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Shifting Social Standards: Women’s Roles in Post-Plague Medieval EuropeA Capstone Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of theRequirements of the Renée Crown University Honors Program atSyracuse UniversityJillian M. TobinCandidate for Bachelor of the Arts and Renée Crown University HonorsMay 2020Honors Thesis in History? Jillian Marie Tobin (May 2020)Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………4Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………….5Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………..8Chapter 1: Preface …………………………………………………………………. ……9Chapter 2: Barley and Buboes …………………………………………………………..19Chapter 3: Pre plague …………………………………………………………………….25Chapter 4: Post Plague…………………………………………………………………….37Chapter 5: Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….50Works Cited………………………………………………………………………………..54Appendix (Figures) ………………………………………………………………………..57AbstractThe purpose of this thesis is to draw conclusions on the changes that occurred in women’s lives before and after the Bubonic Plague in Europe. Scholarly works mainly focus on the epidemiological effects of the plague, as well as the overwhelming cultural changes that took place in the Renaissance. The focus of this thesis is to draw attention to the cultural, social and economic changes that took place on the individual plane. This focuses on the lives of women in Medieval England. The study began with a review of relevant historiography, or secondary source literature. Then, using these secondary sources, a background study was constructed to understand the actual epidemiology of the plague, which is important when delving into the effects the plague had. Women’s lives were examined in the century prior to the plague, to identify ‘primers for social change’, or markers that displayed a change in the cultural reception and presence of women. Then, the roles of women following the plague were examined to determine what the individual effects were, and how they were borne out of the plague era paired with the social primers. The thesis is concluded with how the social reception of women changed along with women’s roles. Overall, the changes in women’s roles would not have been possible following the plague era if it had not been for the social primers found in the prior century. The changes experienced in the everyday lives of women were sizably small, but for whom they effected they had a tremendous impact on the continuation of women’s roles and rights in society. Executive SummaryThis aim of this project was to understand and draw conclusions about changing women’s roles in medieval England. The project begins with the first chapter discussing the relevant secondary source material used in the project research. This secondary source material is referenced throughout the thesis work as ‘historiography’. The major historians referenced are Horrox, Ormond, Campbell, Aberth and Phillips. Horrox has two works cited in this thesis, as their scholarly work focuses mainly on the Bubonic Plague. The context and use of their work is described in Chapter 1. Aberth and Campbell both focus their work on interpreting primary source material, and synthesizing it with modern knowledge of the plague topic. Their works are important in understanding the epidemiology, or immune study, of the plague. The second chapter of this thesis describes the environmental conditions that preceded the onset of the plague. This is all included as it is important to understand how the natural conditions of the world allowed for the plague to spread and attack with virulence. In Chapter 2, the pathology of the Bubonic Plague is also explained. This explanation mainly comes from Campbell’s work. This information is included because it is important for the reader to understand what the illness was like for those infected. It also provides insight into the range of effects that were borne out of the plague era. Some of these effects mirror the way that the plague was transmitted. After the introductory chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 3 covers the societal conditions for women in the pre-plague era. This chapter relies heavily on primary source material. Letters, written by women in the 13th century provide insight as to the social reception and standing of upper-class women. These letters are described as ‘social primers’, a term which is used throughout the thesis work. This term refers to any sort of societal action that was interpreted as something that prepared medieval individuals and society to be receptive to an evolution or change in the existing societal structure. This is important to note, as the comparisons in women’s roles and social condition are based on how their roles changed in the pre to post plague era. Chapter 3 also uses a primary source image from the early 1300’s as research material. Using imagery is helpful in understanding the daily lives and actions of individuals throughout history. However, this image indicates several social primers that led to the increase in women’s presence in society. Additionally, secondary source material used displays the poor conditions female laborers experienced in the pre-plague era. Chapter 4 focuses on the changes in women’s roles that occurred following the plague. The major primary source material in this chapter is court case proceedings from London in the last decade of the 1300’s. These court proceedings display not only the legislative changes experienced by women, nut also the change in their social reception and increased autonomy. Additionally, secondary source material describes the social changes experienced by women. These include an increased amount of familial and even personal wealth, as well as a change in the perception of women and their relationship to marriage. Additionally, this chapter discusses the increased labor force participation of women. This labor force participation is beneficial to women, unlike the unsafe working conditions experienced in pre-plague society. Lasting changes to society began during the increase in women’s role in local clothmaking economies during the post plague era. The thesis work ends with Chapter 5. In this chapter, the changes in the perception of women are covered. Though the changes experienced by women in the post plague era are for the most part beneficial, the social reception is oftentimes negative. Since women were elevated to a higher presence in medieval society, the opposite gender began to judge them more than previously. Both primary source and secondary source material display this change in the social perception of women. Women were now increasingly more sexualized and fetishized. There was an increased focus on the sexualization of women, but a woman being a sexual being was extremely taboo. The changes in social perception of women are omniscient of the continued perception that follows women and their changing roles throughout time. However, the changes that occurred in women’s roles are beneficial. It is important for the reader to consider all of the facts proposed in this thesis in a 14th century viewpoint. The changes experienced by women in the 14th century may seem still deeply rooted in misogyny but for the time, it was progress. The effects the Bubonic Plague had on the economic, social, political and familial roles of women proved everlasting in the 14th century, and set stepping stones for the further growth of feminism for the centuries to come. AcknowledgementsThank you first and foremost to my beloved parents, John and Janine. Without you I would not have the mind, life, and experiences that I have. Thank you for providing me with the opportunity to pursue higher education and become the woman I am today. My deepest thanks and gratitude to my advisor Professor Albrecht Diem and my reader Professor Junko Takeda. Thank you both for your guidance, intelligence, support and assistance through the entire Capstone process. Thank you to my roommates, for putting up with a dozen hardcover books and research material in our study room all year. Chapter 1 Preface “What is better than wisdom? Woman. And what is better than a good woman? Nothing.”Geoffrey ChaucerIn 14th century Europe, one of numerous historic waves of pandemic illness struck the continent. The Bubonic Plague, which decimated Europe, brought in an era of utter demographic destruction, taking the lives of approximately