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A2 SOCIOLOGYSCLY4: Crime and Deviance with Theory and Method6350308610Section ASociological TheoryName:_____________________________Class:________Specification Content:What you need to know for Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods in your Unit 4 (SCLY4) exam:You will be expected to complete a 33 mark essay on one of the following areas:Consensus, conflict, structural and social action theoriesThe concepts of modernity and postmodernity in relation to sociological theoryThe nature of science and the extent to which sociology can be regarded as scientificThe relationship between theory and methodsDebates about subjectivity, objectivity and value freedomThe relationship between sociology and social policyRevision Checklist:Do I have completed Notes?Have I made revision Notes?Have I memorised this info?Have I practised exam questions?FunctionalismKey features of the functionalist view of the social systemStrengths and limitations, including Merton’s internal critiques and external critiquesMarxismKnow and understand Marx’s main ideas and concepts including strengths and limitationsKnow the difference between humanistic (Gramsci) and structural (Althusser) MarxismFeminismMain types of feminist theories: Liberal/reformist, Radical, Marxist, Difference; including similarities and differences between themEvaluate the strengths and limitations of feminist theoriesSocial Action theoriesUnderstand the difference between structural and action theoriesKnow the main types of action theory and understand the differences between them; including strengths and limitationsGlobalisation, modernity and postmodernity: Understand the difference between modernity, postmodernity and late modernityEvaluate the strengths and limitations of postmodernist and other theories of recent changes in societySociology and scienceKnow the difference between positivist and interpretivist views of whether sociology can be a science and apply this to suicideEvaluate the arguments for and against the view that sociology can or should be a scienceObjectivity and values in sociologyUnderstand the meaning of objectivity, subjectivity and value freedomEvaluate the strengths and limitations of different views as to whether sociology can and should be value-freeSociology and social policy: Factors that may affect the extent to which sociology can influence social policyKnow the main sociological perspectives on the relationship between sociology and social policy, and be able to evaluate their strengths and limitations.258417-834896047675-86360Area 1: FunctionalismFunctionalism can be traced back to Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Parsons (1902-79) developed Functionalism as a systematic theory of society and became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s and 1960s.Functionalism is a macro, structural theory. It focuses on the needs of the social system as a whole and how these needs shape all the main features of society – from the form that social institutions such as the family take, right down to the behaviour patterns of individuals and the roles they perform.What is the function of crime?Functionalism is also a consensus theory.Explain what this means?Re-cap:Summarise the main functions of the following according to the Functionalists:EducationFamilyOrganic AnalogyFunctionalists often use an organic analogy – in other words, they say that society is like a biological organism.System needs – these needs must be met in order for the system to survive.System – a self-regulating system of interconnected parts that fit together in fixed ways.Parsons ((1970) identifies three similarities between society and a biological organism:What other features do organisms have? Do societies have these features too?2001520246507023958551924051524635102870043053001085850Functions – the function of any part of a system is the contribution it makes to meeting the system’s needs and thus ensuring its survival.Social Order and the Integration of Individuals6134735229235Parsons believes that social order is maintained through the existence of a shared culture. A culture is a set of norms, values, beliefs and goals shared by members of a society. This provides a framework that sets out appropriate behaviour and goals that allows individuals to cooperate and know what behaviour is expected of them. This is only possible if people agree on the norms and values of the culture. Parsons used the term …………………… ……………………………………… to describe this.Individuals must be integrated into the social system in order for them to meet society’s needs. This is achieved through socialisation and social control.Social ControlSocialisationOrderly life is then possible as people’s behaviour will be stable and predictable and they will be motivated towards pursuing society’s goals.The social systemYou can take a ‘building block’ approach to describing Parsons’ model of the social system:System Needs and the ‘AGIL schema’Parsons suggested there were 4 needs or functional ………………………………………………… that must be met for society to survive:Adaptation – every society has to satisfy the material needs of its members and an adequate standard of life.Goal attainment – societies must develop ways of making decisions, setting goals and allocating resources to achieve them.Integration – the institutions in society must work in harmony to pursue shared goals.Latency – these maintain society over time through pattern maintenance and tension management.What do you think these terms refer to?Pattern maintenance =Tension management = Under each need state which of the sub-systems meet them.Which needs could be described as instrumental needs?Which needs could be described as emotional needs?Pattern Variables and Types of SocieCan you think of a process of structural differentiation that you came across last year?And an example of dynamic equilibrium?Achievement – status is based on performance.Diffuseness – relationships are based on a range of purposes.Ascription – status is based on fixed characteristics.Affective neutrality – deferred gratification of desires.Self-orientation – pursuing one’s own self-interest.Particularism – norms emphasis treating different people differently.Specificity – relationships are narrow and specific to a purpose.Affectivity – immediate gratification of desires.tyParson’s identifies five basic norms for each type of society:TASK: e Traditional SocietyModern Society These different societies have different patterns of variables that ‘fit’ together. For examples, in a modern society, students are expected to pursue their own individual self-interest, achieving their status through their own efforts in education, attained through deferred gratification. They are all judged by the same universal standards. By contrast, in traditional societies, individuals’ status is ascribed at birth. Parsons suggests these five possible cultural choices of action will lead to different forms of behaviour and different ways of responding to the functional prerequisites i.e. what social roles people will have.Collective orientation – putting the group’s interests first.Universalism – norms emphasise everyone