam. Since oil and water want to separate naturally, adding eggs to these ingredients will emulsify and allow ingredients to mix well. Lastly, eggs provide structure to muffins as the proteins slowly set (Michael, 2014). When using egg-replacers, certain roles of ingredients must be taken into consideration before placing them into a recipe. Applesauce has been known to act as a good replacement for eggs in baked goods. Because of the high water content in applesauce, it tends to increase the tenderness of products due to high moisture when baking. Because of this high moisture content, a longer baking time may be necessary in order to remove more of the water from the muffins (Substitution, 2014). Applesauce also has a distinct sweet apple flavor, which could affect the flavor of a baked good. Using chocolate in a recipe may allow for the apple flavor to go unnoticed (Turnbull, 2014). Potato starch has also been shown to be a successful egg-replacer. Potato starch is made from high starch potatoes and water through a filtration process. When used in baking, potato starch will enhance moisture by retaining water. In so, this will aid in keeping a high quality tenderness and volume (Kohrs, 2010). Potato starch can also help to stabilize the other ingredients used in baking, acting as an emulsifier (Nessinger, 2007). Potato starch, unlike applesauce, will have a good chocolate flavor. Lastly, potato starch is very cost effective and microbiologically stable, making it appealing to consumers (Burla, 2008). Potatoes hold many of the same characteristics as potato starch. Mashing potatoes increases their water content. When used in baking, potatoes provide moisture to help create tenderness. Holding nutritive value and emulsifying properties, potatoes can be a good replacement for eggs (Canadian, 2011). Using mashed potatoes will also be cost effective and microbiologically stable (Burla, 2008).When used as variations in chocolate muffins, these ingredients may create unwanted product characteristics. Since applesauce provides so much moisture, the muffins created by this method may become too tender and undesirable. There is also a risk of changing the flavor of the muffins, or creating a sour or off-flavored aftertaste. Potato starch, although a good stabilizer, may absorb too much moisture, creating a less tender product. Using mashed potatoes in chocolate muffins may not stabilize ingredients as well as potato starch, making it not as tender, but still a good volume. PROCEDUREThree variations of egg-replacers were tested in Miami University’s food science lab on three trail days. The variations that were prepared:Chocolate muffin made with 1/4 c. applesauceChocolate muffin made with 1 Tbsp. potato starchChocolate muffin made with 1/4 c. mashed potatoesFollowing a standard muffin recipe and procedure, every batch of muffins was consistently made. The recipe (Appendix A), was found at , and was altered slightly through a recipe development project completed at Miami University’s food lab. Through this project, 1/4 c. of coconut flour replaced 1/4 c. of all-purpose flour, milk was changed to 1%, and full-fat yogurt to fat free. These changes were made in order to increase the fiber content and decrease the fat content within the muffins. These changes still allowed for the muffin to maintain standard high quality characteristics. When replacing the egg with one of the variations in the chocolate muffin recipe, no other changes were made. The equipment used for baking was consistent for all muffins. A six-cup, greased, light aluminum muffin pan was used for all trials. The muffins were baked in the same oven, which were baked one variation at a time. The oven was set at 400° F for 20 minutes. The oven was tested using an oven tester three days prior to the first trial day. Using this tool allowed for accuracy of oven temperature during experiments. All ingredients were measured out using a metric scale to ensure reliability and validity. After each variation of muffin was baked and cooled, they were first tested for volume using a seed displacement test. During this test, a muffin was cut vertically in half and placed in a hollow aluminum can, which was inside of a 500mL beaker. The can was filled with seeds until the muffin was completely covered, but before any seeds fell into the beaker. The can was then removed and the muffin taken out of the beaker. The seeds in the beaker were then measured using a graduated cylinder. Numbers were recorded for each sample. The greater the amount of seeds measured indicated a lower volume. Next, each variation was tested for tenderness using the Texture Analyzer TA.XT21, located in Miami University’s dietetics laboratory. The Texture Analyzer determined which muffin variation was the most tender by penetrating each sample and determining the grams of force needed to penetrate half-way through the sample. A higher number of grams would indicate a less tender product. In order to confirm