Chapter 9



CHAPTER 5

Planning

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Planning is the systematic arrangement of tasks to accomplish an objective. The plan lays out what needs to be accomplished and how it is to be accomplished. The plan becomes a benchmark against which actual progress can be compared. It is important that the people who will be involved in performing the work are also involved in planning the work. Based on this chapter, the student will become familiar with:

• clearly defining the project objective

• developing a work breakdown structure

• developing a network diagram

• utilizing a project management methodology called the systems development life cycle for information systems development projects

TEACHING STRATEGIES

1. Stress that planning is an essential part of project management.

2. Ask the students about projects in their life and how they planned for them.

3. Get them to discuss how planning is done and why it is important for events such as: a vacation, a wedding, the building of a house, getting a college degree, etc.

4. Ask them what happens when planning is either overlooked or done poorly.

5. Give examples from your own experience.

LECTURE OUTLINE

1. Real World Examples

A. Vignette: The Olympics

• Athens, Greece received the award to host the 2004 Olympic Games

in 1997.

• Project work did not begin until 2000, after a warning was issued by

the International Olympic Committee.

• Another $1.19 billion was added to the project cost because of

construction delays and the need for increased security.

• Less than 100 days remained, and it appeared that most construction

projects would not be complete until a few days before the games.

• Incomplete construction projects:

i. Athens Olympic Sports Complex—incomplete roof

ii. Athletic field—work had not been started

iii. Velodrome (for cycling)—had a new completion date, 40 days before the start of the games

iv. Structures for other Olympic events

• Delays caused by incomplete construction projects:

i. Telecommunications infrastructure—telephony, terrestrial trunk radio network and services, IT network, satellite communications etc.

ii. Security system installation

• Olympic project team worked under a very tight time schedule, with

little time for independent tasks.

• Network planning techniques are essential in these situations to

define hierarchy of projects.

• A project manager can help team members to stay on task with short-

term goals to assure that the long-term goals are met on time.

B. Vignette: German Airlines

• Lufthansa German Airlines is the first airline to offer high-speed

Internet access while flying in response to customer need.

• FlyNet was tested on January 15, 2003 on a non-stop flight from

Germany to Washington D.C. This was the beginning of three months

of testing.

• The service would allow customers to:

i. Check email

ii. Log onto company intranets

iii. Search for information on the Web

• The “flying office” was build by Connexion, a subsidiary of Boeing

• FlyNet consists of:

i. Laptop outlets for seating areas

ii. Wireless network antennas hidden in ceiling panels to

transmit and receive satellite signals

• Transmission speeds are similar to that of ISDN technology.

• Pilots will also benefit from the system with more precise weather

forecasts.

• Installation alone costs $400,000. Development, maintenance, and

installation total in the “double digit millions.”

• Corporations like Seimens, BASF, Software AG, and Boehringer

Ingleheim were invited for trial runs.

• Access to each company’s Intranet and mail servers, using a Virtual

Private Network, was made possible by the Connexion wireless

broadband system.

• Testing was successful and Lufthansa recently decided to modify its

complete long-range fleet for high-speed Internet services.

• Installation was scheduled to begin in January 2004. FlyNet should be

available on Lufthansa’s trans-Atlantic flights by spring 2004.

2. Project Objective

A. Planning is an essential part of project management.

B. Without an effective plan, the chance of failure is greatly increased for any project.

C. In essence, the plan is a roadmap that shows you how to get from where you currently are to where you want to be.

D. The first step in the planning process is to define the project objective.

E. The objective must be clear, attainable, specific, and measurable.

F. For a project, the objective is usually defined in terms of scope, schedule, and cost.

3. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

A. Once the project objective has been defined, the next step is to determine what work elements, or activities, need to be performed to accomplish it.

B. This requires developing a list of all the activities.

C. The WBS breaks a project down into manageable pieces, or items.

D. It’s a hierarchical tree of end items that will be accomplished.

E. Display Figure 5.1, a WBS for a town festival project.

F. The graphic structure subdivides the project into smaller pieces called work items.

G. The lowest-level item of any one branch is called a work package.

H. The criteria for deciding how much detail or how many levels to put in the WBS are:

(1) the level at which a single individual or organization can be assigned responsibility

(2) the level at which you want to control the budget

4. Responsibility Matrix

A. The responsibility matrix is a method used to display, in tabular format, the individuals responsible for accomplishing the work items in the WBS.

B. Display Figure 5.2, which shows the responsibility matrix associated with the WBS in Figure 5.1 for the festival project.

C. Some responsibility matrices use an X to show who is responsible for each work item; others use a P to designate primary responsibility and an S to indicate support responsibility.

