Nschwent



Red Herring: referring to information irrelevant to that specific argument in an attempt to confuse or manipulate the issue.“You say you believe in coalitions? Well, I believe in American pride!”Slippery Slope: presenting a chain of events that will “undoubtedly” occur if a certain choice is made (the events are usually an exaggerated success or failure).“If we try to raise the fuel-efficiency of our cars, they will cost thousands of dollars more, inflation will spiral out of control, and the economy will collapse.”Straw Man: addressing only your opponent’s weakest arguments in an attempt to mischaracterize his or her position.“President Bush’s Iraq policies are flawed. He has yet to build any universities there.”Similar to these fallacies is the notion of ‘loaded’ language. Regardless of whether you are the writer or the audience, you should be aware of the “baggage” and bias that certain terms carry. For example, depending on who is speaking, the following terms can refer to the same group of people: Revolutionary / patriot / martyr / terrorist / murdererUndocumented worker / illegal alienActivist / protestor / anarchist / criminalWelfare recipient / unemployed worker Trial lawyer / attorney of lawSuccessful businessperson / cost-cutting CEOCollateral damage / civilian casualtiesPeople are not always as clear and logical as we would like them to be. Hopefully, this guide allows you to read with a more discerning eye.A BRIEF GUIDE TO FALLACIESFallacies are ubiquitous; they permeate our lives in advertisements, political punditry, and everyday conversations. Why are they so common? They are common because they are easy; a fallacy depends on lazy thinking in order to survive, for if the reader uses his or her critical thinking and analytical skills, a fallacy cannot keep from perishing. But what is a fallacy? A fallacy is a breakdown in logic and a misrepresentation of reality. While the use of fallacies is often unintentional, the presence of one or more of these lapses in logic can affect the extent to which you can convince an audience of the validity of your claims. On a more superficial level, they can also affect the scores you earn on your arguments at the college level.Every argument needs to contain a number of coordinate parts: thesis, supporting arguments (claims), evidence, and opposition. Unfortunately, fallacies can occur at each of these levels; for example, “Appeal to Authority” is a form of fallacious evidence, and “Ad Hominem” is a way of fallaciously addressing the opposition. Therefore, both writers and readers must maintain their vigilance in beginning on the lookout throughout an argument for the presence of these gaps in logic.How does identifying these fallacies benefit you? By recognizing what these fallacies are and why they are weak, you will be much less likely to use them in essays you write. Conversely, recognizing others’ use of fallacies will enable you to craft more successful critiques and to aid you in addressing the opposition in arguments you write, for it is the opposition’s argument depends on fallacious reasoning, that would be definite weakness you would want to discuss.Fallacies may be omnipresent, but that does not mean we have to continue to give them power. When you see a fallacy—on television, in a newspaper, from an instructor or friend—point it out. Doing so will keep you an active thinker, something of which this world could always use a few more.Ad Hominem: attacking against your opponent on a personal level rather than critiquing your opponent’s argument.“We shouldn’t take John Kerry’s argument on Iraq seriously; he’s just a flip-flopper.” Appeal to authority: using an “expert” quote as support when the person is not an expert is that specific topic.“According to my proctologist, these tax-cuts are going to bolster the economy.”Appeal to Ignorance: basing an argument on the lack of evidence: for this to avoid being fallacy, negative evidence must be presented. Negative evidence refers to the extent to which the evidence has been sought. Based on negative evidence, there is probably no loch ness monster (based on the defined boundaries of the lake and the number of searches), but based on negative evidence, we can make no claims about the existence or non-existence of space aliens.“Who know how many murders have been deterred by the death penalty? If we didn’t have the death penalty, many more people would have been murdered.”Appeal to Popularity (aka “Bandwagon”): basing an argument on the fact that many people believe it and thus must be correct.“Everyone else is investing in these technology stocks; I had better invest my money in them, too.”Appeal to Tradition: basing an argument on the fact that “it has always been this way” and thus must be correct.“The wife has always been the one to cook and clean; if a marriage is to succeed, the woman must be a homemaker.”Begging the Question: supporting an argument with a paraphrased version of that same idea without providing evidence.“He should be elected president because he is the best man for the job.”Death by a 1000 Qualifications: making a statement that is technically true but that has so many qualifiers that it is insignificant.