being treated the same.Social ChangeParsons suggests that social change is a gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity and structural differentiation that occurs through a moving (or dynamic) equilibrium – that a change in one part of the system will bring about a change in the other.Evaluation of Functionalism:There are two main types of criticisms for Parson’s system theory:From inside functionalism (internal critiques) – MertonFrom outside of functionalism (external critiques)Merton’s internal critique of functionalismThe most significant criticisms of Functionalism come from Robert K. Merton (1968). He criticises three key assumptions of Parsons.TASK: summarise the 3 key criticisms and link to why this challenges Functionalism.IndispensabilityDoes unemployment have positive functions for?Society as a wholeThe unemployed?Functional unityUniversal functionalism5389880141605Manifest and latent functions:Merton also contributes a useful distinction between ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions. The Hopi Indians, for example, in times of drought, perform a rain-dance with the deliberate aim of magically producing rain. This is its manifest function. This would be scientifically unlikely to achieve its intended goal. However, the ritual itself may produce a latent function – promoting a sense of solidarity in times of hardship, when individuals may be tempted to look after themselves at the expense of others.TASK: suggest one latent function for each of the following:homeworkcriminal trailsholidayssaying your prayersExternal critiques of functionalismWhile Merton’s criticisms came from within functionalism, many far less sympathetic writers have challenged it from the outside.Logical criticismsAction perspective criticismsConflict perspective criticismsPostmodernist criticismsConclusion:Functionalism seeks to answer the fundamental question of how social order is possible – even if its answer neglects conflict and is too deterministic. Merton’s move away from Parson’s ‘grand theory ‘, his notions of dysfunctions, and his distinction between manifest and latent functions, all provide useful starting points for research. It is also true that many of the functionalism’s critics – especially conflict theories – end up borrowing its basic notion that society is a system of interdependent parts. As Craib (1992) notes, Parson’s theory ‘has its faults, but at least it is a theory of society as a whole’.Eye on the exam… ‘Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the functionalist approach to society' (33 marks)Key skills: 15 marks AO1 (knowledge and understanding) and 18 marks AO2 (interpretation, application, analysis and evaluation)Start with Parsons’ ideas, analysing functionalism’s key concepts and showing how they fit together. Focus on the organic analogy, concepts of functions and system needs, value consensus, social integration, socialisation and social control. Outline the different parts of the social system (roles, institutions etc.) and the ‘AGIL’ schemaTo gain AO2 marks, you should evaluate Parsons’ model from a variety of perspectives. Begin with Merton’s internal criticisms and his ideas of functional autonomy, dysfunction and manifest and latent functions. You should also evaluate functionalism from other perspectives, e.g. Marxist views that it is a conservative ideology ignoring conflict and change, and ‘action’ criticisms that sees individuals as ‘puppets’, and the postmodernist view that it cannot account for diversity.Essay plan:381000-1060455848350-134620Area 2: MarxismClassical MarxismClassical Marxism was founded by….Like Durkheim and the Functionalists, Marxism believes also share the view that society is a structure or system that shapes individuals’ behaviour and ideas. Also like Durkheim, Marx believed it was possible to understand society scientifically and that this knowledge would point the way to a better society – called ‘scientific socialism’. Instability and ChangeConflict of InterestsHowever, Marxism differs from Functionalism in two ways:Below are the key ideas put forward by Marx and Marxism:1. Historical materialismMaterialism is the view that humans are beings with material needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, and must therefore work to meet them. In doing so, they use the means of production.In the earliest stage of human history, these forces are unaided by human labour, but over time people develop tools, machines to assist in production. In working to meet their needs, humans also cooperate with one another - they enter into social relations of production - ways of organising production.Over time, as the forces of production grow and develop, so too the social relations of production also change. As a division of labour develops this eventually gives rise to a division between two classes:A class that owns the means of production - called ........................................................................A class of labourers - called.......................................................................3771900215900From then on, production is directed by the class of owners to meet their own needs.We currently live in a society with a capitalist mode of production. The mode of production forms an economic base of society. This economic base shapes all other features of society - the superstructure of institutions, ideas, beliefs and behaviours that arise from that base e.g. it shapes religion, law, education etc.Base and superstructure modelKey Word: Social relations of ProductionKey Word: Means of production57715152254252. Class society and exploitationIn the earliest stage of human history, there was no classes, no private ownership and no exploitation - everyone works and everything is shared. Marx calls this the 'primitive communism' .In class societies, one class owns the means of production. This enables them to exploit the labour of others for their own benefit.Marx describes successive class societies and the evolution of private ownership in order to explain how work and wealth are linked. This demonstrates how the economy is the base level of society.What would society look like if it became communist? Would there be a class society and exploitation? Explain3. Capitalism Capitalism is based on a division between a class of owners called the ........................................................., and a class of labourers called.......................................................... .TASK: What are 3 key features of capitalism? 