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Studies of Religion

2 Unit – Preliminary Course

Religion in Australia Pre-1945

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Resource Book 2014

Name: ____________________

Studies of Religion - Preliminary Course - 2 Unit

Religion in Australia pre-1945 16 indicative hours

The focus of this study is the establishment and development of religious traditions in Australia pre-1945.

Outcomes

A student:

P2 identifies the influence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society

P3 investigates religious traditions and belief systems

P5 describes the influence of religious traditions in the life of adherents

P6 selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources

P7 undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources

P8 uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems

P9 effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.

Content

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|Students learn about: |Students learn to: |

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|Religious traditions in Australia pre-1945 | |

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|arrival and establishment of Christianity and TWO other religious |1. outline the arrival and establishment of Christianity and |

|traditions in Australia |TWO other religious traditions in Australia |

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|issues related to the development of Christianity in Australia |2a. examine the impact of sectarianism on the relationship |

|pre-1945: |among Christian denominations in Australia pre-1945 |

|sectarianism | |

|social welfare |2b. examine the contribution of Christianity to social |

| |welfare in Australia pre-1945 |

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|the contribution of ONE religious tradition in Australia to each of|3a. discuss the role of ONE religious tradition in rural and |

|the following pre-1945: |outback communities pre-1945 |

|rural and outback communities | |

|education |3b. outline the contribution of ONE religious tradition to |

|public morality |the provision of education in Australia pre-1945 |

| | |

| |3c. examine initiatives taken by ONE religious tradition in |

| |Australia in the area of public morality pre-1945 |

RELIGION IN AUSTRALIA PRE 1945

1a. Arrival and Establishment of Christianity in Australia

a. ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST FLEET

Christianity arrived in Australia in 1788 as part of the English penal colony of New South Wales. Among the members of this First Fleet were English convicts, most of who belonged to the Church of England and Irish convicts, most of whom were Roman Catholic. The officials in the party were mostly English and the Church of England was regarded as the established religion in New South Wales. Rev Richard Johnson, a Minister of the Church of England was the first Chaplain to the colony.

b. SECTARIAN DIVISION

The history of political and religious division between the English and Irish ensured that bitter rivalry continued to affect the life of the colony. The deep religious division known as sectarianism had raged since the days of the reformation in the 16th century and was strongly felt in the colony.

c. SABBATH OBSERVANCE

Life in the colony was harsh. Many of its inhabitants were unruly and harsh punishments were commonly used to keep the convicts under control. Governor Philip had received the instructions to "ensure appropriate observance of religion" in the colony and he fulfilled these instructions by insisting that all people, regardless of their beliefs, would attend the Church of England Divine Service. This requirement caused considerable resentment among the English, many of whom were not in the habit of attending Church and even more so among the Irish who were being forced to worship in the Church which was not their own.

d. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION, LAW, AND PUNISHMENT

The reputation of the Christian Church as part of the oppressive forces of government in the colony was further enhanced by the fact that the Ministers of the Church of England also acted as magistrates, sitting in judgement on the crimes of the colony. In this capacity, they regularly gave out severe punishments. So much so that the second Chaplain to the colony, Rev Samuel Marsden, was known as the 'flogging parson'.

e. DOMINANCE OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND

Gradually, various denominations of Christianity became established in the colony. The Church of England as the Established Church was the largest and most influential. The Church of England enjoyed the patronage of the governing authorities and was extremely influential in a wide range of issues. The Catholic Church was the most troublesome, with its members being constantly in dispute with the English authorities. Catholicism was not permitted to operate formally until 1820. Prior to that, informally and with some occasional concessions, the Catholics maintained their faith with fierce loyalty. In the early years of the colony, other denominations also established themselves and began to develop. There were well established communities of Methodists and Presbyterians within a few decades of the colony's beginnings.

1b. Arrival and establishment of Judaism in Australia

Judaism, after Christianity, is the second religion to be established in Australia. Generally speaking, the immigration of Jews was small before World War One. Even after World War One the percentage of Jews in the Australian population has been quite small, around one percent, in fact.

a. ESTABLISHMENT OF JUDAISM IN NSW

The first Jews arrived in Australia in 1788, as convicts on the First Fleet. In 1817, the first minyan, that is, a quorum of 10 Jewish men, was formed. The Jewish Burial society, Chevra Kaddisha, was also established. The formation of a minyan and establishment of the Chevra Kaddisha are recognised as the formal beginnings of a functioning Jewish community in New South Wales.