reliability and validity, samples were tested directly after cooling, allowing none of the muffins to dry out before using the Texture Analyzer. Lastly, three semi-trained Miami University dietetic student panelists completed a sensory analysis. Each panelist filled out a high quality muffin sensory scorecard (Appendix B). Panelists were instructed on how to fill out the scorecard four days prior to trial days. The scorecard consisted of a five-point scale, with five being very good, and one being very poor. Panelists scored five different characteristics: crust color, volume, tenderness, flavor, and lack of off-flavored aftertaste. Each muffin evaluated was placed on a white plate and panelists were given a fork and a room temperature glass of water. Each panelist sat in a room separate from the dietetic food laboratory and evaluated each product. Testing the same three panelists on three different trial days also ensured reliability and validity. Samples were also presented in a varying order each day and coded with either ?, O, or * to prevent any bias. RESULTS AND ANALYSISEach muffin variation was tested for volume using a seed displacement test. Results of this test are presented in Table 1. Results shoed that the muffin made with mashed potatoes had the greatest volume. Table 1VariationDay 1Day 2Day 3TotalApplesauce255mL250mL248mL251mLPotato Starch255mL252mL255mL254mLMashed Potato245mL250mL245mL246mLTotal scores represent the mean for each day of testingResults are displayed in milliliters to accurately measure volumeThe results of the objective test using seed displacement do support the hypothesis of mashed potatoes having the greatest volume. Since a lower score indicates a greater volume, the mashed potato muffin has the greatest volume followed by potato applesauce and then potato starch. Each muffin variation was then tested using the Texture Analyzer TA. XT21. This test was done to determine the most tender muffin variation. Results (Table 2) showed that the muffin containing mashed potatoes was the most tender. Table 2VariationDay 1Day 2Day 3TotalApplesauce497610465524Potato Starch455576845625Mashed Potatoes341483636486Scores represent the man for each day of testing using the Texture Analyzer TA. XT21. Results are presented in grams of force.Total scores represent the mean of all three testing days.The results of the Texture Analyzer do not support the hypothesis that the muffin with applesauce will be the most tender. Instead, results showed that the muffin made with mashed potatoes were the most tender, followed by muffins made with applesauce, and then potato starch. Lastly, the muffins were also tested with the high quality sensory score sheet to evaluate for desirability and product characteristics. Results are presented in Table 3.Table 3CharacteristicApplesaucePotato StarchMashed potatoCrust Color3.83.64.4Volume4.23.94.4Tenderness4.43.54.1Flavor3.23.73.9Lack of off-flavored aftertaste3.84.14.1Scores represent means for the three days of testing by three semi-trained Miami University dietetic students using a high quality brownie sensory scorecard.Scores ranged from five to one, with five being very good and one being very poor.Results from the subjective testing indicate that the overall highest quality muffin was the one made with mashed potatoes. This was determined because it had the highest overall scores in all characteristics except tenderness and lack of off-flavored aftertaste, and most scores were above the 4.0-point scale. The results indicate that the hypothesis that the muffin made with applesauce would be the most tender was correct according to subjective testing. The hypothesis stating that the muffin made with potato starch would have the best flavor was not correct, as the muffin made with mashed potatoes had a higher score. The hypothesis stating that the muffin made with mashed potatoes would have the greatest volume was correct. These numbers, however, were tied or came very close to being the highest. The least desirable muffin was the one made with potato starch, because it received most of the lowest scores specifically in tenderness, volume, and color. CONCLUSIONSAfter analyzing both subjective and objective data results, it was determined that the muffin with the highest quality was the one made with mashed potatoes. However, the third hypothesis, stating the mashed potato muffin would have the greatest volume, was the only correct hypothesis. Instead, the muffin made with mashed potatoes was the most tender and had the greatest volume according to objective testing. It was also the most desirable as shown by the panelists. The purpose of this study was accomplished because a high quality muffin was produced using an egg-replacer. