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Exploring Learning Theories (Level 4) Part OneWord Count: 2222“We are all unique and each of us has likes and dislikes, and effective and ineffective methods of learning. In this respect there is an almost endless list of individual learning theories.” (Beard and Wilson, 2002: 192)In this assignment I will discuss four main schools of learning theory: behaviourist, humanist, cognitivist and social/situational. As Beard and Wilson (2002) state, there are many theories of individual learning and there has been extensive categorisation of learning theories. In addition to the theories outlined above, I will also consider a broader range of learning theories and analyse and appraise these in relation to my own practice as a lecturer in Motor Vehicle Engineering.Behaviourist learning theory can be broken down into three component parts: classical conditioning, reinforcement conditioning and operant conditioning. Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson identified classical conditioning where “the greater the frequency and recency of a stimulus, the stronger the bond between stimulus and response” (Beard and Wilson, 2002: 194). Classical conditioning involves learning a new behaviour through the process of association. Put simply, two stimuli are linked to create a new, learned response. Classical conditioning involves a neutral stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Edward L. Thorndike built upon the work of Watson and emphasised that after the response there was a satisfier or annoyer (S-R-S or S-R-A) and the former therefore encouraged a particular behaviour and that the latter discouraged the behaviour; the theory of reinforcement conditioning. B. F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, arguing that a stimulus could indeed produce an automatic response, which he described as respondent behaviour, but that operant behaviour was, to some degree, dependent upon the individual or the organism. In operant conditioning an individual’s behaviour is controlled by consequences. Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that for learning to occur it requires the use of reinforcement or punishment: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment. I will expand upon these later and give some examples of how these concepts are applied in practice.Cognitivism arose in the 1950s in response to behaviourism. In cognitivist learning theory an individual perceives stimuli and consciously interprets them in relation to their own mental frameworks. It was said that behaviourism neglected to explain cognition; the use of conscious mental processes e.g. the application of thought, reasoning, intellect and perception. This broad learning theory explains thinking and differing mental processes and how they are influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors in order for individuals to learn. Cognitivism is about how we think and gain knowledge. It involves examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Proponents of cognitivist learning theory include J. Bruner, J. Dewey, Kurt Lewin and G. Kelly. Humanism emerged in the 1960s and the central tenet of this learning theory is that learning is a personal act that enables a person to fulfil their potential (). Humanist learning theory looks at the individual holistically, recognising that the acquisition of learning is more than simply the result of the application of consequences (behaviourism) or the belief that the discovery of knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning (constructivism). Humanist learning theory centres on a belief that knowledge resides with the mind of an individual and that the teacher can draw this out of the student by carefully questioning them. The original exponents of this theory were Aristotle, Plato and Socrates (Beard and Wilson, 2002) and latterly, through the work of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The concepts of student centred learning and personalised learning are part of the humanist school of thought and where the educator is less of a teacher and more a facilitator of learning. I will describe how I use facilitative techniques in my practice in a subsequent section.Social/situational learning theory suggests that people learn from observing other people. In psychological terms, behaviourists considered how people learned through observation. Albert Bandura explored interaction and cognitive processes and determined that, by observing others, people are able to see the consequences of other’s behaviours. In turn, they gain understanding of what might happen as a result of certain actions. (). Lave and Wenger (1991) offer a theory of situated learning where they look beyond learning as the acquisition of knowledge and look instead at social engagement, relationships and participation. “Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning -- learners become involved in a "community of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired.” () I will go on to describe how I use situated leaning theory and where learning is contextualised, particularly in a workshop setting and I will also examine the development of communities of practice and how I bring students in from the periphery. Earlier, I described behaviourism and the concept of positive reinforcement. This is a technique that I use with my students. I am able to give students praise when they behave well and when they complete tasks successfully. This is usually verbal and I always ensure that this is specific e.g. “well done, you’ve completed the task within the given timescale and you selected the correct tool for job” or I give concrete examples and evidence to support the praise e.g. “excellent, you approached that task in a methodical way and what I particularly liked about it was that you followed the correct sequence for refitting the cylinder head bolts”. I am not overly generous with praise, as I think that it more effective when it is genuinely earned. I feel also that the students respect me for that too. The students that I teach are attuned to false praise and manipulation as it’s likely that they have experienced this is the past. I motivate my students by praising them and then moving them on to more complicated tasks. I always explain when this is the case so that they are aware of their progression. One incentive that I use, and have at my disposal, is to allow students to finish a little earlier if they have performed well, or completed activities in a timely and efficient manner and to the correct standard. This is a form of positive reinforcement. All of my students welcome an earlier finish but this is to be used sparingly, so that it is seen as a reward and not common practice.I also use an interesting or engaging task as an incentive and as positive reinforcement e.g. the starting and running of engines. The curriculum sometimes requires