During the 1830s services were being held regularly in homes such as that of Phillip Joseph Cohen who was also authorised to perform Jewish marriages. This is generally regarded as the first Jewish synagogue. Critical to the acceptance of Cohen's community by the broader Australian community was the fact that that they spoke English unlike most European Jews. In 1830 Aaron Levy became the first Rabbi in Australia. In 1837 the first official synagogue was opened in Bridge St, Sydney with a capacity to seat 100 males and 30 females. In 1844, a permanent synagogue was consecrated in York St, Sydney. The York St synagogue could hold 500 people and was to serve as the centre of Jewish life in Sydney until the Great Synagogue was built in Elizabeth St in 1878 with Alexander Davis as the Chief Rabbi. By the late 1800s there were synagogues in most major cities, however, over 40% of Jews lived in rural areas.

b. ESTABLISHMENT OF JUDAISM IN THE DIFFERENT STATES OF AUSTRALIA

Judaism had been present in Tasmania since 1804 with the first synagogue consecrated in 1845. Meanwhile, in Victoria, the first congregation was formed in 1843 with a synagogue opening five years later. During the gold rush of the 1850s the number of Jews in Victoria swelled from a few hundred to over 3000. Sporadic Jewish worship in South Australia began as early as 1844 with the first synagogue consecrated in 1850. In Western Australia no organised Jewish community developed until the end of the nineteenth century even though Jews had lived in Western Australia from 1829 onwards.

1c: Arrival and establishment of Islam in Australia

a. MACASSAR

The numbers of Muslims in Australia according to the 2001 census was 281,572, which is approximately 1.5% of the total Australian population. The first Muslims came into contact with the Australian continent prior to white settlement in 1788. These visits, which began in the 1750s, were from Macassan fisherman who came from what is known today as Indonesia. Their encounters with the Australian Aborigines were generally friendly and peaceful. The introduction of the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 and the establishment of territorial waters meant that these visits from Macassar came to a total halt by 1907. Other Muslims from Indonesia were brought to Australia to work in the pearling industry and sugar plantations during the late nineteenth century. The implementation of the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, meant that many Muslims returned to their homelands.

b. AFGHANISTAN AND PAKISTAN

A few Muslims came to Australia as part of European settlement, either as convicts or sailors. But it was not until the use of camel transportation in Australia that the numbers of Muslims in Australia began to increase. Camel transportation was seen as an effective method of travelling the vast desert areas of the Australian interior. From the 1860s onwards, Muslims came to Australia as camel drivers. Most of these were from modern day Pakistan and Afghanistan. In 1882 the first Islamic mosque was built in Maree, South Australia. In 1890 another mosque was built in Adelaide. During the 1880s and 1890s, Muslims controlled and dominated the camel transportation business in NSW, Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, and Central Australia. During this period there were approximately 3000 Muslims who were working as camel drivers across Australia. The 1920s saw the end of the camel transport industry which meant that many Muslims had to leave Australia.

c. TURKEY AND LEBANON

The migration of Muslims from Turkey and Lebanon dates back to the nineteenth century, however, these migrations occurred in relatively small numbers. Muslims from Turkey numbered approximately 300 by 1911. But following World War 1, where Australians fought against the Ottomans (Turks) the number of Turkish born Muslims in Australia declined.

2a: The impact of sectarianism on the relationship among Christian denominations in Australia pre-1945

a. RELIGIOUS DIVISION

The term sectarianism refers to rivalry or division along religious lines. In many cases sectarianism leads to severe discrimination, persecution and violence.

The conflict in Northern Ireland can be seen as sectarian rivalry between Catholics and Protestants. The present conflict in Israel can be seen a sectarian rivalry between Jews (Israelis) and Muslims (Palestinians).

b. SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS REASONS

Often where there is a history of sectarian division, there are social and political reasons mixed with religious reasons. It can be very difficult to separate one aspect from another. In some cases, religious extremists claim they are acting from religious motivation when in fact social and political reasons are clearly important factors.