“She is the best congresswoman we have ever had in this district! (And also the first) ”Equivocation: relying on a term that has multiple meanings in order to manipulate or more to prove your point.“America has the right to self-defense: therefore, we should attack Iran before they can attack us.” Fallacy of Omission: leaving out information that is relevant but that could weaken your position.John Kerry: “Bush’s plans for war were flawed from the start.”False Analogy: basing an argument on a comparison of two things when that comparison is not valid.“Iraq is just like Vietnam: therefore, we should just get out like we did in Vietnam and the country will take care of itself.”False Dichotomy (Either / or): presenting only two options or ideas when there may be a third (or fourth...).“You are either a patriot and for the war or you are traitors to America.”Hasty generalization (aka “stereotyping”): making blanket judgments about a group based on too small of a sample.“Why do Muslims hate America?”Many Questions: asking a question that has a number of implicit attacks.“President Bush, why are you so intent on turning America into a police state?”Oversimplification: presenting absolutes when they may not be relevant; or presenting simplistic explanations when the truth is more complex.“All we need to do to jump-start the economy is to lower taxes.”Non Sequitur: attempting to connect two disparate ideas without making that connection clear.“He must be intelligent; he graduated from Yale!”Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (aka “False Cause and effect”): Making a casual argument based solely on chronology; the cause must be proved.“First, the democrats criticized the war; then the terrorists bombed the building in Baghdad. See what happens when we criticize the war!”Protecting the Hypothesis: manipulating and mischaracterizing data and information to prove your claim.“Global warming isn’t occurring; all those studies prove is that our summer was a little hotter than usual.”SIMPLE SENTENCES1 independent clause IC (S+V) S VPhotography is an interesting POUND SENTENCES2 independent clausesIC, CC IC IC CC ICPhotography is an interesting hobby, but it can also be a great career choice.IC; IC IC ICPhotography is an interesting hobby; it can also be a great career.IC; CA, IC IC CA ICPhotography is an interesting hobby; however, it can also be a great career PLEX SENTENCES1 independent clause and 1 dependent clauseDC, IC SC DC ICEven though photography is an interesting career, it can get expensive.IC DC IC SC DCPhotography is an interesting hobby even though it can be POUND-COMPLEX SENTENCESAt least 2 independent clauses and 1 dependent clauseDC, IC, CC, IC SC DC IC CC ICSince I have always loved photography, I have decided to make a career out of it, and I will succeed.IC, CC IC DC IC CC IC SC DCI have decided to be a photojournalist, and I plan to travel the world even though I am afraid to fly.IC DC, CC IC IC SC DC CC ICI have decided to be a photojournalist since I love taking pictures, and I am going to succeed.Sentence Pattern TerminologyS The Subject is the topic (nouns/ pronouns) of the sentence-what the sentence is about.V The Verb tells what the subject is doing or what is happening.S V The human brain functions in complex A Coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) Connects parts of a sentence that are of equal importance or weight. CCThe Human brain functions in complex ways. And, researchers do not know how exactly how it works.CA Conjunctive adverbs create logical connections between ideas. CAThe human brain functions in complex ways. However researchers do not know exactly how it works.SC Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses that join two ideas by making one dependent on the other. SC DC ICBecause the human brain functions in complex ways, researchers are curious to discover how it worksRP Relative pronouns rename or take the place of nouns and introduce dependent clauses. RPThe human brain, which functions in complex ways, remains a mystery to researchers.IC An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a complete sentence—hence the term independent. S V The human brain functions in complex ways.DC A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but unlike an independent clause, cannot stand alone as a complete sentence--hence the word dependent. Dependent clauses are created by adding a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun to the beginning of the clauses SC S V Because the human brain functions in complex ways. RP/S V Which functions in complex ways?REVISION CHECKLIST FOR CONTENT AND FORM AUDIENCE AND PURPOSEWhat is the purpose of my essay?Who is my audience, and what are my audience’s needs?How successful have I been in meeting the needs of my audience and purpose?TITLEDoes my title draw in the reader?Is my title clear and appropriate for my audience?INTRODUCTIONDoes my introduction “hook” the reader and lead into the thesis?THESIS STATEMENTDoes my thesis appear as the last sentence(s) of the introduction?Does