5286375-2489204. Class consciousness: Explain how capitalism brings its own destructionWhat will happen to the proletariat as a result? (include the term Class consciousness)5. Ideology: How does the ruling class prevent this destruction? Use the key terms mental production, false consciousness and dominant ideology, legitimise.6. Alienation: What is it and for what two reasons is it a result of capitalism?5935345196857. The state, revolution and communism:How does the state protect the class of owners who control the means of production?According to Marx, if the proletarian revolution overthrows capitalism, what will happen?Marx predicted the ultimate victory of the proletarian revolution and the establishment of communist society on a world scale. However, very little is said about how this revolution would about. Evaluation of Marxism (Marx):StrengthsWeaknessesSince Marx's death and no sign of a revolution, many Marxists rejected the economic determinism of the base-superstructure model. Instead, they have tried to explain why capitalism has persisted and how it might be overthrown. There are two types of Marxism:Humanistic or critical MarxismStructuralist or scientific Marxism1. Humanistic MarxismHumanistic Marxists see humans as creative beings, able to make history through their own conscious actions – they give greater role to the conscious decisions and actions of human beings. This type of Marxism has some similarities with action theories and interpretive sociology.Key Word: HegemonyAntonio Gramsci (22 January 1891 – 27 April 1937) was an Italian writer, politician, political theorist, philosopher, sociologist, and linguist. He was a founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime.Gramsci was one of the most important Marxist thinkers in the 20th century. He is a notable figure within modern European thought and his writings analyze culture and political leadership. He is known for his theory of cultural hegemony, which describes how states use cultural institutions to maintain power in a capitalist societies. Explain Gramsci's concept of hegemony and how this maintains the ruling class position (Webb pg 230)21Two ways that the ruling class maintains its dominance over societyWhy will there not be a revolution if society accepts a ruling-class hegemony?Why is the hegemony of the ruling class never complete??What is the counter-hegemonic bloc?Picture of an organic intellectualWhat is an organic intellectual and how can they undermine capitalism?This counter-hegemony would win ideological leadership from the ruling class by offering a new vision of how society should be organised, based on socialist rather than capitalist values.Evaluation of Gramsci2. Structural MarxismStructuralist Marxists believe it is not people’s actions but social structures that really shape history and these are the proper subject for scientific enquiry. This type of Marxism has some similarities with positivist sociology.98425144145Louis Pierre Althusser (16 October 1918 – 22 October 1990) was a French Marxist philosopher. He was born in Algeria and studied in Paris.Althusser was a longtime member—although sometimes a strong critic—of the French Communist Party. His arguments and thesis were set against the threats that he saw attacking the theoretical foundations of Marxism. These included both the influence of empiricism on Marxist theory, and humanist and reformist socialist orientations which manifested as divisions in the European communist parties, as well as the problem of the "cult of personality" and of ideology. Althusser is commonly referred to as a structural Marxist, although his relationship to other schools of French structuralism is not a simple affiliation and he was critical of many aspects of structuralism.Althusser's life was marked by periods of intense mental illness. During one of his bouts, he killed his wife by strangling her.This diagram shows the Marxist base superstructure model where the base is the economic system which determines what the superstructure (institutions and ideology) are like. Althusser disagreed with this and suggested three levels where each level has relative autonomy and some independence of each other:123Craib likened this model to a 3 storey house – Use this picture to explain this. (Webb pg 231)Ideological and Repressive State Apparatuses The state doesn’t just have an economic function but must also function/ work politically and ideologically. How the state works is called the state apparatus. Explain these:The Repressive state apparatus (RSA)Ideological state apparatus (ISA)Is this picture (RSA or ISA) and why?Althusser's criticisms of humanismHow does Althusser criticise humanistic Marxism?What is over-determination and how will this bring about socialism?Evaluation of AlthusserEvaluation pointStrength/weakness?Justify whyThompson (1978) states Althusser ignore the fact that it is the active struggles of the working class that can change societyCraib states that Althusser 'offers the most sophisticated conception of social structure available in the social sciences'Structuralist Marxism has helped theories such as postmodernism that reject the very idea that scientific knowledge can be used to improve parisonsTASK: Colour the boxes – one colour for Humanistic Marxism and another for Structuralist / Scientific MarxismHumanistic MarxismStructuralist / Scientific MarxismAlthusserGramsciBased on Marx’s earlier writingsBased on Marx’s later writingsSees Marxism as a political critique of capitalism and calls to overthrow itSees Marxism as a science discovering the laws of how capitalism worksDeterministicVoluntaristic Socialism will come when the contradictions in capitalism brings about its own collapseSocialism will come when people become conscious of the need to overthrow capitalismEncourages political actionDiscourages political actionCloser to an interpretivist approach and action theoriesCloser to a structural and positivist approach Top down view of societyBottom up view of societyPeople actions shape historyStructures and Institutions shape historyEye on the exam… ‘Critically examine Marxist perspectives on today's society' (33 marks)Key skills: 15 marks AO1 (knowledge and understanding) and 18 marks AO2 (interpretation, application, analysis and evaluation)Begin your answer with an account of Marx's key ideas. Include materialism, class conflict, alienation, exploitation, false consciousness, ideology and state and revolution. Focus how Marx sees capitalism being replaced by communism.The questions asks about 'perspectives' plural - therefore look at developments since Marx i.e. examine the 'two Marxisms' - humanistic (Gramsci) and structuralist (Althusser). Outline the key concepts e.g. hegemony, RSAs, ISAs. Contrast them in terms of their view how change occurs. You should evaluate by assessing the strengths of some of criticisms e.g. economic determinism5799514-107535529413-110032Area 3: FeminismFeminism is a conflict theory. Feminism sees society as male dominated and it seeks to describe, explain and change the position of women in society. It is therefore both a theory of women's subordination and a political movement. There are several types of feminists that have had an impact on sociology:Liberal or reformist feminismRadical feminismMarxist feminismDifference feminism and post structuralismLiberal FeminismWhat is liberal feminism?Picture:Evaluation of liberal feminism:Radical FeminismWhat is radical feminism?Picture:Evaluation of radical feminism:Marxist FeminismWhat is Marxist feminism?Picture:Evaluation of Marxist feminism:Difference feminism and post structuralismWhat is difference feminism?Picture:Evaluation:Possible exam question:Assess the usefulness of feminist contributions to our understanding of society today (33 marks)Tips: As this question refers to ‘contributions’ in the plural, you need to consider a range of feminist views and approaches – mainly liberal, radical and Marxist feminism. Identify and outline their key concerns and concepts. You can analyse and evaluate by making comparisons and contrasts between these approaches. Difference feminism and poststructuralist can be used as critiques of modernist (i.e. liberal, radical, Marxist) feminist theories. 