one third of the population. But this vast demographic catastrophe allowed for a shift of social, economic and political change to take place. This thesis will examine the greater effects of the Bubonic Plague on the socioeconomic roles of women, by studying several sources pertaining to women and their social and political roles prior to the Plague and thereafter. The thesis will identify positive changes and the enduring effect these changes have had on women. It will also examine the detrimental post-plague changes women also experienced. This study focuses on the geographic area of London, England and Southern England. Historiography The Bubonic Plague is a topic well studied by many historians. The Bubonic Plague pandemic has occurred in differing eras and geographic areas. For this research, historiography will be focused on the Bubonic Plague during the time it was manifested as the ‘Black Death’ in the mid to late 14th century. I will add to this scholarly conversation by focusing on women and their experiences in London and Southern England, through a form of research supported by varying histography and primary sources. Rosemary Horrox is a significant author in the study and historiography of the Bubonic Plague. In her book, The Black Death, Horrox uses a vast collection of primary source material to display the social mechanics of the plague. In the first part of Horrox’s work, she begins by describing the epidemiology of the plague. In her work, she details the means used by the medieval populations to rationalize the illness of the Bubonic Plague. Understanding the epidemiology of the plague is important in conducting any sort of study on the effects this pandemic had on society. Horrox uses the modern reception as well as the study of 19th century pandemics to conduct her historiography of the Bubonic Plague. This is a vital take away from my research as well, since most modern medical approaches to pandemic epidemiology do not address the cultural and world conditions of the time. Horrox included individual accounts in her work. This collection is arranged thematically, with the contents ranging anywhere from content orated by religious leaders of the time, or individual accounts chronicling the social conditions and changing practices in regard to death. The changing social constructs borne out of the 14th and 15th centuries are the focus of my research. The historiography provided by Horrox was the spark that ignited my research question. Horrox discusses an idea originally from Bocaccio regarding the ‘feminine condition’. This greatly interested me, as in previous studies of history and specifically the plague, women typically fall into a dark area of history, in which the nature of femininity and their condition are discussed using a different frame than what I intended to derive from my research. There have been numerous historiographic works on the gender, but these works did not provide the insight I desired to find on the conclusions regarding the changing role of femininity. The scholarly work of Bruce M. Campbell is notable in the technical historiography of plague era Europe. His work, The Great Transition: Climate, Disease and Society in the Late-Medieval World, covers all the bases of understanding pre-plague medieval society. The major points in Campbell’s work include the chapters focusing on ‘Interactions between nature and society in the late-medieval world’, the third chapter, ‘A precarious balance: mounting economic vulnerability in an era of increasing climactic instability and re-emergent pathogens’, and his fourth chapter, ‘Tipping point: war, climate change and plague shift the balance’. In these chapters, Campbell uses vast repositories of primary source data which has been complied to support the calculations of certain demographic markers. These data repositories range anywhere from GDP and labor rates through precipitation indexes. Campbell’s figures that are relevant to the construction of this thesis include Figure 1, “The five-stage plague cycle […]”, Figure 2, “English grain harvests,1320-79”, and Figure 3, “Male laborers’ daily real wage rate […]”. These charts support primary source evidence chronicling the demographic changes through the plague era. Additionally, they provide some statistical evidence in which to draw conclusions regarding the changes in English demographics and labor force participation. This is important to note, as in later chapters of this thesis, the changing participation in the labor force is relevant to the changing roles of women in the economy. Campbell’s work is extremely detailed, and he conducts his research in a very concrete, data driven way. All of the points made in the work are thoroughly supported using primary source evidence, historiography, but most notably, the use of figures and charts, which Campbell constructed through his research into primary source work. They provide a simple and easy way to retrieve and digest primary source data for the reader. This exact type of historiography allows for the reader to easily consume the information given, but also allows for independent thought and conclusions to be made, based upon the data. The use of a concrete, data driven form of historiography may seem like it leaves little room for interpretation. Data analysis is the science of understanding data. Using these figures by Campbell allowed for me to come up with more abstract thought into how these representations of data were actually perceived in society. Knowing the social context of the data provided a deeper understanding as to what the figures really meant, aside from the raw numbers presented. Using these figures constructed by Campbell, I was able to drive my research forward by using the demographic data and information proposed in Campbell’s figures, as well as his literary work. Again, the historiography and data provided focuses on the ideals of men, rather than a focus on women’s roles. But, using this information, I was able to draw conclusions regarding the nature of women in plague era Europe. The last historian extensively used in this background understanding in this thesis is John Aberth. His work, From the Brink of Apocalypse: Confronting Famine, War, Plague and Death in the Later Middle Ages, focuses on the effects of the plague on a social and personal level. Aberth does a tremendous job providing historiography for the conditions of the world leading up to the pandemic. The work begins with a full chronology of the 14th century, with the events noted ranging from political reigns and action to famine and religious events. Aberth also discusses the conditions of the 13th century which provided additional historical context to the events of the 14th century. This form of historiography allows for the understanding of how the social, political and natural events of the 13th and early 14th centuries provided the ‘perfect’ climate for a pandemic illness to occur. This chronology also notes the various outbreaks of the plague in England, as well as elsewhere in Europe. Much like Campbell’s work, Aberth provides figures which illustrate the plague’s spread through Europe, as well as political maps of various English counties during the plague era. This work by Aberth allows for the effects of the plague to be better understood, as understanding the transmission and science of the plague allows for the reader to grasp the devastating effects it had. Aberth’s historiography provides the backbone for the detailing of the historiography of the Little Ice Age, which is discussed in Chapter 2 of this thesis. The historiography of the Little Ice Age provides the framework to understand the Great Famine, which occurred in the years leading up to the outbreak of the Bubonic Plague in England. Aberth goes into great specifics of the conditions of medieval England, which is the focus of this work. This increased focus in the geographic area of question is what makes Aberth’s historiography especially important in the changing of women’s roles in post-plague England. Throughout From the Brink of Apocalypse, Aberth pays special attention to the humanity of those living in medieval Europe. The work uses medieval artwork which depicts the average individual in the middle ages. Thesis Work The thesis will be divided into three chapters. The epidemiology and pathology of the plague was the driving initial interest in beginning this thesis work. From this learning, which