At the time of the arrival of the first fleet (1788) there was considerable rivalry and bitterness between the Church of England and Catholics in England and Ireland. This sectarianism stemmed from two main sources.

c. PROTESTANT REFORMATION

Firstly, the Protestant reformation of the 16th century had left a great deal of bitterness between the Catholics and Protestants. Rivalry and mistrust had continued passionately in the centuries that followed and by the end of the 18th century there was extreme division between Protestants and Catholics in virtually all walks of life.

d. ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF IRELAND

Secondly, the occupation of Ireland by the English and the oppression of the Irish people maintained the strength of feeling. The occupation of Ireland was more a political than religious issue, however, religion featured strongly in the respective identities of the English and Irish. This ensured that sectarianism would be part of the situation.

With the establishment of the colony in NSW, sectarianism continued to be a major issue. The colony was set up with the Church of England as the established religion. The Catholics in the colony were a small minority and felt they were harshly treated.

e. FORCED RELIGIOUS PRACTICE

In the early years of the colony, it was expected that everybody attended Sunday worship and that this was to be in the form of the Church of England Divine Service. The decision not to allow Catholics to worship according to their own religion created further resentment. For most of the first 30 years of the colony Catholics were not permitted to have a Priest minister to their community.

The English authorities feared that granting permission for Catholics to worship together would breed sedition as in evidence through the 1795 uprising in Ireland where the Catholic clergy had taken key roles inciting the people to rebellion.

f. CASTLE HILL REBELLION

The fears of the authorities seemed to have been well founded when the Castle Hill rebellion took place in 1804, just one year after the convict Priest James Dixon had been given permission to minister to the Catholics of the colony.

The Irish (Catholics) were regarded as "scum" by most of the English authorities. They were portrayed as uneducated as many refused to send their children to schools run by the Church of England. They were accused of being immoral as many couples lived in de-facto relationships rather than being married according to a rite of the Church of England. They were also regarded as irreligious as many refused to have their children baptised in the Church of England.

g. EDUCATION ISSUE

Education became an important political issue which was played out according to sectarian divisions. Catholics were determined to establish Catholic schools for their children. Government decisions made it extremely difficult to maintain these schools. Catholics saw the schools as a kind of symbol of their freedom and went to great lengths to ensure their continuation.

h. EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES

Sectarianism can also be seen in the types of employment practices which were evident up until the early 1900's. Most businesses were owned and run by people of Protestant background and many of these employers held deep feelings of mistrust towards Catholics. Accordingly it was relatively common to see notices regarding positions vacant to include the qualification "Catholics need not apply".

One of the few places where discrimination in employment was not practised was in the Public Service. Consequently and not surprisingly, many Catholics were attracted to work in the public sector and have traditionally been overrepresented in these jobs.

i. PUBLIC SERVICE EXAMINATION

With this in mind, Catholic schools had a strong focus on preparing their students to pass the annual Public Service examination which would then provide them with secure employment relatively free from sectarian discrimination.

j. CONSCRIPTION DEBATE

A further element which fuelled the sectarianism between Protestants and Catholics in Australia, was the bitter debate over conscription in World War I. The government had sought to introduce conscription to bolster the numbers of soldiers it could send to the front in support of Britain. To do this required the successful passage of a referendum on the issue.

Leaders of the Protestant Churches and in particular the Church of England urged citizens to show loyalty to Britain and support the referendum. Catholic leaders by contrast were strident in their opposition to the idea of conscription.

This opposition led to a great escalation of hostility towards Catholics who were considered as traitors. The conscription issue went to two referenda. Both were defeated leaving a great feeling of resentment towards Catholics who were vilified for their stance.

Despite the strident, public opposition of Catholic leaders to conscription, it is evident, nevertheless, that many Protestants shared their opposition. Catholics were barely 10% of the population at the time and it would have taken a significant number of Protestants to also oppose the issue for the referenda to be defeated.

Later in the 20th century, in the aftermath of World War I & II and the Great Depression, there was a considerable softening of sectarian rivalry which would ultimately give way to ecumenical cooperation.