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCHIf this study were done again, it would be useful to continue investigating these specific egg-replacers. It was proven that all three are acceptable replacements for eggs within this chocolate muffin recipe. However, it would be interesting to determine the capacity of egg they are capable of replacing. For example, the same test could be repeated using a different muffin recipe that originally calls for a whole egg to make six muffins. Doing this will allow 1/2 c. of applesauce to be tested rather than 1/4 c. in the muffins. This will allow applesauce to be better investigated as an egg-replacer. It would also be useful to test these same egg-replacers in a different product, such as brownies, and seeing if the creation of a high quality product is possible. LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDYThere were a few limitations within this study. An environmental limitation existed by having a sensory room adjacent to the laboratory, allowing smells and sounds to affect the panelists. Another limitation was cutting the muffins before performing the seed displacement test. In order to receive an accurate reading, a whole muffin is preferred. The last limitation was not being able to have one panelist taste products on the same day that samples were baked. Instead, the panelist had to sample the variations a day later, which could have affected the quality of the muffin. Appendix AChocolate MuffinsName:Date:Directions: Sample each muffin. Then score the muffins using the appropriate number according to the following criteria. Please drink water before tasting each sample. ?O*Crust Color5- Very Good4- Good3- Fair2- Poor1- Very PoorVolume5- Very Good4- Good3- Fair2- Poor1- Very PoorTenderness5- Very Good4- Good3- Fair2- Poor1- Very PoorFlavor5- Very Good4- Good3- Fair2- Poor1- Very PoorLack of off-flavored aftertaste5- Very Good4- Good3- Fair2- Poor1- Very PoorAppendix BMoist Chocolate Muffins-Base Recipe205 g all-purpose flour28.5 g coconut flour114 g white sugar114 g chocolate chips57 g unsweetened cocoa powder2.5 g baking soda2.5 g vanilla extractEgg-replacerApplesauce: 28.5 gPotato Starch: 14 gMashed Potatoes: 28.5 g114 g plain nonfat yogurt57 g 1% milk57 g vegetable oilPreheat oven to 400 degrees F (200 degrees C). Grease 6 muffin cups or line with paper muffin liners. Combine flour, sugar, ? cup melted chocolate chips, cocoa powder, and baking soda in a large bowl. Whisk egg-replacer, yogurt, milk, vanilla extract, and vegetable oil in another bowl until smooth; pour into chocolate mixture and stir until batter is just blended. Fill prepared muffin cups 3/4 full. Bake in preheated oven until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean, about 20 minutes. Cool in the pans for 10 minutes before removing to cool completely. Yield: 6 muffins.REFERENCES CITEDBehrenbeck, Thomas, M.D., Ph.D. (2012, January 12). Are chicken eggs good or bad for my cholesterol? The Mayo Clinic. . Burla, Michel. “In search of egg-quivalents.” October 2008. Canadian Press (2011, March 25). Secret ingredient: chocolate birthday cake has mashed potatoes for soft texture. Points of View Reference Center. Coronary heart disease. (2012). National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Food allergies. (2014). Food Allergy Research & Education. Giancoli, A.N. (2014). Cutting through cholesterol confusion. Environmental Nutrition, 37(1), 7.Kohrs, D. D., Herald, T.J., Aramouni, F.M., & Abughoush, M. M. (2010). Evaluation of egg replacers in a yellow cake system. Emirates Journal of Food & Agriculture (EJFA),22(2), 340-352.Lapcevic, K.N. (2009, October). BAKE WITH APPLESAUCE. Mother Earth News, (236). 26.Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011). Eggs: bad for cholesterol? The Mayo Clinic.Mayo Clinic Staff. (2013, January 26). Egg allergy. The Mayo Clinic. Michael, C. KNH 404- Advanced Food Science, Course Manual. Spring, 2014, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.“Moist chocolate muffins,” January, 2004. Allrecipes. chocolate-muffins/. Online. Internet. February 19, 2014. Nessinger, B.T. (2007). Potato’s Potential. Prepared Foods, 176(7), 160. Substitution Solutions. (2014). Living Without. 17(3), 76. Turnbull, Barbara. (2007). “Five healthy cooking substitutions for the holiday season.” Weggemans, R., Zock, Peter. (2001). Dietary cholesterol from eggs increases ratio of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in humans: a meta-analysis 1’2’3. American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 73(5). 885-891. OTHER REFERENCESBorneo, R. Aguirre, A. Leon, Alberto.,E. (2010). Chia (salvia hispanica L) gel can be used as egg or oil replacer in cake formulations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 110. 946-949. Kohrs, D. Herald, T.J. Aramouni, F.M. Abughoush, M. Evaluation of egg replacers in a yellow cake system. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 22(5). 340-352.Ratnayake, W. S., Geera, B., Rybak, D. A. (2011). Effects of egg and egg replacers on yellow cake product quality. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 36, 21-29. ................
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