651461-931505535637-91439Area 4: Action theoriesThese are ‘micro’ level bottom-up approaches that focus on individual actions and interactions. They are more voluntaristic i.e. they believe that people have agency, we can choose how to behave and we create and shape society through the choices that we make and the meanings that we give to situations.SocietySocietyIndividual actionsIndividual actionsThese theories do still assume that the social structure can affect us.12Weber’s Social Action TheoryThese theories reject the very idea that a social structure exists, arguing that it is merely something that we construct.3Symbolic Interactionism4PhenomenologyEthnomethodologyWeber’s Social Action TheoryHuman BehaviourMeaningThe subjective meanings that people attach to their actionsCauseThe structural factors that shape behaviourWeber suggested that in order to understand human behaviour we need to consider structural and action approaches as our behaviour is influenced by both of these levels.The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism:The Protestant Reformation and the introduction of Calvinism was the structural cause that changed people’s behaviour because at the level of meaning work became a way of glorifying God’s name. Together this resulted in the accumulation of wealth and the development of capitalism.Weber attempted to classify actions into 4 types based on the meanings they have for the actor:Traditional action – customary or habitual actions, these are not based on rational choice.Affective action – actions that express emotions e.g. violence sparked by angerInstrumentally rational action – action based on a rational choice in order to achieve a particular goal.Rational goal-oriented action – action towards a goal that the actor requires as desirable for its own sake. Unlike instrumental rationality, there is no way of calculating whether the means to achieve this goal will be effectiveTASK: Decide what type of action the following are examples of:Giving 10% of your income to charity because your religion preaches that this is right.Waiting for your dad to carve the turkey on Christmas day because ‘that’s his job’.Spending time completing your Art coursework rather than revising for Chemistry because you want to be a professional photographer when you’re older.Arguing with someone who you feel keeps giving you dirty looks.EvaluationWeber drew attention to the fact that we need to understand actor’s subjective meanings if we are to fully understand their behaviour.His work has been influential, for example in the development of methodological individualism, an approach that focuses on how people actively engage in social interaction, it suggests that all explanations can be reduced to the actions of individuals and that structures do not determine our behaviour. Schutz (1972) criticises Weber for failing to explain the shared nature of meanings and why a group of people can give the same action the same meaning. The typology of actions don’t always fit real examples of behaviour, some behaviours could fit into more than one category e.g. some traditional action could also be classified as rational goal-oriented action, as is the case with the Trobriand Islanders who exchange gifts with neighbouring islands, this is traditional behaviour but may also serve the purpose of maintaining good trading relationships.Weber advocated the use of verstehen (……………………………………………………………………………………………….) however, we can never be sure that we have understood other people’s motives so this is an unachievable goal.Symbolic InteractionismWe give symbols, or meanings, to the things around us and these influence how we respond to them. We also need to interpret the meanings of others and this is achieved through role-taking where we put ourselves in the position of others and see ourselves as they see us. We learn to do this as children through role-playing.Our self is divided into:‘I’‘Me’547941413557254803140650875‘He’s practicing kung fu’‘He’s angry and going to hit me’31115860425ResponseInterpretive phaseStimulusMead-26035267335Our actions are based on the meanings we give to situationsBlumerBehaviour is partly predictable because we internalise the expectations of others but there is always room for negotiation and choice in how we perform our roles.The meanings are the result of the interpretive procedures we use, especially through role taking.Meanings arise out of the interaction process, they are not fixed but rather are negotiableUsing the role of ‘teacher’ as an example, how would functionalism and symbolic interactionism differ in the way that they would describe their behaviour?Labelling theory is one way in which interactionist theories have been applied to a number of contexts. Using your knowledge from Education and Crime and Deviance explain the labelling process. Make sure you include the terms ‘label’, ‘self-concept’, ‘looking-glass self’, ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ and ‘master status’.Labelling TheoryUse these concepts to describe the behaviour of either a teacher or someone on a first date.GoffmanErving Goffman suggests that we actively construct our ‘self’ by manipulating other people’s impressions of us.His theory is sometimes referred to as a dramaturgical model as he compares social interactions to drama productions.We are all ‘actors’, acting out ‘scripts’, using ‘props’, resting ‘backstage’ between ‘performances’ we present to our ‘audience’. Our aim being to give a convincing performance of the role we have adopted. We are able to use a number of resources to manage the impression we wish to give to others including tone of voice, clothing etc.Similar to Blumer, Goffman suggests there is a degree of role distance between our real self and the roles we act out, this means that while the roles are loosely scripted by society we have a degree of freedom in how we present them. This also means that we can conceal our true self and real motives by managing the impression we give to others.Evaluation Interactionism is generally less determinist than structural theories and recognises the choices that people make in acting out their behaviour. However, labelling theory is accused of being determinist as it suggests our behaviour is a response to how others label us. Interactionism is accused of being a loose collection of concepts rather than a coherent explanatory theory. It ignores wider structural forces such as the inequalities that exist on the basis of class, gender and ethnicity. Reynolds asked interactionists to identify the concepts they felt were essential, the most popular were ‘role’, ‘self’ and ‘interaction’, only two respondents chose ‘power’ or ‘class’ concepts that many sociologists would see as vital when understanding society and even interactions. It struggles to explain the origin of labels, or