is detailed in Chapter 2 of the thesis, allowed me to deepen my research question from deriving a general knowledge of the plague itself, to discovering and drawing new conclusions on how these effects impacted real people, specifically women. In understanding the demography of plague-stricken England, it is of certain importance to understand the plague itself. Typical research focuses on a modern understanding of the Bubonic Plague’s pathology and epidemiology. Most of these initial sources I came across provided a 21st century concept of mortality and illness, however, this is not what I was looking to achieve. Once the plague was uncovered to me in a medieval lens, my research had just begun. Before I analyze the ways in which medieval populations understood and responded to plague, I will offer an explanation of what this disease, given our current medical and epidemiological understanding, actually was.In understanding the pathology and immunology of the Bubonic Plague, the conditions of daily life in Europe will be assessed. Primary source material, specifically from various records taken by Bishops in Southern England and London, provide the necessary data to analyze the demographic changes that occurred. In these records, great detail was taken in recording the death rates, as well as death taxes, that were imposed upon the population at the time. These records were compiled in charts by Campbell. The notable takeaway from these records are the demographic analysis of the peasant and serf populations. This is shown in the charts through the amount of ‘death taxes’ that were to be paid by the Lord of the manor, whom had command over the peasant farmer or serf who had died, in this case of illness, but by other means as well. This analysis will become prevalent in the later proponed concept of urban growth and development, particularly in the case of women, in 14th century England. The years leading up to the plague allowed for the disease to take its violent grasp on the medieval population. Multiple factors, unbeknownst to those at the time, contributed to the deadly nature of the disease. In the beginning of the 1300’s, England was at a time of natural strife. A climate change phenomenon encompassed the majority of Europe. This weather event, called ‘The Little Ice Age’ took place in Europe; specifically, in England and the Low Countries; in the first decades of the 1300’s. The weather suddenly cooled to abnormal temperatures. The general cooling of the seasons was paired with torrential amounts of precipitation. This came in the form of months of rain in England, and snow in other regions of Europe; freezing major waterways and stifling the growing season. Due to the immense rains, the typical cereal crops grown in the Low Countries and England suffered greatly. The grains were either far too wet to even sprout, and the few that were harvested had to be dried in order to be milled and consumed. The climate phenomenon and overall failure of years of harvests led Europe into a massive famine. The lack of nutritional value in the small yields and lack of crop yields all together caused food to be in great demand. Those who participated in the agrarian economy, virtually all low-class peasants and serfs, suffered horribly. The famine-stricken population was malnourished and already unhealthy, allowing for the plague to infect them more readily and harshly than a well-nourished population. After describing the conditions leading up to the plague; famine and demographic decline; Chapter 3 begins to uncover the specific source material regarding the condition of medieval women. The pre-plague natural mechanics are important to note, as from the 1340’s to 1430’s, women’s economic roles shifted greatly. In the 14th century, many poor women were subject to manual agricultural labor. These tasks were physically difficult, often dangerous, and women rarely received proper recognition, continuing throughout history, for their labors. Peasant women in the pre-plague era were objects meant to serve their husband and family. The majority of women and girls had to perform menial domestic and home making tasks at the expense of their male counterparts. Typical historians focus only on the roles of men in the medieval economy, which made this aspect of my research quite difficult. From this, it was necessary to cross over various available forms of primary and secondary research to derive conclusions regarding the changing conditions for women during this time. In Chapter 3, various primary sources will be utilized to draw conclusions regarding the lives of women in pre-plague England. Various pieces of art from the time, including manuscript images, shed light on to the daily lives and reception of women. , Letters written to and from women prior to the plague in the 13th century provide insight to the private and social lives of women. The secondary source material including work from Kim Phillips Medieval Maidens: Young Women and Gender in England, 1270-1540, provided insight to the lives of women prior to the Bubonic Plague. ,Following the understanding of the pre-plague position of women in English society, Chapter 4 will discuss the changes of women’s condition borne out of the plague era. It is important to note that in a modern concept, many of these ‘positive views’ of conditional change are not exactly positive and beneficial in a modern sense. When drawing conclusions in this chapter, I continued to refer back to the condition of women in pre-plague centuries to determine if changes were made, and if they could be deemed beneficial. Again, relevant historiography was drawn from the works of Horrox, Aberth, Campbell and Phillips. However, there is significant primary documentation of legitimate changes experienced by women. The major source of this explicit evidence is in the Memorials of London and London Life in the 13th, 14th and 15th Centuries. This primary source provides descriptions of women’s presence and activities of the legal system in the post-plague era. Chapter 2 Barley and Buboes “(…) within a short time, they began to writhe on the ground as thought they had been poisoned, then they both dropped dead to the ground, spread-eagled upon the rags that had brought about their undoing”Giovanni BoccaccioLittle Ice AgeIf the known world had not been subject to the events of the 13th and early 14th century, the plague may not have had the same intensity. The first factor discussed by Aberth is the ecological conditions of medieval Europe, which were precursors to the onset of the plague. The hemisphere was subject to a sudden and climate change. This time, penned ‘The Little Ice Age’, was the precursor to the Great Famine, and a predecessor leading to onset of the Black Death. Medieval sources from all across Europe refer to a time of 100 days of precipitation. These rainy and wet conditions were the opposite of ideal conditions to grow the wheat, the main crop used in the 14th century. The wheat rotted in the ground or failed to sprout at all. Hay laid trapped in pools of water, unable to be dried or used. The tiny bits of grain that were harvestable were soggy morsels and had to be manually dried out in ovens before being used to make flour and bread. The lack of sun caused a nutrient deficiency in the wheat, which was vital for the nourishment of thousands. The ultimate lack of wheat meant a lack of flour, and thus an immense lack of bread; one of the main diet staples at the time for upper and lower class alike. In 1315 and 1316, the bishop of Winchester wrote that the rains were so torrential that the wheat crop was barely two grains reaped per one grain sowed. The investment of grain that peasant sustenance famers sowed each year to survive was so lacking that there was not enough grain to fulfill the investment into the year’s crop, and clearly not nearly enough for legitimate survival of many. (See Fig. 2) In the early 14th century, this climate situation not only caused an increase in the overall ‘wetness’ of lands, but also an overall decrease in temperature. The yield of crops in 1315 was more than 40% below the norm, the lowest it would ever be from 1200 to 1400. The eve of the Great Famine had begun. The famine was the worst sustenance crisis of the middle ages and was not an isolated or small-scale famine. From 1315 to 1322, the death rates were 2 to 3 times higher than that of a non-famine year. Death taxes paid in manors of