2b. The Contribution of Christianity to Social Welfare in Australia

pre – 1945

a. EDUCATION FOR THE NEEDY

Christian groups in Australia have traditionally sought to assist the disadvantaged as this is a central part of the Christian ethos. One way in which Christian groups have played an important role in social welfare is by providing an education for the poor and the needy. In 1866 Mother Mary MacKillop and Father Julian Tennyson Woods founded the Order of St Joseph to teach the children of the poor. After the introduction of the Public Instruction Act in 1880, the Catholic education system survived largely due of the dedication of those in religious orders.

b. ASSISTANCE FOR MARGINALISED PEOPLE

In 1888, Mother Esther established the first Church of England religious order to work for poor women and prostitutes. In 1897, Bishop Nathaniel Dawes founded the Bush Brotherhoods to provide ministry for people in outback communities with preachers on horseback travelling around rural communities. In the 1920s, the Australian Inland Mission of the Presbyterian Church developed the Flying Doctor Service and the School of the Air.

c. ASSISTANCE FOR MIGRANTS

Migrants to Australia have always been among the most vulnerable and needy members of the community. It was in response to needs in this area that Caroline Chisholm undertook her now famous work. Arriving in Australia in 1838 Chisholm was concerned at the plight of migrants, particularly young girls who were literally dumped on the docks with no means of supporting themselves.

She began a tireless process of lobbying on behalf of the needs of migrants beginning with the Christian clergy and extending her influence to the government as well.

Through her influence the Female Immigrants' Home was established which ultimately provided shelter and protection for hundreds of female migrants. Chisholm was also able to find secure employment for many of these women.

She returned to England in 1846 and began work to secure safe passage and support for families migrating to Australia. In the course of this work she assisted over 10,000 people to migrate and settle in Australia.

Her work which continued until her death in England in 1877 earned her the title of "the immigrant's friend".

d. GREAT DEPRESSION

Whilst Christian groups have traditionally sought to provide aid and relief for the needy the events of the Great Depression in the 1930s alerted Church groups to the fact that structural changes were required in the way the State provided social welfare. The events of the Depression indicated that aid drawn entirely from community support was insufficient in dealing with the issue of poverty. As a direct result of Churches lobbying the government the government introduced unemployment benefits known as the dole or "susso".

3a. Discuss the role of ONE religious tradition in rural and outback

communities pre-1945

a. CHRISTIAN ETHOS

Christian denominations have traditionally recognised that rural and outback communities are placed at a distinct disadvantage because they lack access to many services available in the urban centres. Accordingly Christian denominations have tried to provide support for those living in rural and outback communities.

b. BUSH BROTHERHOODS AND AUSTRALIAN INLAND MISSION OF THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH

The harsh climate and the difficult Australian terrain have meant that Christian groups needed to devise new methods to provide ministry to people living in remote areas. For example, Bishop Nathaniel Dawes established the Church of England Bush Brotherhoods in 1897. The Bush Brotherhoods were groups of preachers on horseback who travelled around remote communities to provide ministry to those living in these areas. In the 1920s, Rev John Flynn of the Australian Inland Mission of the Presbyterian Church developed the Flying Doctor Service and the School of the Air. This was because rural communities lacked many of the health and educational services which communities in urban centres had.

3b. Outline the contribution of ONE religious tradition in the

Provision of education in Australia prior to 1945

a. EDUCATION WAS A CRITICAL ISSUE FOR CATHOLICS

Christianity had a significant impact on education in Australia prior to 1945. Education was a critical issue for all religious groups but particularly for the Catholics who felt disadvantaged in the colony. Partly because of this sectarian tension Catholics were keen to set up an educational system which allowed them to maintain their values. The most significant effect of this was the development of religiously affiliated schools.

The critical effect of Christianity on education up to 1945 can be seen by examining three key pieces of legislation: Firstly, the Schools Estates Corporation Charter of 1825, secondly the Church Act of 1836 and thirdly the Public Instruction Act of 1880.

b. SCHOOLS ESTATES CORPORATION CHARTER 1825

The Schools Estates Corporation Charter of 1825 was instituted with the intent of providing resources exclusively for Church of England schools and churches and thus reinforcing the Church of England as the established Church. Its provisions were that 1/7 of all colonial land grants were to be reserved for Church of England schools and churches. The legislation achieved its purpose with the Church of England obtaining large areas of land under the patronage of the colonial government. This was not well received by other religious groups for various reasons. Chiefly they were concerned that the legislation made no provision for their efforts in educating their children.

c. CHURCH ACT 1836

The next critical step in the way Christianity influenced education was with Governor Burke's Church Act of 1836. The Church Act provided a "pound for pound" (dollar for dollar) subsidy for all religious groups. This meant that for every pound raised by the denomination for its schools the government would contribute the same amount in return. On the surface this appeared to equally assist all denominations but in actuality the Church Act was put in place to continue the dominance held by the Church of England because they had the greatest capacity to raise the money.

d. EFFECT OF CHURCH ACT

The immediate effects were as intended: the Church of England gaining the greatest benefit due to its greater capacity to raise funds from its communities. The long-term result of this legislation was however, unexpected. This was because the Catholics through a great deal of determination, organisation, and sacrifice managed to take advantage of the provisions of the Church Act.