how people create meanings.Interactionism struggles to explain action that has little or no meaning for the actors.We can never have definite knowledge about what the world is really like, we only know what our senses tell us about it.Phenomenon- an observable fact or event.PhenomenologyThe world as we know it is a product of our mind. The only way we obtain knowledge is by imposing meaning on the world through categorising objects, experiences etc. i.e. by imposing meaning on phenomena.4900295222558Edmund HusserlWe also categorise our social world. However, the meaning of an act can vary according to the context and is therefore unstable.Nevertheless, Schutz suggested that categories are shared by members of society, he called these typifications. These enable us to communicate and cooperate by ensuring that we all agree on the meaning of things. This shared life world includes assumptions about the way things are and what situations mean and rather than being knowledge about the world, it is the world. The social world is a shared, inter-subjective world that can only exist when we share the same meanings.So why do we think society is a real thing?!Can you think of an act that means very different things in different contexts?Alfred SchutzThe ‘natural attitude’ is the assumption that the social world is a solid, natural thing out there. It develops because we have shared typifications so the things that we expect to happen do happen and so confirm our belief that the social world really exists.EvaluationBerger and Luckman reject Schutz’s view that society is merely an inter-subjective reality. They suggest that once society has been constructed, it takes on a life of its own and becomes an external reality which does then affect us. For example, the way we categorise men and women and give meanings to their behaviour gives rise to the structural force of patriarchy.EthnomethodologyGarfinkel suggested that the patterns we assume exist become self-reinforcing and this enables us to achieve reflexivity.How does this differ to Parsons’ beliefs about social order?Harold GarfinkelSocial order is created from the bottom up, it is an accomplishment that members of society actively construct on a daily basis.Ethnomethodology is concerned with how we do this.Indexicality – the term used to describe the fact that meanings are always unclear and depend on the context.Reflexivity – the use of commonsense knowledge in everyday interactions to create a sense of meaning an order. This allows us to behave as if meanings are clear and thus prevents indexicality from munication and cooperation should become impossible as we cannot take meanings for granted, yet this is exactly what we do!Garfinkel carried out ‘breaching experiments’ where he asked his students to act as lodgers in their own homes. This challenged people’s reflexivity as it undermined their commonsense assumptions about the situation and led their parents to become confused, embarrassed and believing that there children were being rude or ill.This demonstrated that social order is an accomplishment that members of society achieve rather than being an inevitable product of our socialisation.Language is important in the process of reflexivity as in describing something we give it reality and remove uncertainty from the situation. Craib argues the findings of EM are trivial often simply ‘uncovering’ taken-for-granted rules.If the patterns and order that we create are effectively fictitious then surely so is EM and therefore there is no reason to accept the theory?! It ignores how wider structures of power and inequality affect the meanings that we give to things e.g. they may be a product of ruling class ideology. Structuration TheoryMaybe it’s a bit of both?!?!Our actions may have unintended consequences that change the structure of society.Calvinism…Action can change the structure…StructureResourcesRulesCan you think of any examples of this interaction?Because society does seem to be an external structure that constrains our behaviour…And because we do seem to have choice over our behaviour…Giddens has attempted to produce a unified theory of structure and action.Anthony Giddens has written a number of Sociology books and is also a Labour Peer and advisor to political leaders around the globe!3707765647700Giddens suggests there is a duality of structure – that structure and action are two sides of the same coin, depending on and influencing each other. He suggests that our actions produce and reproduce the structure and the structure make our actions possible in the first place. This relationship is called structuration.One reason for this is that the existing rules guide our behaviour and the existing resources are generally needed to perform the behaviour and thus the structure is maintained.Another reason is our need for ontological security, this refers to the need to feel as if there is a sense of order and continuity in our lives, that the world is stable, orderly and predictable. This need encourages action that maintains existing structures.Rules and resources can be reproduced or changed through human action however, they tend to be reproduced. We reflexively monitor our actions and their consequences and can choose different behaviour. Particularly in late/high modern society where traditions have less influence over our behaviour.Evaluation The theory is more complex than others as it recognises the importance of structure and action in society. Margaret Archer criticises Giddens for underestimating the capacity of structures to resist change, actors cannot change structures simply by deciding to.Craib argues structuration theory isn’t really a theory since it just describes society rather than offering an explanation as to why things happen.Craib also criticises structuration theory for neglecting the role of structure, he argues the theory reduces the idea of structure to the rules governing everyday actions and doesn’t consider large-scale structures such as the economy and the state.5234940169545Some essay questions: Assess the value of structural perspectives to the understanding of society. (33 marks)Assess the usefulness of interactionist approaches to the study of society. (33 marks)Area 5: Globalisation, modernity and postmodernityThe transition from pre-modern society to modern society was associated with the effects of ‘twin revolutions’:The democratic revolutions – the French Revolution (1789) and the American Revolution (1776) transformed political ideas; reason was emphasised over tradition.The Industrial Revolution – created a broad set of economic and social changes such as urbanisation, the growth of machine based production and the division between capitalists and workers.5757545280035-11239577470What are the features of modern society?5669915212090-1854202540Modernity and Sociology…The theories examined so far are modernist theories; they are part of the Enlightenment project, seeking to uncover true knowledge about the world in order for society to progress.Durkheim – concerned with the breakdown of mechanical solidarity and the resulting anomie and egoism. He believed a new collective conscience would be established called organic