5. Defining Activities

A. An activity is a piece of work that consumes time.

B. For Work Package 3.1 in Figure 5.1, “Game Booths,” the following eight detailed activities may be identified:

1. Design booths

2. Specify materials

3. Buy materials

4. Construct booths

5. Paint booths

6. Dismantle booths

7. Move booths to festival site and reassemble

8. Dismantle booths and move to storage

6. Developing the Network Plan

A. When all the detailed activities have been defined for each of the work packages, the next step is to graphically portray them in a network diagram.

B. It is helpful in planning, scheduling, and controlling projects that consist of many interrelated activities.

C. Two network planning techniques, program evaluation and review technique (PERT) and the critical path method (CPM), were developed in the 1950s.

D. Other forms have been developed.

E. Today when most people refer to a CPM diagram or PERT chart, they mean a generic network diagram.

7. Gantt Charts

A. Network planning techniques are often compared with a somewhat more familiar tool known as a Gantt chart, sometimes called a bar chart.

B. The Gantt chart, developed in the early 1900s, remains very popular today, mainly because of its simplicity.

C. Display Figure 5.3, which shows a Gantt chart for a consumer market study.

D. Activities are listed down the left-hand side, and a time scale is shown along the bottom.

E. One of the major drawbacks to the traditional Gantt chart is that it does not graphically display the interrelationships of activities.

F. Therefore, it’s not obvious which other activities will be affected if one activity is delayed.

G. However, most project management software packages can produce Gantt charts that display the interdependencies among tasks by using connecting arrows.

8. Network Principles

There are different formats that can be used in drawing the diagram. One format is activity in the box (AIB), also known as activity on the node (AON), and another format is activity on the arrow (AOA).

A. Activity in the Box (AIB)

1. In the AIB format, each activity is represented by a box in the network diagram, and the description of the activity is written within the box.

2. Activities consume time, and their description usually starts with a verb.

3. In addition, each box is assigned a unique activity number.

4. Activities have a precedential relationship—that is, they are linked in a precedential order to show which activities must be finished before others can start.

5. An activity cannot start until all of the preceding activities that are linked to it by arrows have been finished.

6. Some activities may be done concurrently.

7. Draw an example on the board. See text for samples.

B. Activity on the Arrow (AOA)

1. In the AOA format, an activity is represented by an arrow.

2. The activity description is written above the arrow.

3. The tail of the arrow designates the start of the activity, and the head of the arrow represents the completion of the activity.

4. The length and slope of the arrow are in no way indicative of the activity’s duration or importance.

5. In the AOA format, activities are linked by circles called events.

6. An event represents the finish of activities entering into it and the start of activities going out of it.

7. In the AOA format, each event—not each activity—is assigned a unique number.

8. All activities going into an event (circle) must be finished before any activities leading from that event can start.

9. Draw an example on the board. See the text for samples.

C. Dummy Activities

1. In the activity-on-the-arrow format, there is a special type of activity known as a dummy activity, which consumes zero time and is represented by a dashed arrow in the network diagram.

2. Dummy activities are needed for two reasons:

• to help in the unique identification of activities

• to show certain precedential relationships that otherwise could not be shown.

3. There are two basic rules:

• Each event (circle) in the network diagram must have a unique event number.

• Each activity must have a unique combination of predecessor and successor event numbers.

4. Let’s consider an example of a case:

• Activities A and B can be done concurrently.

• When activity A is finished, activity C can start.

• When both activity A and activity B are finished, activity D can start.

• Show incorrect and correct ways of drawing this.

5. An advantage of the activity-in-the-box format is that the logic can be shown

without the use of dummy activities.

D. Loops

1. A loop is not allowed because it portrays a path of activities that perpetually repeats itself.

2. Draw an example on the board. See the text for samples.

E. Laddering

1. Some projects have a set of activities that are repeated several times.

2. Display Figure 5.4 which shows that at any one time only one person is working.

3. Display Figure 5.5, which, on the other hand, indicates that all three rooms can be done concurrently. This might not be the case depending on the resources available.

9. Preparing the Network Diagram

1. You should ask the following three questions regarding each individual activity:

• Which activities must be finished immediately before this activity can be started?

• Which activities can be done concurrently with this activity?

• Which activities cannot be started until this activity is finished?

2. The entire network diagram should flow from left to right.

3. The network diagram is not drawn to a time scale.

4. The following guidelines should be considered in deciding how detailed a

network diagram for a project should be:

(a) If a work breakdown structure has been prepared for the project, then activities should be identified for each work package.

(b) It may be preferable to draw a summary-level network first and then expand it to a more detailed network.

(c) The level of detail may be determined by:

• A change in responsibility.

• If there is a tangible, deliverable output or product as a result of an activity.

5. It may be worthwhile to develop standard subnetworks for portions of the projects.

6. Display Figures 5.8 and 5.9, which show complete network diagrams for the consumer market study project in the AIB and AOA formats, respectively.