England displayed that the most impoverished were dying with a mortality rate ranging from 10-15%. By 1315, ‘strange diseases’ were reported in conjunction with the famine. Some of these illnesses were akin to dysentery, food poisoning, and general illness related to starvation. Even more disheartening, the plague had not yet begun. The Little Ice Age initiating the Great Famine was the beginning of nearly 100 years of ‘demographic deadlock’, only to be intensified less than 50 years later at the onset of the Black Death. Too, in Campbell’s work, there is a visible vertical population drop in the decades from 1350 through 1390. The price and industry output mirrors this population drop, declining from around 125 (price and real wage rate/0000’s people) in 1310, to less than 75 (price and real wage rate/000’s people). Europe quickly descended into a very dark age, of little to no population growth and constantly diminishing price and wage. (See Fig 3). To all, the Great Famine was a horseman of the apocalypse, to which humanity had no hope. Before understanding the changes in the social, economic, political and gender changes experienced by medieval women, the reader must gain a full understanding of the contributing factors that intensified the eventual effects of the plague. Aberth’s work has been a valuable resource in understanding the surface workings of society in the decades prior to the plague. A set of massive social, economic, natural and political factors combined to incite a perfect storm for a virulent plague. These factors paired with one of the deadliest global pandemics made the ramifications of the plague immortalized in history as so. (See Fig. 4) The Bubonic Plague, or Black Death, was a fatal disease that killed 70-80% of all victims infected. There had been previous outbreaks of the plague, dating back to ancient Greece. The plague outbreak in medieval Europe has been one of the three pandemic outbreaks of the bubonic plague of all time. (Aberth, 80). Bubonic, the most common form of the plague, was titled such due to the ‘buboes’ that appeared in the armpit, groin, and sometimes the neck area of the victim. Now, it is known that these buboes; large and blackened swollen areas, oozing pus or blood; were located on the sites of the lymph nodes of the body. The bubonic plague is caused by Y. pestis. This disease is a parasitic disease that is able to be transfer from host to host. The danger of Y. pestis is its ability to survive in a variety of different ecological environments. The primary hosts of Y. pestis are fleas. The fleas that are infected with Y. pestis are infected with a form of the plague itself. Once Y. pestis is inside its primary source, the flea, the flea’s internal systems react in a way that increases the intensity of transmission of the disease. When the flea is infected with Y. pestis, its stomach becomes blocked. The flea then is on a bloodthirsty hunt to feed itself, as it constantly is in a state of needing blood nutrition. This causes the flea to repeatedly bite its host, and with every bite, the Y. pestis bacillus is then injected to the flea’s host. The secondary hosts to the fleas containing Y. pestis are rodents, as well as humans. Due to the sanitary conditions of the middle ages, humans and rodents, namely the common rat, often lived in close proximity. However, not only fleas were able to contract and carry the disease, lice were also able to carry Y. pestis. Lice were easily transmitted from human to human through clothing, textiles and of course, hair. (See Figure 1.) This allowed the infectious fleas or live to move from their rodent host to a human host, craving their next and nearest blood meal. (Campbell, 231) Due to the increased wet condition in the countryside, many rats and other rodents began migrating from the wet fields in the countryside towards more urban dwellings. Since the rodents were migrating towards humans, and began living in even closer contact with humans, they were able to further increase the spread of the plague. Once a human was bitten, their prognosis was bleak. The location of the flea bite on the body was an indication as to where the buboes would appear. If bitten in the upper body or near the armpit, the buboes would appear in the armpit lymph regions. If the person was bitten near the waist or lower body, the buboes would appear in the lymph regions of the groin. The plague would then spread rapidly though the lymphatic system and ravage the body. The victim experienced intense fever, chills, vomiting and diarrhea, in conjunction with the egg to apple sized boils on their lymphatic regions. Death was imminent. It is important to understand the epidemiology of the plague, for it displays how the plague affected its victims. Understanding this allows for the reader to grasp what the individuals in the plague era were either experiencing personally, or seeing in all aspects of their life. To understand the plague is to understand the sufferers, and the lucky ones who lived. The deadly nature of plague, war or famine are specific societal events that allow for a flourish of change following their decimation. Chapter 3Pre-PlaguePrior PositioningThe plague ushered in a new era of demographic change. Since the general European population had been decimated, new opportunities for growth emerged. In this growth, differing opinion and reception was found, specifically for women. Though the changes seen during this time period were not immense, and tough modern lenses they do not seem as feminist gains, they are still notable, nonetheless. In seeing past the medieval male dominated histories, the impact and power of women can be seen, and the growth from plague-era Europe and onward. In order to delve a strong research viewpoint on the position of women in medieval society, one must develop an understanding of women’s roles in current historiography as well as their portrayal in primary source work. In this thesis, the major idea and work is focused on the changing condition, by interpreting and melding the information available to reach conclusions aligning with historical truth. First, one must understand the condition of women in pre-plague medieval Europe, before grasping the changes experienced in the following century. Indeed, the medieval age was a dark age. There was little cultural development, economic development or otherwise. Individuals went about their daily, agrarian lives, living and dying in typical cycles. Imagery-90854143505900This image is a pre-plague manuscript image of a nun dancing along with a friar, who appears to be playing an instrument. This image dates from 1300 to 1325, from the Low Countries. Illuminated on parchment in paint, gold and colored inks is the depiction of the nun and friar. This illustration is found in a manuscript called Maastricht Hours, which is a physically small manuscript, but is illustrated in great detail. The text above the joyous duo reads “Vox Ecclesiae: Ecce tu pulcher es dilecte mi, et decorus. Lectulus noster floridus. Tigna domorum nostrarum cedrina, laquearia nostra cypressina.”, from the Song of Songs. In translation, it reads, “Voice of the Church: Behold, you are handsome, O my beloved, and graceful. Our bed is flourishing. The timbers of our houses are of cedar; our ceilings are of cypress.” Though the text above is impactful, it does not relate to the content of the image. The individuals depicted are not surrounded by ornate text, or other decorations that are used in other illustrations of the time. This allows for the viewer to experience the image in its full effect; through truly reading the expression of the individuals, and understanding the details noted in the image. The image itself does not relate to the text written above it. The nun’s habit is skewed, allowing some of her hair to be seen. The most alarming fact is her legs up to the knee are exposed to a man. Even though the friar is dressed appropriately as a Franciscan, the nun most certainly is not; as both a nun as well as a woman. The image appears mundane at first glance, but upon further observation, there is more to be found than a raucous nun and her friar counterpart. The friar appears to be playing an instrument, but it is not in fact any type of music-maker. According to the description of the image by the Feminae database, the violin-shaped object is actually a fireplace bellows and distaff. A distaff is a tool used by medieval women for the