solidarity whereby professional bodies and economic ties would provide moral constraint to egoism and anomie.Marx – the exploitative and alienating processes of capitalism would inevitably lead to a revolution, communism provides the solution to capitalism and modernity.Weber – modern society is dominated by rational goal oriented action, increasing rationalisation has led to an ‘iron cage of rationality’ and the creation of rule based rational organisations such as government bureaucracy. Modernity is a meaningless ‘iron cage’.Globalisation…How has globalisation affected our culture and identity?How has globalisation affected politics?How has technology affected society?How has technology helped create an interdependent ‘global village’?The increasing interconnectedness of people across national boundaries has had a number of impacts on society and the way we live our lives…What economic changes are associated with globalisation?Postmodernism has emerged since the 1970s, postmodernists believe that society has fundamentally changed and we have entered a period of postmodernity. Two of the main theorists are Lyotard and Baudrillard who both reject metanarratives and believe that we live isolated lives defining ourselves by what we consume.Postmodernism…The consequence:61080652021205LyotardJean-Francois Lyotard (1984) argued that science was in demise as the two key features of science were actually myths:Science as objective truth is a myth as it is just one of many possible truths. Anti-foundationalism is the view that there are no objective criteria that we can use to prove whether a theory is true or false and therefore knowledge is not certain.Consequently the Enlightenment goals of using science to bring about progress is flawed since the knowledge gained may not be correct. This is compounded by the role that science has played in crimes against humanity.Lyotard refers to this doubt as the ‘postmodern condition’ which is epitomised by a rejection of metanarratives. Postmodernists take a relativist view with regards to knowledge and truth. They believe that all views are true for those who hold them, all accounts of reality are equally valid. Metanarratives are therefore just one more version of the truth. In this sense Lyotard is complimentary of postmodernity since it allows groups who have previously been marginalised to be heard whereas in modernity people had one version of the truth imposed upon them.Lyotard suggests that metanarratives were used as a means of explaining and justifying the continual economic and scientific expansion that was beyond the control and scope of individuals. Therefore they simply offered comfort to people as they made people think there was a rational basis for society.Lyotard sees contemporary society as one that consists of isolated individuals linked by few social bonds.Which theory of modernity does this contrast greatly with?How could you some up the main point of Lyotard’s theory?I’m cool coz I’m into music and I’m clearly rich coz I can afford the latest technology545084061944254717415926465Baudrillard is pessimistic about the postmodern condition as hyper-reality has left people being unable to distinguish image from reality.What implications does this have for the goals of the Enlightenment?BaudrillardJean Baudrillard sees people as isolated and dehumanised, he focuses on the role of the media in shaping our knowledge and understanding of the world.Baudrillard points out that the majority of the population express a lack of interest in social solidarity and politics, he calls this the ‘death of the social’ and suggests that people are now more interested in the consumption of superficial culture. People experience the world indirectly through the media and rely on this for the majority of their knowledge.In modern society objects or concepts exist and are given names that Baudrillard refers to as ‘signs’, however, in postmodern society signs exist that bear no relation to physical reality. These signs, or ‘simulacra’, are often created by the media e.g. ‘celebrity’ or fictitious soap characters. Baudrillard suggested that our society is increasingly based on simulacra and describes this as ‘hyper-reality’ – a situation where the signs created by the media appear more real than reality itself.-110490181610The role of the media in creating this state of hyper-reality has affected our identities. We are presented with a vast array of simulacra and different versions of the truth.What effect do you think this will have on the culture of society?Our identity is also destabilised as it is no longer ascribed on the basis of fixed characteristics such as class, gender and ethnicity. In postmodern society ‘identity’ is just another consumer product, we can change our identity simply by changing our patterns of consumption. Related to this is the idea that many of the products we buy are not bought for their functional value but rather the meaning they have for us, these are ‘sign-objects’.PoststructuralismMichel Foucault – a discourse is a set of ideas that have become established as knowledge or a way of thinking and speaking about something. Discourse is a form of knowledge but also domination.See example to the right.Just because psychiatric discourse has replaced religious discourse, it doesn’t make it any truer. Truth is relative – each discourse is true for those who believe in it, there is no objective way of judging between them.How is Lyotard’s view self-defeating?Philo and Miller(2001) criticise postmodernism from a Marxist perspective.In what ways does postmodernism ignore power and poverty?Where have we come across this before???What comes to mind when you think of ‘madness’?This has been influenced by psychiatric discourse which sees madness as a medical condition.How might religious discourse view madness?How does this fit with postmodernism?What implications does it have for the Enlightenment project?Marxism and Postmodernity…Harvey believes society has shifted to a period of postmodernity but rather than being a fundamental change from the past it is simply the most recent form of capitalism.HarveyHow does this tie in with postmodernity?This gave rise to flexible accumulation, i.e. a flexible way of gaining profit. Prior to this capitalism operated along rigid Fordist principles.David Harvey (1989) criticises postmodernism for being overly pessimistic. He argues that knowledge can be used to improve people’s lives and therefore believes in the Enlightenment project. Even if the theories we have cannot guarantee absolute truth they are at least an approximation to it and can guide us as to how we can improve society.Capitalism is a dynamic system which involves the development of new techniques used in production and ways of organising it to maximise profit. Postmodernity began in the 1970s because this was when capitalism faced the end of the long economic boom that existed after the second world war.Jameson suggests that postmodernity represents a more developed form of capitalism since it commodifies virtually all aspects of life, including our identities.Flexible accumulation has also resulted in political changes. For example, the opposition to capitalism