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First of all, one prevalent argument from the social psychologist theory strongly suggests that cognitive dissonance offers a plausible explanation to explain when people act inconsistently from their true or typical attitudes. It focuses on the premise that we strive to exhibit consistency in our attitudes and behaviors. This view is further supported by experimental research.Research further summarizes cognitive dissonance theory:DeBono, K. G. (2014). Cognitive dissonance. Salem Press Encyclopedia Of Health.The author reveals how it was developed by social psychologist Leon Festinger and “suggests that there is a basic human tendency to strive for consistency between and among cognitions. Cognitions are defined as what people know about their attitudes and behaviors. An attitude is defined as one’s positive or negative evaluations of a person, place, or thing.” This theory further states that if an inconsistency occurs”—for example, if an individual does something that is discrepant with his or her attitudes—cognitive dissonance is said to occur. Dissonance is an uncomfortable state of physiological and psychological tension. It is so uncomfortable, in fact, that when individuals are in such a state, they become motivated to rid themselves of the feeling. This can be done by restoring consistency to the cognitions in some way.”Another source explicates the theory’s main implications:Kretchmar, J. (2015). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Research Starters: Education (Online Edition).The author cites how this theory highlights how “the existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance; and when dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance,” according to Festinger.Another study emphasizes how the role of responsibility is also embedded into this theory:Pi-Yueh, C., & Ping-Kun, H. (2012). COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY AND THE CERTIFICATION EXAMINATION: THE ROLE OF RESPONSIBILITY. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 40(7), 1103-1111.The authors insist that in their study, “attitude change was greatest among business students who most strongly felt a sense of responsibility” (1103). Again, the researchers argue that Cognitive dissonance theory “presupposes the existence of needs in the context of discrepancies between attitudes and behavior” (1104) and is linked to external justification as a “key factor influencing experiences of cognitive dissonance and that such justification motivates attitude change” (1104).When analyzing the influence that consonant and dissonant cognitions have upon attitudes and behaviors, the same article also explains more thoroughly:The authors conclude that individuals’ attitudes are deeply affected “by the extent to which they feel personally responsible for the acts or tasks they perform. When individuals feel personally responsible for the negative consequences of an action they have chosen to perform, dissonance emerges irrespective of whether the consequences could reasonably have been foreseen” (1105). However, they reveal that “irrespective of how damaging the consequences are, individuals will not experience dissonance for negative consequences if they are not a result of a choice” (1105).Conversely, the other side maintains a self-perception theory as an underlying explanation. It asserts that when people are uncertain of their attitudes, they allow their behaviors instead to dictate and determine their attitudes instead, as this source maintains:Kretchmar, J. (2015). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Research Starters: Education (Online Edition).The author summarizes how Bem “challenged the entire notion of cognitive dissonance, and argued that the results of Festinger's study could be explained more simply via the notion of inference. Just as we infer attitudes and opinions of other people from their behavior, so too do individuals infer their own attitudes and opinions from their own behavior.”In sum, this opposing theory suggests that people do not always have “direct access to their own thoughts, but rather scan their past behavior in order to infer their own beliefs. Thus, students in the original study would remember they had received twenty dollars to publicly express an opinion they didn't believe; the money would be enough to explain their behavior, thus requiring no change in attitude. Bem's theory was more parsimonious, in that it did not rely on internal states of arousal and the subsequent drive to reduce them.”When explicating critical terms, a consonant refers to the interconnections among many cognitions and also implies that many will reaffirm each other. Dissonance means that these cognitions will likely conflict with one another or dissonant cognitions.Another source sheds light on the terms:Kretchmar, J. (2015). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Research Starters: Education (Online Edition).The author calls cognitions "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." Cognitions enable researchers “to easily compare psychological phenomena – attitudes, behavior, opinions, and observations – which had previously been studied in isolation. When two cognitions are opposed to one another, or when the obverse of one…would follow from the other, dissonance occurs.” Festinger’s classic example of dissonance is of an individual’s belief about smoking and that it is bad for her health. “This same person, however, continues to smoke. Thus, her cognition about her behavior is at odds with her cognition about her beliefs about smoking. As a result, the individual experiences dissonance.”A related issues deals with the magnitude of discomfort since the importance of the cognitions typically matters deeply. The article uses this example to validate: “A person who believes in animal rights, for example, but who fails to stop to help an injured animal might experience a great deal of dissonance; a person who eats a donut for breakfast, knowing that he is violating the diet he is unmotivated to maintain, might experience less. In addition to the importance of a particular set of cognitions, Festinger suggested magnitude could also be impacted by other relevant cognitions. If the person who ate a donut for breakfast, for example, ate only fruits and vegetables the day before, and also planned to exercise the day he consumed the donut, then these relevant consonant cognitions might help offset dissonance.”Festinger's theory also emphasizes the role of both context and/or environments in which dissonance might occur. “Specifically, he suggested that dissonance occurs as the result of almost any decision a person might make in daily life. Decisions often involve making choices between two attractive alternatives, between two alternatives that have both pros and cons, or between multiple alternatives, so that regardless of the end result, dissonance is an almost inevitable consequence of any decision.”Lastly, when analyzing the concept of persuasion as it relates to these concepts, this article is helpful:Stanchi, K. (2013). WHAT COGNITIVE DISSONANCE TELLS US ABOUT TONE IN PERSUASION. Journal Of Law & Policy, 22(1), 93-133.For example, the author cites how persuasion and advocacy are enveloped in this theory by giving the example of “when a person who considers herself a philanthropist is asked for a donation and does not give, that is a scenario likely to arouse cognitive dissonance, because the person’s self-image (as a philanthropist) is clashing with reality (her failure to give money). Or, when a member of Mothers Against Drunk Driving (“MADD”) finds herself tipsy and with no way home but to drive her car. Cognitive dissonance can also arise when people’sexpectations conflict with behavior or reality, such as when people expected the year 2000 to cause a massive technological disaster (the “Y2K problem”), but everything turned out to be fine” (96).Dissonance and persuasion are closely tied since they overlap in a variety of contexts: situations where decision making, coercion, forced compliance, initiation, and social support occur.APA References:DeBono, K. G. (2014). Cognitive dissonance. Salem Press Encyclopedia Of Health.Kretchmar, J. (2015). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Research Starters: Education (Online Edition).Pi-Yueh, C., & Ping-Kun, H. (2012). COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY AND THE CERTIFICATION EXAMINATION: THE ROLE OF RESPONSIBILITY. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 40(7), 1103-1111.Stanchi, K. (2013). WHAT COGNITIVE DISSONANCE TELLS US ABOUT TONE IN PERSUASION. Journal Of Law & Policy, 22(1), 93-133. ................
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