spinning of fibers into yarn. The fact that this distaff; a tool used virtually only by women in the home; is being depicted in close use to a man controversial. Though this image is in the pre-plague era, the beginnings of subtle gender and economic changes are able to be seen. The friar holding the distaff and bellows is a gender bending role, as typically the nun and woman would wield these tools. The nun is not dancing and lifting her skirt, but the fireplace bellows are blowing and swirling air around her loose gown and blowing it up past her knees. This small image may not convey much to the modern viewer, but to a medieval reader, this image would be scandalous, the lifted skirt of the nun would be humorous, in a ridiculous manner. In the pre-plague world, it is important to note the depiction and reception of women, especially in art and literature. This image sheds a different light on gender roles. In order for a society to accept change, whether it be large or small, the population must be exposed to small changes in order for a later full acceptance. The image may not appear to be much, but in the context of gender roles in medieval society, its mere existence is fundamental to supporting the evolving roles of women following the plague. The fact that this type of ridiculous, scandalous, image was created allows one to deduct that there was at least some presence of an allowance for change in medieval European society. LettersA second set of valuable primary source material regarding women’s conditions in pre-plague Europe lie in words written by the women of the time themselves. Many letters, both to and from women, and between women and men, have been found, translated and compiled into a database, called Epistolae. In this database, specific letters in the years leading up to the Bubonic Plague were able to be used, and were identified to be from women in medieval England. In researching the letters in Epistolae, it is important to note the fact that these letters have been preserved and published. The letters found here, and those that have survived throughout history, are that of the most powerful ruling classes. Only the highest social classes were literate and sent letters that were deemed important enough to save for centuries. Too, very few medieval women were literate, and these few literate women came from the ruling elite. The words and actions in these letters are from women in power, to others in power. From that, the social standing and changes exhibited in the ruling class do not parallel that of the average individual at the time. These women have vast amounts of power, so much so that the average woman would never be able to surmise. The main focus of these letters is the autonomy of women’s power in the pre-plague centuries, and how the actions of the elite served as social primers for lateral change in the condition of all women. A letter from Margaret of Constantinople to Henry III is published and translated through Epistolae. . Margaret of Constantinople, Countess of Flanders, was orphaned at a young age and was raised in French courts. She was married into several political unions and used her stance to execute political actions on her own behalf. In Margaret’s letter to Henry III, she explains how one of her men, John Badercl, a burgher of Ypres, had 50 pounds sterling in the form of cash, deposed of him during his time in England. Margaret continues her letter by reasoning with Henry III, by stating her burgher is now impoverished, since this large sum of cash was taken from him in England. She kindly asks for the sum of money to be returned. In that, Margaret states that her faction will continue in good faith with the current English rule, and will too, pray for the English. Her plea for the sum to be repaid is made from an empathetic stance and hopes that Henry III will understand the position she in while writing to him.This letter seems as to be a simple supplication for a wrongful debt to be repaid. Margaret, however, was one to take opposing political action into her own hands. As only a countess asking for the repayment of a burgher, her social standing pales in comparison to Henry III, the King of England, Duke of Aquitaine and Lord of Ireland. Margaret is requesting a simple demand that holds social and political importance. She, as a woman, is asking the King of England to right his county’s wrongs. Clearly, Margaret exhibited strong political influence in her own realms of family and social life in Flanders, but to reach out to a powerful foreign power like England was an intrepid move. Margaret’s life actions, and specifically this letter, showed that in other areas of Europe, women were able to obtain, maintain, and execute political power autonomously. Since the letter was dated in 1245, it is still a century before the plague’s influence in Europe. Margaret’s life and actions are a concrete example of the social priming for the change in women’s roles that would take place in Europe, and eventually in England, in the century to come. This letter is relevant in the changes that would occur for medieval English women due to the social change that rippled through Europe. Margaret in Flanders clearly had an increased level of social autonomy and power. Her writing to Henry III was a display of the feminine power she already possessed. This display to the English king serves as a sort of hint to the Englishmen. Feminine social autonomy was present in other places in Europe. Margaret’s letter exposed Henry to increased feminine social standing, which was reflected in England following the plague. Another exhibition of the primers for social change is a letter written by Eleanor of Provence, to her son, Edward I, the King of England. Eleanor was born in France in 1223, and died in 1291. At a young age, she married Henry III of England, whom she was married to until his death in 1272. In this letter, Eleanor writes to her son on the behalf of herself and her sister, Marguerite, the Queen of France. The sisters have conspired to lay claim to Provence, against their brother in law, Charles of Anjou. The two sisters, and their late sister Beatrice had claims to their father’s land in Provence. Eleanor’s claims to Provence were never realized and were passed down to her grandchildren, but now, she and Marguerite were to dispute the claims of ownership of their family land. In this letter, Eleanor writes to her son to waiver his support of she and Marguerite’s claims to the land in Provence. Again, from this letter, the presence of women’s autonomous power can be seen. It is refreshing for a modern eye to witness women in the 13th century grasping their destiny in their own hands. Typically, women had little claim to the inheritance of their families and did not often have something to pass down to their descendants. The sheer presence of a woman, the third sister Beatrice of Provence, to be the sole heir of a father’s estate is notable. From that, the recognition Eleanor and Marguerite had in relation to the property that was rightfully theirs, serves as another awakening to the untapped role of women in society. Too, these women knew the leverage they possessed. This revelation is another piece of the puzzle in awakening the power and role of women in medieval society. Many political alliances and decisions were forged by the hand of women, though typical historiographies do not reflect this. Eleanor and Marguerite were smart in their use of power, by drawing their kingdoms together to achieve what they desired. The fact that Eleanor is writing this letter to her son, the king, is of great importance as well. Mothers have been revered by their sons since the Virgin Mary birthed Jesus, and this Christian concept of motherly power was a great source of power for all medieval women. Eleanor trusts in her son to do the right thing to align with his mother and aunt’s wishes. Society has typically been patriarchally aligned, but a mother’s power in the house and home should never be undermined. Eleanor could have penned this letter; or worked directly with any individual under the English crown; but her direction to have her wishes to be fulfilled by her son overshadows her desire for her wishes to be taken up by a ‘king’. Too, Marguerite is wife of the King of France, ruler of the country in which their disputed land is located. Marguerite exhibited her power as wife but found it necessary to employ her sister’s power