has become fragmented, there are a number of different oppositional movements including environmentalism, women’s liberation, anti-racism etc. Harvey and Jameson hope that these will come together and form a ‘rainbow alliance’ against capitalism.Harvey suggests this form of capitalism also leads to the compression of time and space that postmodern society is characterised by. The commodification of culture, the creation of worldwide financial markets and developments in ICT have all resulted in distances between people becoming smaller.In what way is this similar to traditional Marxist theory?51269901736090Late ModernitySome sociologists disagree with the view that we have entered a new era, rather than being in a period of postmodernity we are actually experiencing a continuation of modernity. These theories recognise that changes have taken place but suggest that these are the features of modernity becoming intensified and call this late (or high) modernity. For example, social change is a feature of modern society but in late modernity social change is occurring more rapidly. Theories of late modernity still subscribe to the Enlightenment project, believing that knowledge can be discovered and used to improve society.GiddensReflexivityThis is where people actively think about how to live their lives, i.e. they reflect on their actions and modify them in light of information about the possible risks they may involve.DisembeddingThis is where social interaction is removed from local contexts, i.e. we can communicate with people all over the world so traditional boundaries are broken down and communication becomes more impersonal.What do you think Giddens meant by the term ‘manufactured’ risks?Giddens suggests that in late modernity we face a number of high consequence risks i.e. serious threats to human society:Military risks e.g.Economic risks e.g.Environmental risks e.g.These are all ‘manufactured’ risks.What will be the impact of disembedding and reflexivity?Can you remember (or think) why people are able to be reflexive?4279265271780Late modern society is a ‘risk society’; in the past people struggled to control natural risks such as drought, however, in late modern society we face manufactured risks such as pollution and global warming.Beck‘Risk consciousness’ is a major feature of our culture, we are aware of risks and seek to avoid them. However, much of our knowledge of risks comes from the media…Late modernity has become increasingly individualised, we must constantly reflect on the possible consequences of our choices of action and the potential risks attached. He called this reflexive modernisation.Beck also uses the term ‘cosmopolitan condition’ to describe the way in which the world is increasingly interconnected e.g. through immigration, communication, travel, international campaigns such as Greenpeace, international criminality etc.He suggests this adds to the level of risk we face as there now exists a ‘network of interdependencies’ e.g. economic crises and terrorist crises connect different places.Considering these interdependencies is referred to as the cosmopolitan outlook and some would argue that we should adopt methodological cosmopolitanism so that research can investigate transnational phenomenon.4041140-45085Giddens and Beck are both hopeful in terms of improving society and believe in the Enlightenment goals. Despite science having caused much of the increased risk we now face they believe in the power of reason and rational thought to create a better world.Evaluation…The concept of reflexivity implies that we reflect on our actions and are then free to reduce the risk we face, however, do you think this is a realistic assumption?Mike Rustin (1994) argues it is capitalism that causes the increased risk in its continual pursuit of profit, not technology in itself.The acceptance of rational analysis of society is a positive one and more useful than the pessimistic views put forward by postmodernists such as Lyotard.5210810269875Possible essay question‘Society has now entered a new postmodern age and we need new theories to understand it.’ Assess this view (33 marks)Area 6: Sociology and SciencePositivismInterpretivismAn example: positivism and suicide2565400-2540An example: Interpretivism and suicideKarl Popper4889500184785Popper (1902-94) was probably the most influential philosopher of science of the 20th century. His ideas have important implications for sociology.What is it that distinguishes scientific knowledge from other forms of knowledge? – what makes scientific knowledge unique?Popper sets out to answer two related questions about science:Why has scientific knowledge been able to grow so spectacularly in just a few centuries?Fallacy of inductionFalsificationismTruthCriticism and the open societyImplications for sociology:5326380-10795Thomas KuhnThomas Kuhn (1970) is a historian of science who presents a radically different view of what makes science unique. Like Popper’s ideas, those of Kuhn also have important implications for sociology.ParadigmA paradigm a set of norms (or culture) shared by member of a given scientific community and defines what their science is. It provides a basic framework of assumptions, principles, method and techniques within which members of that community work. It tells scientists what nature is like, which aspects are worth studying, what methods should be used etc. Kuhn states that science cannot exist without a shared paradigm. Until there is no paradigm, there will only be rival schools of thought, not a science as such.Normal scienceMost of time paradigms go unquestioned and scientists do what Kuhn calls normal science. In this, scientists engage in puzzle solving. The paradigm defines the questions and in broad terms, the answers. Scientists are left to fill in the detail or work out the ‘neatest’ solution. Like a jigsaw puzzle, scientists’ jobs are figuring out how to put the pieces together to get the right result.3022601270Scientific revolutionsSometimes the pieces don’t fit the jigsaw puzzle. As these anomalies gradually mount up, confidence in the paradigm declines and this leads to arguments about basic assumptions and to efforts to reformulate the paradigm so as to account for the anomalies. When this happens, science has entered a period of crisis where scientists become demoralised and lose their sense of purpose. As a result, they begin to formulate rival paradigms and this creates a scientific revolution. Eventually one paradigm does win out and becomes accepted by the scientific community, allowing normal science to resume, but with a new set of basic assumptions, puzzles and so on.Implications for sociology:Realism, Science and SociologyA third view of science comes from realism. Keat and Urray (1982) stress the similarities between sociology and certain kinds of natural sciences in terms of degree of control the researcher has over the variables being researched. They distinguish between two types of systems:Closed systems – are those where the researcher can control and measure all the relevant variables, and therefore can make precise predictions. The typical research method is the laboratory experiment, as used in sciences