7. The choice between the activity-in-the-box format and the activity-on-the-arrow format is a matter of personal preference. However, the AIB format is most common in project management software packages.

7. Planning for Information Systems Development

A. An information system (IS) is a computer-based system that accepts data as input, processes the data, and produces useful information for users.

B. A project management planning tool, or methodology, called the systems development life cycle (SDLC) is often used to help plan, execute, and control IS development projects.

C. Many people view the SDLC as a classic problem-solving approach. It consists of the following steps:

D.

1. Problem definition. Data are gathered and analyzed, and problems and opportunities are clearly defined. Feasibility factors are defined and studied.

2. System analysis. The development team defines the scope and defines user requirements.

3. System design. Several alternative conceptual designs are produced and the best one is selected.

4. System development. The actual system is brought into existence. Hardware is purchased, and software is either purchased or developed.

5. System testing. Testing involves looking for logical errors, database errors, errors of omission, security errors, and other problems that might prevent the system from being successful.

6. System implementation. The existing system is replaced with the new, improved system, and users are trained.

E. If time permits, review the IS example in the text.

8. Project Management Software

Project management software packages are available for purchase. They allow the project manager and the project team to plan and control projects in a completely interactive mode. See Appendix A at the end of the book for a thorough discussion of project management software.

A. Common features of project management software allow the user to

• create lists of tasks with their estimated durations

• establish interdependencies among tasks

• work with a variety of time scales, including hours, days, weeks, months, and years

• handle certain constraints—for example, a task cannot start before a certain date, a task must be started by a certain date, labor unions allow no more than two people to work on the weekends

• track team members, including their pay rates, hours worked thus far on a project, and upcoming vacation dates

• incorporate company holidays, weekends, and team member vacation days into calendaring systems

• handle shifts of workers (day, evening, night)

• monitor and forecast budgets

• look for conflicts—for example, overallocated resources and time conflicts

• generate a wide variety of reports

• interface with other software packages such as spreadsheets and databases

• sort information in a variety of ways—for example, by project, by team member, or by work assignment

• handle multiple projects

• work on-line and respond quickly to changes in schedule, budget, or personnel

• compare actual costs with budgeted costs

• display data in a variety of ways, including both Gantt charts and network diagrams

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by planning a project? What does this encompass? Who should be involved in planning the work?

Planning is the systematic arrangement of tasks to accomplish an objective. The plan lays out what needs to be accomplished and how it is to be accomplished. The plan becomes a benchmark against which actual progress can be compared; then, if deviations occur, corrective action can be taken. The first step in the planning process is to define the project objective—the expected result or end product. Once the project objective has been defined, the next step is to determine what work elements, or activities, need to be performed to accomplish it.

It is important that the people who will be involved in performing the work are also involved in planning the work. They are usually the most knowledgeable about what detailed activities need to be done and how long each should take. By participating in the planning of the work, individuals will become committed to accomplishing it according to the plan and within the schedule and budget. Participation builds commitment.

2. What is meant by the term project objective? What might happen if a project objective is not clearly written? Give three examples of clearly written project objectives.

The objective is the target—the tangible end product that the project team must deliver. The objective must be clear, attainable, specific and measurable. If the objective is not clearly written the end product may not meet the needs of the customer. Specific examples will vary.

3. What is a work breakdown structure? What is a responsibility matrix? How are they related?

The WBS breaks a project down into manageable pieces, or items. It’s a hierarchical tree of end items that will be accomplished. The graphic structure subdivides the project into smaller pieces called work items. The lowest-level item of any one branch is called a work package. An end product is the item that will be produced as a result of carrying out the project.

The responsibility matrix is a method used to display, in tabular format, the individuals responsible for accomplishing the work items in the WBS. Some responsibility matrices use an X to show who is responsible for each work item; others use a P to designate primary responsibility and an S to indicate support responsibility.

4. What is meant by the terms predecessor event and successor event?

Predecessor events must be completed before an activity can start. Successor events start right after an activity is completed.

5. Refer to Figure 5.9. What activities must be accomplished before “Input Response Data” can start? What activities can start after “Review Comments & Finalize Questionnaire” has finished? List two activities that can be done concurrently.

“Mail Questionnaire & Get Responses” and “Test Software” must be done before “Input Response Data” can start. “Prepare Mailing Labels,” “Print Questionnaire,” “Develop Data Analysis Software,” and “Develop Software Test Data” can start after “Review Comments & Finalize Questionnaire” has been completed. Any of the four activities listed above that can start after “Review Comments & Finalize Questionnaire” has been completed, can be done concurrently.

6. When would you use laddering in a network diagram? Give an example, different from the one provided in the chapter, and draw the corresponding network diagram in both the activity-in-the-box and the activity-on-the-arrow formats.