my thesis state the controlling idea of my essay?Will my thesis be clear to my audience?Have I developed my thesis consistently throughout my essay?BODY PARAGRAPHSDoes each body paragraph contain a topic sentence and only one idea to be developed?Are my body paragraphs organized logically and effectively?Does each paragraph contain enough specific and relevant details to develop the main idea of the paragraph?Do I avoid being redundant?Do I keep like ideas together?SENTENCESAre all sentences coherent?Do I transition between sentences?Is my sentences varied and interesting, or is it monotonous and dull?WORDSIs my vocabulary appropriate for my topic, my audience, and my purpose?Do you understand the meaning of the words I use?Do I use the correct form of words?Do I very my word choice? ConclusionDo I restate my thesis?Do I bring the essay to a close in an interesting and relevant manner?EDITING CHECKLISTGRAMMARHave I written complete sentences throughout the essay?Do I avoid run-on sentences?Do all my subjects and verbs agree?Are my pronouns references clear?Do all my pronouns and their antecedents agree?Do I avoid shifting voice?Do I avoid sexist language and use gender-neutral language?Do I keep a consistent verb tense throughout the essay?Are my modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify?PUNCTUATIONDoes each sentence contain end punctuation?Have I used commas correctly?Have I used semicolons, colons, and dashes effectively and correctly?MECHANICSIs the first word of each sentence capitalized?Are all proper nouns capitalized?Have I followed conventional rules for underlining, abbreviating, and using numbers?WORDSAre all of my words spelled correctly?Timed Writing: Techniques for SuccessHere are some steps you can take you can take to improve your writing when you face timed writing situations:Reading and Understanding the QuestionThe most common and worst mistake that you can make when writing with a time limit is to misread the question. An effective strategy is to underline, circle, or otherwise highlight the key verbs/words in the question. Below are explanations of the words and phrases you’ll find in instructions for timed essays: Agree or disagree: take a position and stick with it throughout the entire essay. Don’t change your mind or try to argue both sides.Challenge: this term is a synonym for pare: Outline the similarities between two sides.Contrast: Outline the differences between the two pare and Contrast: The expectation is that you do both, not choose one.Debate: You can argue both sides of the topic. Ultimately, though, develop a specific position with one side coming out stronger.Define: Outline the topic’s main points.Illustrate: Make a point and use specific examples to support it.Identify parallels: This phrase is a synonym for compare.Discuss or explain: These terms are vague. You may be expected to complete any of the tasks listed above. Look for other key words in the question to guide your response.Develop your point of view: This is what you’ll be asked to do for many timed writing situations. You may use any of the strategies listed above to support a thesis that takes a position on the topic.PlanningYou may feel the urge to rush ahead. Yet if you do so without devising some sort if design, you are almost certain to lose focus and end up with a jumble of words that lead nowhere. Writers generally have their own personal strategies, but if you haven’t found one that works for you, consider the techniques listed below.Outlining; This format is helpful for people who like clear structureBrainstorming: Put the topic or thesis in the center of the page and then write supporting examples that branch out from the main point.Listing: Similar to outlining but with a bit less structure, this method lets you get your ideas down easily.Weighing pros and cons or similarities and differences: When you’re asked to debate or to compare and contrast two ideas, write a heading for each assertion, draw a line between the headings, and list the main points side by side.WritingOnce you’ve read the question carefully and have spent a few minutes planning, you’re ready to begin. You need to pace yourself because you’ll have only a few minutes per paragraph. If you constantly find yourself rushing to finish, consider the tips below.Introduction: A creative start draws readers in and makes them want to keep going. However, unless a great opening dawns on you immediately, skip it, leave space to go back later (if you have time), and move directly to your thesis. You can’t get back the time you spend stressing out over your opening.Body: For each body paragraph, include a topic sentence that gives a specific example to prove your thesis statement and a body that elaborates upon or explains this example. Keep in mind that, unless the directions tell you otherwise, you don’t have to come up with three examples. Supporting your thesis with one or two well-developed examples can work better than including three that are short or unfinished.Conclusion: Try to come up with a conclusion that does more than restate your thesis and main points. However, unless