such as physics or chemistry.Open systems – are those where the researcher cannot control and measure all the relevant variables and so cannot make precise predictions. For example, a meteorologist cannot normally predict the weather with 100% accuracy. These processes are too complex to measure or too large-scale to be studied in a laboratory.What do realists say about positivism and interpretivism? Are these scientific? (page 268) Eye on the exam… ‘Assess the view that sociology can and should model itself on the natural sciences’ (33 marks)Key skills: 15 marks AO1 (knowledge and understanding) and 18 marks AO2 (interpretation, application, analysis and evaluation)Start with the positivist view that sociology can adopt the logic and methods of the natural sciences as the best way to gain true knowledge of society. Use Durkheim’s study of suicide as an example but focus on the quantitative data, social facts, objectivity and detachment. Evaluate the positivist view from an interpretivist perspective.Much of the answer to the question depends on how we see the natural sciences. You should therefore examine different views of science, including Popper, Kuhn and the realists. You should refer to their key concepts and explain what implications their view has for whether sociology can be regarded as scientific.Area 7: Objectivity and values in sociologyThe classical sociologists and valuesMarxWeberValues as a guide to researchData collection and hypothesis testingValues in the interpretation of dataValues and the sociologist as a citizenValues freedom and commitmentModern positivistsPositivists tend to argue that their own values were irrelevant to research for two reasons:1. The desire to appear scientific: science is concerned with fact, not value. Sociologists should remain morally neutral - to establish truth about people's behaviour, not to praise or condemn it. By 'mimicking' science by being objective, this could raise sociology's status and make their research more respectable/credible.2. The social position of sociology: Alvin Gouldner (1975) argued that since the 1950s, sociology became 'problem takers' who hired themselves out to other organisations such as governments, businesses and the military, to take on and solve their problems for them. Gouldner argues that sociologists saw their values as irrelevant and left them behind they didn't want to rock the boat of the paymasters by criticisng or questioning mitted sociologyBy contrasts with positivists, Myrdal (1969) argue for a committed sociology. Myrdal argues sociologists should not only spell out their values - as Weber recommends - they should also openly 'take sides' by espousing the values and interests of particular individuals or groups. Myrdal argues it is neither possible nor desirable to keep values out of research. Value-free sociology is:Impossible because their the sociologist or paymasters' values are bound to be reflected in their work.Undesirable, since without values to guide their research, they are putting their services at the disposal of the highest bidder.Becker (1970) says that sociologists have tended to take the viewpoint of the powerful (police, psychiatrists); instead we must identify with the 'underdogs' (criminals, mental patients) by giving them a voice, we can reveal a previously hidden side of social reality. We need to take their side (biased in favour of the subjects investigated). For this reasons, we need to take interactionist and qualitative research methods to reveal the meanings of these 'outsiders'. Funding and careersMost sociological research is funded by someone else such as government departments, businesses and voluntary organisations. Often the people who pay for the research controls the direction it takes and the kinds of questions that it asks - and fails to ask. Therefore the sociologists' work is likely to represent the values and interests of their paymasters. Funding organisations may also prevent publication of their research if its' findings prove unacceptable. For example, the Black Report (1980) into class inequalities in health, the Conservative government arranged for it to be released over a bank holiday to reduce the publicity (which were counter to the governments' views). Also, the sociologist themselves may wish to further their careers with research and therefore may censor themselves for fear that being too outspoken will cost them their career.Perspectives and methodsDifferent perspectives have different values about society. For example:Feminism sees society as based on gender inequalityFunctionalism sees society as harmonious that values that favour the status quoMarxism sees society as conflict-ridden and strives for a classless society.These assumptions and values influence the topics that sociologists of different perspectives choose to research and the conclusions they reach, e.g. Marxists conclude that inequality produces exploitation of the poor by the rich. There is also a link between the kinds of methods sociologists prefer and their value-stance. For example, Interactionists prefer qualitative methods and these are criticised as these methods produce facts that reflect their values and outlook when interpreting results.Objectivity and relativismIf all sociological perspectives involves values, are their findings just a reflection of their values, rather than a true picture of society? If so, there would be no way of deciding which of these versions of reality - if any - was true. One version of this idea is known as relativism. It argues that:Different groups, cultures and individuals have different views as to what is true. Each one sees the world in their own distinctive way, through their own perspectives, values and interests.There is no independent way of judging whether any view is truer than any other.All sociologists believe in the first statement. Relativism argues that there is no objective truth - just truths plural. What you believe is true, is true - for you. If one person thinks the earth is flat and another it is round, there is no way of saying of who is right and wrong. There is a real factual work 'out there' - regardless of the sociologists' values, we can observe and record these facts. Once we have established the existence of these facts, they can be used to judge the value of competing theories and perspectives. In the end, it matters less whether a theory contains certain values, than whether it can explain the world that we observe.19456407620Possible essay questions:Assess the view that values can and should be kept out of sociological research (33 marks)Area 8: Sociology and social policyThe influence of sociology on policyGlobalisationMany factors may affect whether or not sociological research succeeds in influencing policy:Electoral popularityIdeological and policy preferences of governmentsCostCritical sociologyInterest groupsFunding sourcesPerspectives on social policy and sociologyPositivism and functionalismMarxismSocial democratic perspectiveThe New RightFeminism1905001275361Possible essay questions:Assess the relationship between sociology and social policy (33 marks) ................
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