as mother. The matriarchal structure of power over children arguably could even rival the patriarchal power of the crown. The power found within family structure is found through all society, and the matriarchal power of mothers is found not only amongst the elite, but too in the masses. LaborThough some aspects of medieval society in the pre-plague era appear to prove as primers for social change, the actual conditions women faced did not entirely parallel the inferred societal openness to shifting gender roles. Prior to the plague, women and girls lived quite typical, and relatively unchanging lives, generation after generation. Daughters were born and reared to become wives, and women of the home. As soon as they reached a working age, they began participating in domestic tasks alongside their mothers. This is not a shocking reality, as for much of civilized society, women have been delegated to be domestic doers. Young girls began preforming the tasks of cooking, textile creation, and other household tasks with their mothers and other female siblings. Their male counterparts, however, were allowed more of their childhood to be, well, children. The pace at which male children were expected to develop and enter into their respective career areas was much slower than females. Or male children, their developmental track could also be aligned to their physical development. Much of the male dominated tasks were physically strenuous, and biologically, males develop into their full physical form later than women. The tasks that were performed by girls did not differ much to that of full-grown women, so at a younger age women and girls were biologically capable to enter into the household workforce.However, the domestic tasks of women were drastically changed in the pre-plague era. Due to the massive famine, women’s tasks began to shift from the breaking of bread to the making of bread. Great numbers of the population were affected by the famine, and many died of starvation and illness. Many families lost their male heirs, so their remaining daughters were their sole heir. For those women who survived the famine conditions and were not subject to the shift in labor force, they reaped the benefits that their male counterparts feigned in death. In pre-plague England, following the Great Famine, nearly 21% of land market participants were women. In this time, one woman for every four sons were participants in their family’s land market. This points to the inheritance or gift of land to daughters, which only occurred when there was no male family member to inherit the land. (Phillips, 122). Though a small group of women were lucky, relative to the alternate fate of the famine, some were not so fortunate. Generally, in pre-plague peasant society in the time of the Great Famine, when a demographic disturbance occurred, the typical gender role jobs were not formally forced. As many men died, the surviving women and girls were needed in their place. Unmarried women, who still lived in the home, began participating in agricultural labor. Those women who had already been married off to different families were subject to performing agricultural labor for their household. In this society, women’s roles were limited even through their mobility in marriage. Some of these roles in which women’s participation was now needed were not always agricultural, but also labor intense. When labor was demanded, specifically following the Great Famine, women and girls were required to work in industry, such as brewhouses. This was mainly in the case of peasant women, as in any demographic case, the poor had little choice in their labor supply and specifications. In Phillips, Medieval Maidens, a pre-plague account of disastrous manual labor is detailed. A young girl was working in a brewhouse, a common labor force employment young girls and women had to participate in. She and another young female servant were carrying an extremely heavy tub of grout. The young girl and her counterpart dropped the tub between them, and the young girl fell into the boiling vat. She was scalded in the boiling vat, a prognosis that is dim in both modern and medieval times. This is just one concrete account of the horrors faced by women’s supply of physical labor in the medieval work force. These types of intense and dangerous physical labor were characteristic of the supply of peasant labor force in pre-plague Europe. However, following the plague and the complete demographic destruction it imposed on the population, specifically in peasant and agrarian groups, the shift in labor force participation is an important change to note for women in post-plague Europe. Chapter 4 Post plaguePurposeful Participation During the years in which the plague was at its height in Europe, the continent reached its lowest point in the ‘dark ages’. There are few written records taken, little socioeconomic development, and an immense amount of death and despair. The dire conditions of Europe for the greater part of the 14th century allow for the changes in the following centuries to appear even more fruitful in comparison. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Europe experienced a cultural awakening. Explorers set out to sea, trade flourished, and the Renaissance of the classics impacted not only art, but all aspects of life. These changes are long winded and take up the majority of common historiography. The individualized changes, however, have had just as great an impact on European culture as the art of the Renaissance. The historiography by Aberth and Campbell, pays great attention to the social and political changes found in the mainstream, patriarchal society. The almost immediate, immense changes experienced by women are events not often explicitly discussed, but of all the same importance.Agrarian Social Mobility For the medieval woman, there were few vehicles of social mobility. The simplest means of acquiring power; in the form of physical wealth or social standing; in medieval Europe was through the ownership of land. It was nearly impossible for women to gain sole ownership of land, and inheritances were rarely bestowed on women. Following the plague, this shifted slightly. During the plague, many male heirs of the gentry died. For the lucky family members who survived, the family inheritance was then shifted to the surviving kin; the daughters. Though the death of their brothers, and in their unlikely survival, some medieval women became landowners. Their estates may have been split amongst numerous surviving females, but nonetheless, women were now more easily able to possess their own means of social mobility. Too, following the plague, the overall population decline allowed for more economic flexibility in the lower, peasant classes. Due to the general lack of people, the surviving peasants were able to derive some semblance of wage negotiation with the lords who owned the land in which they toiled. In 1350, there was a massive increase in the supply of open land, paired with a deficient supply in labor to farm it. The increase in land supply was due to the deaths of landowners, and in the plague era, many landowners were forced to give up or sell their land as they did not have the means to keep it. This allowed for peasants, who had previously been tied to serving a lord, to acquire their own land. The average size of peasant land holdings rose following 1350, and in turn, their wealth increased dramatically. Following the plague era, peasant farmers became increasingly more important. Larger municipalities and urban centers became increasingly dependent rural peasant farmers, as the agricultural sector typically serving more populated areas became obsolete through plague deaths. More rural farms were thus used for the supply of cereals and grain to larger consumers. The increased urban demand for grains stimulated peasant farming, and thus provided increasing financial benefits to the landowners. In this case, some of the landowners could have been female, but also women were benefitted through this due to the increase in wealth accumulated by their family due to their supply of grain. (Horrox and Ormond, pg. 149). This economic shift does not explicitly involve the condition of women. However, women were deeply part of peasant families and society, so as a peasant family fiscally flourished in their newfound holding of land, it is deducted that the women of the house were thus better