your directions require one, a formal conclusion isn’t always needed. Your time might be better spent editing and proofreading your essay.Editing and ProofreadingTry to leave at least 10-15 minutes to read through your entire essay. Look out for any structural or content errors. Then, if time permits, check for spelling and grammatical mistakes. Lastly, if you have time, revisit your introduction to see if you can improve your opening.Remember, you can write a solid, effective essay in a short time, if you use those precious minutes wisely.Timed Writing OutlinesHere is a timed outline for a one-hour-thirty-minute essay:Time RemainingYou should...1 hour, 20 minutesbegin reading the prompt1 hour, 10 minutesbegin writing the introductions/thesis50 minutesbegin writing body paragraphs35 minutesHALFWAY POINT – finish body paragraphs20 minutesbegin writing the conclusion10 minutesbegin proofreading5 minutesprint USE A COMMABefore a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) when it joins two independent clauses:We swam with the dolphins, and we fed the whales.After an introductory element:However, I enjoyed feeding the whales the most.Because I had taken photography, I got some great pictures.To set apart nonessential items:My mother, who was afraid of water, refused to get into the ocean.To set apart conjunctive adverbs that are asides:This vacation, therefore, was the best my family has ever taken.To separate three or more items in a series:I saw seahorse, starfish, and even stingray.To separate two or more adjectives of equal weight:The dry, soft sand felt wonderful on my skin.To separate a quote from the rest of the sentence: “I caught a fish,” I yelled.To separate digits in a number:I counted at least 10 schools of fish. With approximently 100 fish per school, that equals 1,000 fish.To separate parts of a geographical location:Even though this vacation was wonderful, I was happy to get home to Bakersfield, California.To separate parts of an address:I was most happy when we arrived at our home at 127 Gardenwood Lane, Bakersfield, CA 90010.To separate parts of a full date:We got home the day before my birthday, which is August 18, 1989.To set off a title when it appears after a name:Because I was so sunburned, I spent my birthday with my personal physician, Marcus Welby, M.D. USE A SEMICOLON To join two independent clauses:Swimming is great exercise; it works out both the heart and lungs.Before a conjunctive adverb joining two independent clauses:Swimming is also enjoyable; therefore, many people continue to exercise.To separate items in a series already containing commas:At the beach, we saw many starnge creatures; ate many strange foods; and explored the malls, the thrift shops, and the antique stores. USE A COLON To introduce a list, even of one: Hint: Do not use a colon after the words such as and including or after verbs. The following items are useful at the beach: a towel, some sunscreen, and bottled water. At the beach, I noticed a most curious person: a man in a clown’s suit. USE A DASH To add a set of information: My best adventure at the beach-meeting Alanis Morissette- was also my most memorable.She even agreed to sing my favorite song –“Hand in My Pocket.”IDENTIFYING FRAGMENTSDependent Clause FragmentsBecause Steve is saving for college.Which can be quite expensive.Afterthought FragmentAnd will attend in the fall.-ing FragmentFinding his account empty.-to FragmentTo go to college.CORRECTING FRAGMENTSDrop the subordinate conjunction:Because Steve is saving for college.Add an independent clause:Because Steve is saving for college, he will attend in the fall.Drop the relative pronoun:Which College is quite expensive.And Steve will attend in the fall.Steve is saving for college and will attend in the fall.Steve is saving for college, and he will attend in the fall.Finding Steve found his account empty.Finding his accouhnt empty, Steve decided to save his money.Steve wanted to go to college.Steve started saving his money to go to college. IDENTIFYI NG RUN-ON SENTENCESComma splice:Steve is saving for college, he will attend in the fall.Fused sentence:Steve is saving for college he will attend in the fall. CORRECTING RUN-ON SENTENCESAdd a period:Steve is saving for college. He will attend in the fall.Add a subordinate conjunction:Add a comma and a FANBOYS:Steve is saving for college, and he will be attending in the fall.Add a semicolon:Steve is saving for college; he will be attending in the fall.Add a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb:Steve is saving for college; therefore, he will be attending in the fall.