Responses of different denominations to the Church Act

The Presbyterian Church opposed the Church Act because they felt that religion should be separated from Government and following from this that religion should not be funded from public sources. It held a concern that the receipt of government funding would lead to the government exercising undue influence on Church matters. The Methodists were pleased with the introduction of the Church Act but due to sectarian feelings were opposed to Catholics receiving funding. The other critical effect of the Church Act was that it directly contributed to the rural versus urban class divide. These came about because churches in rural areas, being smaller in number, were less able to raise such funds and subsequently received fewer benefits.

e. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ACT 1880

An end to funding for denominational schools came about with the introduction of the Public Instruction Act in 1880 by Premier Henry Parkes. Instead of denominational funding the Act provided for an education which was free, compulsory and secular thus formalising public education. The Public Instruction Act brought an abrupt end to funding for denominational schools. It brought about great hardships for denominational schools to maintain their educational system. These hardships were particularly acute for the Catholic Church because Catholics were over represented in the poorer classes which meant they did not have the same resources as the Church of England to maintain their system of education. The Catholic school system only survived as a result of the dedication from those in religious orders. The absence of government funding for denominational schools continued to be a critical issue up to and beyond 1945. Funding for denominational schools, that is, state aid continued to be an issue in the early half of the twentieth century as evident in that the fact that it was an election drawcard during the 1940s.

f. EFFECT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ACT

The Church of England responded to the Public Instruction Act by continuing some schools where the parents were able to meet the costs of education themselves. Generally, most people belonging to the Church of England supported the public school system. The Presbyterians supported the Public Instruction Act because they believed that religion and government should be separated, and hence opposed governments having influence in religions by providing funding for religious schools.

3c. Examine the initiatives taken by one religious tradition in

Australia in the area of public morality prior to 1945

a. DEFINITION OF PUBLIC MORALITY

Public morality refers to the attempts made by the more conservative elements within Christian denominations to enforce certain moral values through legislation. Public morality targeted issues such as sabbatarianism, sexual morality, and the consumption of alcohol and gambling. Despite the well intended attempts at social control public morality legislation was not always successful and in fact it has contributed to society's ambivalent attitude towards religion.

b. SABBATARIANISM

The fact that the colony was set up with the Church of England as the established religion provided for the strong influence of the Church of England in the colony and the demand for Sabbath observance is an indicator of this influence. The colonial government's requirement of Sabbath observance was the compulsory attendance of Church of England services for all convicts both English and Irish. The intention of this requirement was to seek too improve the moral character of the convicts. The requirement of Sabbath observance was met which resistance from both English and Irish convicts. The strong stance on Sabbath observance supported by the evangelical groups of Christians resulted in legislation abolishing recreational activities along with servile and commercial labour on Sundays. In practice however, many people belonging to the Church of England and the Catholic Church held more lenient views concerning recreational activities on the Sabbath while opposing servile labour and commercial activities.

c. SEXUAL MORALITY

Christianity had a very significant and clearly identifiable effect concerning sexual morality. There was widespread opposition from all Christian denominations towards extramarital relationships, homosexuality, and divorce. With such unified religious opposition to these perceived instances of immorality it is not surprising that laws governing sexual morality were quite strict and divorce laws ensured that it was difficult to terminate a marriage in any circumstances.

d. TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT

The temperance movement was mostly sponsored by the desire of Protestant denominations who wished to reduce alcohol consumption. Some conservative elements among the Protestant groups believed that total abstinence was necessary. The temperance movement called upon men to take a pledge to abstain from alcohol. In order to promote this pledge of abstinence the sponsors of the temperance movement made considerable use of women to convince their husbands, brothers and sons to take the pledge. Women were often prepared to support the temperance movement as women were most frequently the victims of alcohol related problems. The temperance movement had considerable influence on early Australian society. Despite the influence of the temperance movement, legislation to prohibit the selling of liquor in Australia was never achieved as the Church of England and Catholic Church authorities generally saw no harm of the drinking alcohol in moderation.