off. Marriage as MobilityNow that women’s families possessed more wealth, they could now forge their own social migration through marriage. Marriage for the upper class had previously brought a sense of female autonomy. Ladies, countesses, princesses and duchesses were able to use their social standing to establish political alliances, and often elevate their social class. Alternatively, once a woman, in both upper and lower classes, was widowed, she could now have greater power over the financials of her estate. In the pre-plague era, the political power found through unity in marriage was clear. Now, in the post-plague era, these women possessed even more power due to not only the politics of the time, but through the scarcity of the marriageable population. For the lower classes, they now possessed the power of marriage as a tool of social mobility. In the 15th century, the power of marriage became even more evident for all social classes of women. According to Horrox and Ormond, women had a newfound power in marriages. Women were typically married off in the way that benefitted their family the most. However, the surviving daughters of landowning families now had more autonomy in the choice of their spouse, and overall marriage. The males were tied to the family titles and inheritance and expected to marry to preserve or increase their family assets. The daughters were not tied to any sort of inheritance, so they possessed a differing image of the purpose of marriage. These young women were not only able to increase their personal social standing through marriage but were also able to elevate their family’s assets and alliances. Though a son could marry a well-off woman, he was still tied to his family’s estate. A woman’s marriage could technically do more for her, than it could for her male counterpart.Economic InvolvementAside from mobility through familial gains and marriage, peasant women in the post plague era were now able to become involved in local economies. In pre-plague England, women’s role in the economy was typically limited to their domestic abilities within their family unit. Women were expected to cook, care for young children, provide adequate education for their daughters, spin and weave textiles, and conduct numerous other tasks in the keeping of the home. One notable task was the female monopoly on the making of yarn and thread, and the making of clothing. Women, using a distaff and spinning wheels, were the sole producers of yarns and clothing for their household. The ability to produce the means to make clothing as well as make the clothing itself was a skill unique to women, and in small towns, it became recognized as an important economic skill. Certain towns were fully established upon the back of the early textile industry. Between 1415 and 1450, Sir John Fastolf was the developer of a manor in Castle Combe. During these years, Fastolf commanded a legion of soldiers, fighting on behalf of Henry V’s war in France. Fastolf needed them outfitted and needed large quantities of clothing. While in France, he commanded that the residents of the manor in Castle Combe produce the textiles for his outfit. As the women of Castle Combe spun more and more thread the population of the manor increased alongside the spools. From 1415 and 1450, more than 50 new homes were built in Castle Combe. New fulling mills were also built in the manor to support the finishing of cloth. There is sufficient evidence to determine that the female-based textile industry is the sole industrial and economic developer of the manor of Castle Combe. Following the wartime period, Castle Combe became a major center of cloth making. Using Castle Combe as an example, the demand and supply of woolen textiles could have likely been the driving force for small manors to become established and flourish; all due to a trade that was designated solely for women. The presence of women in the textile industry is present throughout history, as women following the Medieval era continued to be the sole proprietors of the creation of yarn and weaving of cloth and clothes. Women’s roles in the urbanization of Castle Combe prove a concrete example of the newfound economic roles of women, and their power. It is hard to ignore the relationship between women and the production of textiles, into the modern era, as women were subject to the horrors of the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution in England and America. As women found themselves proponents of useful tasks, many peasant women migrated into urban centers. Whether they were working as servants to a household, creating textiles, or even working in the illicit economy as prostitutes, it is irrefutable to ignore that following the plague, women found their place in the English economy.Legislative Presence As women began to forge their way into the economy, other changes in the political structure of medieval England reflected the changing social reception of women. Using primary source court records, the change in women’s presence in noted in the ruling of certain cases. In pre-plague histories, there is little to be said of women in legislature, or judicial rulings. However, in years following the plague, in the 15th century, there was a great influx of women proposing their own personal disputes into courts of law. A major primary source compilation is the listing of the City of London Court of Common Pleas. This anthology contains hundreds of court pleas, ranging from 1399 through 1500. Though these records are in the centuries following the plague era, they provide excellent insight to how women’s roles progressed through common plea proceedings. The lists of court pleas were initially compiled simply for the National Archives but was augmented by a project titled ‘London women and the economy before and after the Black Death’. This edit provides even more insight to the role of women plague era society and is seen through the addition of many court proceedings involving women. The court proceedings in this anthology are very organized and contain different sources of information in discussing the court plea. Each case pleading is preceded with the term in which the plea occurred, county; in all these cases the county being London; the type of plea, damages claimed, and the case type. This is a more modern approach to the description of a court proceeding and is rare to find in primary source material from the medieval time. In many of the cases, there are multiple pleadings from each side of the proceeding. Then, in the conclusion of the proceeding, the events of the case are categorized, by type, place (location), and the dates in which they occurred. One of the first cases recorded for 1397, in the Michaelmas 1400 term of Court Pleas, is a case involving a woman named Agnes. She is the widow of Richard Mot, and prior to her husband’s death, a man named John Burgeys made a bond with she and Richard. The bond was made on March 24th, 1397, but John has not paid back his sum of the bond. John now owes Agnes 40 pounds of the sum, which he did not pay towards the bond. Agnes now brought this debt to the court of common appeals and states her damages to now be 60 pounds. Since the bond was made in London, the court will hear the preceding. John Burgeys requests that Agnes’ demands be read in court. This case, which the widowed Agnes brought to court on her own, was heard by the court in London. Following the examination of the bond itself, after John Burgeys’ requested the pleading be heard in court, it was determined that Burgeys was to pay the bond over several defined dates. Burgeys states that he paid these amounts, but Agnes Mot refutes his claim and states she never received the payments. The sheriff and the jury in the court of London heard the case, due to Agnes’ many claims. This court proceeding can be considered a success for the women of the late 14th century. Though the case was small in magnitude, the argument proposed was valuable. A woman, on her own accord, was able to accuse a man for his fault in not holding up to his end of a financial bond deal. Though the deal was made when her late husband was still living, the fact that Agnes Mot was able to pursue John Burgeys in a court of law for his financial faults is impressive. After her persecution of Burgeys for the bond amount, he finally paid back the damages to Agnes. This is a huge win for women of the time, as Agnes was not only successful in