Laddering should be used when a project has a set of activities that are repeated several times and appropriate resources are available to handle tasks concurrently. Specific examples will vary.

7. Why would you recommend project management software to someone involved in project management? What features and benefits does it provide?

Project management software packages are available for purchase. They allow the project manager and the project team to plan and control projects in a completely interactive mode. Common features of project management software allow the user to:

• create lists of tasks with their estimated durations

• establish interdependencies among tasks

• work with a variety of time scales, including hours, days, weeks, months, and years

• handle certain constraints—for example, a task cannot start before a certain date, a task must be started by a certain date, labor unions allow no more than two people to work on the weekends

• track team members, including their pay rates, hours worked thus far on a project, and upcoming vacation days

• incorporate company holidays, weekends, and team member vacation days into calendaring systems

• handle shifts of workers (day, evening, night)

• monitor and forecast budgets

• look for conflicts—for example, overallocated resources and time conflicts

• generate a wide variety of reports

• interface with other software packages such as spreadsheets and databases

• sort information in a variety of ways—for example, by project, by team member, or by work assignment

• handle multiple projects

• work on-line and respond quickly to changes in schedule, budget, or personnel

• compare actual costs with budgeted costs

• display data in a variety of ways, including both Gantt charts and network diagrams

8. Draw a network diagram representing the following logic: As the project starts, activities A and B can be performed concurrently. When A is finished, activities C and D can start. When B is finished, activities E and F can start. When activities D and E are finished, activity G can start. The project is complete when activities C, F, and G are finished. Use both the activity-in-the-box and the activity-on-the-arrow formats.

Activity-in-the-Box

Activity on the Arrow

A C

D

G

B E

F

9. Draw a network diagram representing the following information: The project starts with three activities, A, B, and C, which can be done concurrently. When A is finished, D can start; when B is finished, F can start; when B and D are finished, E can start. The project is complete when activities C, E, and F are finished. Use both the activity-in-the-box and on-the-arrow.

Activity-in-the-box

Activity-on-the-arrow

D E

A

B F

C

10. Draw a network diagram that represents the following IS development task list. Use both the activity-in-the-box and the activity-on-the-arrow formats.

Activity Immediate Predecessor

1. Problem Definition —

2. Study Current System 1

3. Define User Requirements 1

4. Logical System Design 3

5. Physical System Design 2

6. System Development 4, 5

7. System Testing 6

8. Convert Database 4, 5

9. System Conversion 7, 8

Activity-in-the-box

Activity-on-the-arrow

1 2 5 6 7 9

3 4 8

11. Find as many errors as you can in the following network diagram:

1. Duplicate event number 3.

2. Activities A and D have the same predecessor-successor event number combination 1-2.

3. Activity B doesn’t need to be a dummy activity.

4. Activity E doesn’t need to be a dummy activity.

5. The activity between 8 and 6 isn’t labeled.

6. Activity J has a two-headed arrow.

7. Activity N doesn’t have a successor event.

8. The activity between 3 and 4 isn’t labeled.

9. Activity K creates a loop.

WORLD WIDE WEB EXERCISES

Assign the World Wide Web Exercises to your students as homework or complete them together in a computer lab.

CASE STUDY #1 A NOT-FOR-PREOFT MEDICAL RESEARCH CENTER

This is an open-ended case study. The students have the opportunity to be very creative on this one. Encourage that creativity.

Answers to Case Questions

* Answers will vary from student to student for each question.

1. Define the objective and list your assumptions.

2. Develop a work breakdown structure and a responsibility matrix.

3. List the activities necessary to accomplish the project.

4. Draw a network diagram.

Group Activity

Form groups of three or four members. Have each group perform the above tasks. Allow each group to present their answers.

CASE STUDY #2 THE WEDDING

This is an open-ended case study. The students have the opportunity to be very creative on this one. Encourage that creativity.

Answers to Case Questions

* Answers will vary from student to student for each question.

1. Define the objective and list your assumptions.

2. Develop a work breakdown structure and a responsibility matrix.

3. List the activities necessary to accomplish the project.

4. Draw a network diagram.

Group Activity

Form groups of three or four members. Have each group perform the above tasks. Allow each group to present their answers.

HOMEWORK

1. Have them read the real-world vignettes.

2. Have each student develop a work breakdown structure, a responsibility matrix, and a network diagram for a project they have worked on.

2. Have them read the chapter and answer all of the Reinforce Your Learning questions and the questions at the end of the chapter.

4. *** Now is the time to start a term project if you are assigning one.

APPENDIX—MICROSOFT PROJECT

The Appendix in this chapter introduces Microsoft Project. Get the students to produce the diagrams that are shown in the chapter.

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C

A

Finish

Start

D

G

E

B

F

E

D

A

Finish

Start

B

F

B

C

9

7

6

5

2

1

8

4

3

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