*FANBOYS=for, and, nor, but, or, yet, soThey say/ I say templates:WHY TEMPLATES?Academic writing requires presenting your sources and your ideas effectively to readers. According to Graff and Birkenstein, the first element in the process involves “entering a conversation about ideas” between you-the writer- and your sources to reflect your critical thinking (ix). The templates allow you, the writer, to organize your ideas in relationship to your thesis, supporting evidence, opposing evidence, and the conclusion of the argument.The Most Important Templates:On the one hand, _________. On the other hand, ________.Author X contradicts herself. At the same time that she argues_________, she also implies__________. I argue that___________. She argues________, and I agree because_________. Her argument that ________ is supported by new research showing that __________. In recent discussions of ___________, a controversial issue has been whether_________. On the one hand, some argue that _________. On the other hand, however, others argue that.Introducing Standard Views:Americans today tend to believe that ___________. Conventional wisdom has it that ___________.My whole life I have heard it said that __________.Making those Views Something You Say:I have always believed that ___________.When I was a child, I used to think that ____________.Writing a Summary:She demonstrates that ___________.In fact, they celebrate the fact that _____________.Introducing a Quote:X insists, “____________.”As the prominent philosopher X puts it, “___________.”According to X, “_____________.”In her book, Book Title, X maintains that “___________.”X complicates matters further when she writes that “____________.”Disagreeing:X is mistaken because she overlooks _____________.I disagree with X’s view that ___________ because, as recent research has shown, ___________.Introducing Your Point of View:X overlooks what I consider an important point about ___________.I wholeheartedly endorse what X calls _____________.My discussion of X is in fact addressing the larger matter of ___________.These conclusions will have significant applications in ___________ as well as in _____________.COHERENT SENTENCES ARE SENTENCES THAT SHOW THE CONNECTION BETWEEN IDEASADDITIONRESULT ORCAUSERESTATEMENTSUMMARY ORCONCLUSIONOPPOSING VIEW OR CONTRASTCOMPARISONSEXAMPLE/ILLIUSTRATIONAdditionally, also, as well as, besides, equally important, furthermore, in addition, moreoverConsequently, hence, therefore, so, thus, because, then, as a result, accordingly, as a consequence, for this reason, because of thisIn other words, that is, that is to say, in simpler terms, in shortFinally, in conclusion, to sum up, in summary, all in all, evidently, actually, overall, in brief, briefly, in other words, lastly, on the whole, in short, therefore, thus, consequently, accordingly, hence, thenAt the same time, but, despite this/that, instead, however, on the contrary, in contrast, to/on the contrast, contrarily, unlike, conversely, nevertheless, nonetheless, neither, nor, yet, but, on the one/other hand, still, besides this, otherwiseIn the same way, similarly, likewise, in like mannerFor example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, as a case in point, in particular, in general, namely, specifically, generallyEMPHASIZE AN IDEACONCEDE APOINTQUALIFYA POINTDIRECTION&DISTANCETIME&FREQUENCYBEGINNINGMIDDLEENDAbove all, certainly, especially, in fact, indeed, surely, most importantly, naturally, equally important, of courseGranted, certainly, of course, no doubt, surely, naturally, although this may be truePerhaps, probably, for the most part, apparently, seeminglyInside/outside, along, above/below, up/down, across, to the right/left, in front of/behind, to the east, north, south, west, besides, in the background, opposite to, next to, near, nearby, facing adjacent to, on the near/far sideAt the same time, currently, previously, immediately, often, suddenly, frequently, now and then, at that time, gradually, weekly/daily/hourly, by the minute/second/week etc. , occasionally, rarely, during, brieflyBefore then, beginning with, at the beginning, at first, first, initiallyMeanwhile, in the meantime, simultaneously, next, then, nowFinally, at last, eventually, later, at the endPREPOSITIONSAbout, above, according to, across, after, against, along, along with, among, apart from, around as, as for, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, by means of, concerning, despite, down, during, except for, expecting, for, from, in, in addition too, in back of, in case of, in front of, into, like, near, next, of, in place of, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, onto, on top of, out, out of, outside, over, past regarding, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, up to, with, within, withoutCONJUNCTIVE ADVERBSAccordingly, also, anyhow, besides, certainly, consequently conversely, finally furthermore, hence, henceforth, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, never the less, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, then therefore, thusCOORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)For, and, nor, but, or, yet, soSUBORDINATING CONJUNCTITONSAfter, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, how, if, in order that, once, provided that, rather than, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, where as, wherever, whileRELATIVE PRONOUNSThat, which, who whom, whose, what, whoever, whomeverCORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONSboth . . . and not only. . . but (also) either. . .or whether. . .orneither. . .nor ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download