e. BANNING OF GAMBLING

Christianity was influential in the banning of gambling in early Australian society because gain by methods other than honest labour was denounced by most Christian denominations. The Catholic Church, however, did not hold any moral objections to gambling providing that it was not excessive.

f. OVERALL EFFECT OF PUBLIC MORALITY LEGISLATION

In general these attempts at social control, often referred to as wowserism, were viewed negatively and led to the gradual lessening of religious influence on society. Eventually the refusal of the majority of Australians to accept social control by religious authority resulted in a more secular society. The public morality debates also heightened the religious tensions between the Church of England, the Catholic Church, and the conservative Protestant denominations in early Australian society.

GLOSSARY

|Chevra Kaddisha |Jewish Burial society |

|Minyan |Group of 10 Jewish men required for a traditional communal worship |

|Mosque |A building or meeting place where Muslims come together to worship and pray |

|Public morality |Refers to the attempts made by the more conservative elements within Christian denominations to enforce certain |

| |moral values through legislation |

|Sabbatarianism |Strict Sabbath observance |

|Sectarianism |Division and conflict across religious lines |

|State aid |Government funding for denominational schools |

|Synagogue |A building or meeting place where Jews come together to worship and pray |

|Temperance movement |Movement to reduce alcohol consumption |

|Wowserism |Attempts at social control by conservative elements within Christian denominations |

Specimen Questions and Responses

1. The following questions are to be done for each of the important pieces of legislation relating to education in the 1800s

• What is the name of the Act?

• Who introduced it?

• When was it introduced?

• What were its provisions?

• What were its intentions?

• What were its effects?

• How was it viewed by? a) Church of England b) Catholic Church c) Others

2. Explain was education regarded as a critical issue for religious groups in the colony of NSW. (5 marks, 350 words)

3. Analyse the influence of Christianity on early Australian society in relation to public morality (5 marks, 350 words)

4. Outline the arrival and establishment of a tradition other than Christianity in Australia (3 marks)

The first Jews arrived in Australia as convicts on the First Fleet in 1788. In 1817, the first Minyan, that is, a quorum of ten Jewish men aged required for traditional communal worship was formed and a Chevra Kaddisha, which is a Jewish Burial society, was established. In the 1830s the first Jewish synagogue service took place in the home of Phillip Joseph Cohen. By 1838 the first official synagogue was consecrated in Bridge St, Sydney. 10 years later the first synagogue opened in Victoria. Meanwhile in 1844 in Sydney a larger synagogue was consecrated in York St. This synagogue was to serve as the centre of Jewish life in Sydney, until the Great Synagogue was built in Elizabeth St, Sydney in 1878. In 1845 the first synagogue was consecrated in Tasmania and in 1850 the first synagogue was consecrated in South Australia. During the 1850s the number of Jews in Victoria swelled from a few hundred to over three thousand as a result of the Gold Rush. In Western Australia no organised Jewish community developed until the end of the nineteenth century

5. Describe the influence of Christianity on Australian society in the area of education from 1788-1945. (5 marks, 350 words

6. Assess the significance of Christianity's impact on Australia in the nineteenth century in relation to either:

- Rural and outback communities OR

- Education OR

- Public morality (7 marks, 400 words)

Christianity had a profound influence on Australia in the nineteenth century in relation to public morality. Public morality refers to the attempts made by the more conservative elements within Christian denominations to enforce certain moral values due to perceived immortality in society. Evangelical Protestants were generally more vocal than the Church of England and the Catholic Church in their opposition to perceived immorality in society. Thus they campaigned more strongly for legislation to enforce certain standards of morality in the colony.

The significance of Christianity with relation to public morality is clearly evident in three key debates: the push to encourage Sabbath observance, also known as Sabbatarianism, the issue of sexual morality and the temperance movement.

All Christian denominations encouraged Church attendance as it was thought to improve one's spiritual and moral character. The Evangelical Protestants in particular supported and encouraged strict Sabbath observance. The strong campaign for Sabbath observance resulted in legislation which banned recreational activities as well as servile and commercial labour on Sundays. Whilst theoretically Sabbatarianism was supported by all Christian denominations, in practice the Church of England and Catholic Church were less stringent in their views of Sabbath observance. This is because they saw no harm in recreational activities so long as it was not servile labour.