students to cover a topic that is necessary, but not especially interesting e.g. Health and Safety related topics. Some of the students struggle to concentrate on tasks that they don’t find relevant. If they behave appropriately they are rewarded as described above, thus focussing to complete a particular task, not disrupting others by fooling around in class etc. This can, conversely, be turned into a negative reinforcement when students do not adopt the required behaviours, or focus on the Health and Safety task. I can remove the positive reinforcement of starting and running engines. On occasion, it is necessary to apply positive and negative punishments. The punishments that I have at my disposal are things like detention (whereby the student would have to undertake additional work), removal of their mobile phone (where the incident is mobile phone related, which I will come on to discuss), contacting parents (where the student is under the age of 17) and recording of all bad behaviours on E-Tracker e.g. class disruption, use of mobiles phone etc. There are four levels of warning on the E-Tracker, which lead ultimately to dismissal from the course/College.Whilst I recognise that punishment is necessary to discourage unwelcome behaviour, I only tend to use this as a last resort. In behaviourist terms, a detention would be an example of a positive punishment whereby I would give the student something that she or he does not want in order to punish their bad behaviour. An example of a negative punishment, as referred to earlier, would be the confiscation of a student’s mobile phone. College rules stipulate that mobile phones will not be used in classes unless the usage is directly related to learning. If a student is found to be using their mobile phone to conduct personal calls, texting or viewing social media, then their phones can be removed for the duration of the session. This is a negative punishment as this is something that the student does want and it is removed to punish them for their bad behaviour.Where student mobile phones are concerned I adopt a different approach to some of the other lecturers in the Motor Vehicle department. Some of them choose to remove all mobile phones as a matter or course at the start of every session; thus conditioning students into not having their phones. I adopt a more andragogical approach (methods applied to the teaching of adults), as many of my students are approaching adulthood and give them the opportunity to observe the rules. Failure to do so, results in the reversion to behaviourist methods e.g. confiscating the phone of the individual. Where I have to do this, I do it with minimal fuss as the punishment is the removal of the phone and not a desire to embarrass the student concerned.I use behaviourist techniques to manage my students’ behaviour in the classroom and to create a climate that is conducive to learning. On reflection, the examples that I have cited are all about conditioning students to behave in a particular way and the learning that takes place is how to behave in the classroom and not the acquisition of knowledge in relation to the subject. I tend to start with a behaviourist approach and then progress towards cognitivist, humanist and situational approaches.I use cognitivism in the workshop when, for example, the student needs to learn to fit a clutch on a vehicle. Cognitivism is based upon rational information processing in the mind. It is for this reason that I divide the task into parts. I teach these component parts separately e.g. the removal of a drive shaft, the removal of the suspension and the removal of ancillaries. Students have the opportunity learn about these components by taking them apart and put them back together again. Whilst this is a practical task, as well as an experiential one (learning by doing), the student has to commit sequencing tasks to memory, therefore using cognitive processing.Once the student has completed this task a number of times, and committed this to memory, they are then encouraged to work in groups to complete the whole task i.e. the fitting of a clutch. Here the learning moves into constructivism as they interact with one another, discussing their learning and sharing their knowledge about the different approaches to the task (depending on the vehicle). As my students progress through units, I adopt more of a humanist approach. Students begin to choose what they would like to focus on and start to direct their own learning. I become more facilitative in my style. I also use coaching techniques, questioning my students in the belief that they have the answers within them. Sometimes a line of questioning reinforces a particular action or encourages them to consider alternative approaches. I mentor and guide them but ultimately they become responsible for their own success. The workshop is a simulation of a garage and learning that takes place in this environment is situated learning. The students are learning in context on actual vehicles. I devise a series of group tasks to enable them to work together as a community of practice and I invite more experienced students to mentor and support those who are less confident.In conclusion, my application of learning theory to my teaching practice begins with a behaviourist influence (classroom management, gaining students’ respect, induction, adherence to Health and Safety etc.) and a directive approach whereby I have created the conditions for [safe] learning to take place. As students start to learn about the subject, I progress to a more cognitivist method; helping students to make sense of their learning, by developing mental models and structures which can be applied in their own context and adapted for other conditions. As students have learned the foundations of motor vehicle engineering and have practiced their skills, I advance to a humanist model in that I become the facilitator of learning. Students have more choice and control over the activities that they undertake and become more self-directed and autonomous. As individuals I notice the change in them; they have become more rounded individuals and I am conscious that they have developed holistically.I have outlined what would appear to be a linear use of learning theories and, whilst this is broadly the case, I recognise that I am using a range of learning theories and teaching methods on a sessional basis, as students develop and learn at different paces and they all have preferred learning styles that must also need to be taken into account.ReferencesBeard, Colin and Wilson, John. P. (2002) “The Power of Experiential Learning: A Handbook for Trainers and Educators”. Kogan Page Ltd. London.Learning Theories: Humanism [Accessed on 11th March 2017].The Social/Situational Orientation to Learning [Accessed on 11th March 2017].Situated Learning [Accessed on 11th March 2017]. ................
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