Christianity had a very significant and clearly identifiable effect concerning sexual morality. There was widespread opposition from all Christian denominations towards extramarital relationships, homosexuality, and divorce. With such unified religious opposition to these perceived instances of immorality it is not surprising that laws governing sexual morality were quite strict and divorce laws ensured that it was difficult to terminate a marriage in any circumstances.

The temperance movement was an attempt to reduce alcohol consumption. As a result of a campaign driven mostly by the Protestant denominations thousands of pledges were given by men to abstain from alcohol. Because of this success, attempts were made by Protestant denominations to seek legislation which prohibited the selling of alcohol. These attempts failed as they were not supported by a large portion of the Christian community, that is, it was not supported by the Church of England and the Catholic Church. These two denominations did not formally support the temperance movement or the attempts to legislate for the prohibition of alcohol. This was because they saw no harm in the moderate consumption of alcohol.

These public morality debates clearly indicate the significance of Christianity during the nineteenth century. These debates indicate not only the power Christianity held with regards to social control but also the significance of sectarian divisions in the colony. The public morality debates heightened the religious tensions which existed between the Church of England, the Catholic Church who were overrepresented in the lower classes and the conservative Protestant denominations in colonial Australia. The long term effects of the public morality debates were not intended by the Christian denominations. This was because these attempts at social control were generally viewed negatively by the broader community. The refusal by many to accept these attempts at social control laid the subsequent foundations for a more secular society.

7. Analyse the influence of ONE religious tradition in Australia to ONE of the following issues prior to 1945:

- Rural and outback communities

- Education

- Public morality 6 marks

Christianity had a profound influence on early Australian society in the area of education. This is most evident in the development of religiously affiliated schools. This was because education was a critical issue for all religious groups but particularly for the Catholics many of whom belonged to the lower classes and hence belonged to a disadvantaged group in the colony. Consequently, education was seen by Catholics as a way to maintain their values, in the face of sectarian rivalry.

The influence of Christianity on education can be seen firstly with the enactment of the Schools Estates Corporation Charter of 1825. Its provisions were that one seventh of all colonial land grants were to be reserved for the Church of England schools and churches. The result was as intended, that is, it reaffirmed the status of the Church of England as the established church.

Governor Burke's Church Act of 1836 is the second example showing Christianity's profound influence on education. The Church Act provided a “pound for pound” subsidy to all denominations. Thus, on the surface, it appeared to equally assist all denominations but in practice the Church of England dominance continued. This was because the Church of England had the greatest capacity to raise money and hence obtained the greatest benefits from the provisions of the Act. The long term result was, however, unexpected. The Catholic Church through a great deal of determination, organisation, and sacrifice managed to take advantage of the provisions of the Church Act and turn it into an advantage for them. The Presbyterians were displeased with the fact that governments were funding denominational schools as they believed that state and church should be separate. The Methodists opposed the fact that the Catholics were receiving funding even though they were pleased to reap the benefits of the Church Act.

The end to funding for denominational schools came about through the Public Instruction Act 1880 which established that education was to be free, compulsory, and secular. This caused an abrupt end to state aid, that is, government funding for denominational schools. Most people belonging to the Church of England, supported government schools and as such were not concerned about the loss of funding to religiously affiliated schools. Those Church of England schools which did chose to remain operating as religious schools required that parents meet the cost of education themselves. The end to state aid brought great hardships to the Catholic school system because they did not have the same resources as the Church of England schools to continue operating. It was only through great sacrifice and dedication from those in religious orders that Catholic schools were able to continue to operate without government assistance.

It can be seen therefore through an analysis of three key pieces of legislation that Christianity has had a significant influence on education in colonial Australia. (473 words)

Religion in Australia pre-1945

1. Outline the arrival and establishment of Christianity and TWO other religious traditions in Australia

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2a. Examine the impact of sectarianism on the relationship among Christian denominations in Australia pre-1945

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2b. Examine the contribution of Christianity to social welfare in Australia pre-1945

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3a. Discuss the role of ONE religious tradition in rural and outback communities pre-1945

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3b. Outline the contribution of ONE religious tradition to the provision of education in Australia pre-1945

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3c. Examine initiatives taken by ONE religious tradition in Australia in the area of public morality pre-1945

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