proposing her issue to court, but it was also taken up and resolved to benefit her account. Agnes Mot is one of multiple women who found success in appealing their wrongs to the court of pleas. A second case in the Court of Pleas that is of differing importance is that of Richard Worthy and the employment of Ellen Poyar. This case was also recorded in the Michaelmas 1400 term, but took place in the summer 1399, into spring of 1400. The case was a breach of contract, which took place in London. Ellen Poyar was a serving girl for Richard Worthy, and worked for him for one year. However, in March of 1400, Ellen left her job of serving Richard Worthy. This was the cause of Worthy bringing Ellen Poyar’s case to the Court of Pleas. In this case, it is presumed that Ellen Poyar is likely a young girl, in the service of Richard Worthy. It was common for young women, especially in the post plague era, to move from the areas of their rural upbringing to urban centers for employment. Many of these girls became serving girls, such as Ellen Poyar. During the plea, Ellen states she was never retained as a worker for Richard Worthy. This meant that she was not employed by him further, and not violating her contract of employment. However, Richard claimed she breached her contract, and was in violation of the Statue of Laborers. At the end of the case recording, a list of individuals is provided, each with their role played in the case. All members involved in the case are male, except for Ellen Poyar. The final verdict of the case is unclear, but in this list of participating individuals, Ellen has four men as her sureties, one being a clerk. From this, it can be assumed that this clerk, and the bondsmen, were able to provide Ellen with the means of repayment to Richard Worthy. He claimed 10m in damages from Ellen’s vacancy of work, which was likely come up with by the bondsmen representing Ellen. This case is not an overt victory for the medieval woman. Ellen is held as violating a work contract, due to her leaving her job. The whole cause brought up by Richard Worthy is a little suspicious, but underlying principles of the case point to successes for women during this time. As previously stated, Horrox and Ormond related the movement of many peasant women from rural areas to urban areas as a means of increased economic participation for women. These women, like Ellen Poyar, worked as house servants or serving girls; if they were lucky. As Richard Worthy holds Ellen in contempt of contractual violation, the presence of a Stature for Laborers is an overall win. For the women involved in these private sector economies, many of their contracts were retained by their employer, and overseen by the Statue of Laborers. Since Ellen was not retained by her employer, she contractually free to leave her job with the Worthy’s. The Stature of Laborers is a great win for all laborers, but especially for women who were often vulnerable, and taken advantage of in their new economic roles. Conversely, in the 13th century, according to the Memorials of London, there very few mentions of women. These memorials are different than the alternate, post-plague source compilation, Court of Common Pleas. The Memorials of London provides a glimpse into the early recordings of the City of London and the surrounding municipalities. These short excerpts from early archives of the City provide insight into the life and actions of early-medieval Londoners. Much of the material is drawn from The Letter Books of the City. These early archives include typical disputes, such as disputes over silver plates or small sums of lost cash. Since the first Letter Book was recorded in 1275, the changes in the verbiage and type of records vastly changed in less than a century. Still, it is rare that a woman is even mentioned in these early records. If a woman is mentioned at all, she is only referenced in terms of the man whom she is married to. It is clear that in the years after the first Letter Books were recorded, much had changed in medieval society. The effects of the post plague era most deeply resonated in the century after the plague, from roughly 1350 to 1450, in the case on England. From that, the Letter Books begin to display the changes of women in society. In 1379, a record in the Letter Books was made at the bequest of a woman named Alice Godrich, and her husband Robert. She made the accusation that a man, William Waleworth, had trespassed on her property. Alice was beside herself that William had trespassed and began spreading the word that he was a robber. The Letter Book contains a long and drawn out explanation of what great lengths Alice went to accuse William of wrongdoings.Following Alice Godrich’s wild accusations against William Waleworth, a large court proceeding went underway. Against Alice’s accusations, William was actually a free man who had not done any harm to Alice, her husband, or her property. Robert Godrich refused, and he was threatened with jail time, while he and his wife were chastised. Weeks later, Alice was called to the stand as a witness to her own false accusations. There, Alice denied any admission of guilt. A jury found her guilty for the false accusation of William Waleworth, and thus found William innocent of the crimes accused by Alice. Since Alice was now guilty for slander, she was due to receive punishment of the pillory. The same day of her case’s verdict, Alice would now be subject to public humiliation by standing at the pillory, with a heavy stone around her neck. Robert, her husband, was then made to pay William 40 pounds, double the value of their own property that Alice had accused him of damaging and stealing. As this was done, Alice was no longer imprisoned or publicly shamed; due to William’s forgiveness paired with her good behavior. Alice’s court case reflects the changed perception of women in the post plague era. At this time, Alice now had the ability for her voice to be heard in a court of law. Other cases, brought up by women, had been successfully won, with reparations paid; and women righted. In this situation, Alice was a victim to the patriarchy. Regardless if her claims against William Waleworrth were false or true, the male in the situation had the upper hand. If the roles were reversed, and William Waleworth had accused Alice Godrich of trespassing, stealing and other crimes, she would be guilty until proven innocent. But since it is a woman accusing a man, he is innocent until enough is found to therefore make him guilty. The same applies to the accusation itself. Since a woman has accused him, William could readily use the defense of false accusation or slander to eliminate himself from judgement of the law. Not only Alice is punished for the crime, but her husband is also not free from the judgement of the public eye. They both have taken the fall for a simple accusation, as Alice is forced into public humiliation and a time in jail, and her husband too is threatened with jail, and forced to make financial payouts. Though women were now able to participate in the judicial system, the patriarchal base of the system still existed through and through. Chapter 5ConclusionChanging Attitudes From the plague era, women found themselves in very different socioeconomic and social position than the generations before them. There were numerous ‘wins’ for women in the latter 14th and 15th centuries. However, these heightened social and economic roles were paired with a negative change in the perception of womanhood. As seen in the reception of women in court responding’s, women have always been slighted in their pursuits, as compared to men of the same stature. Horrox in her first anthology, The Black Death, discusses the loss of ‘the divine feminine’. Through this loss, a new dimension of femininity arose following the Black Death. In the centuries following the plague, the change in women’s roles led to a change in the perception of women. The image of femininity shifted, not only due to the newfound participation of women in the workforce, but through their newfound presence in different realms of personal life. In Chapter Four, the attitudes towards women in marriage were overtly changed than in previous generations. This elevated presence of women’s choice in the realm of marriage led to a changing perception of them. Horrox, along with Ormond, in her second work, now point to a ‘cultural fascination’ with women. Specifically, young women of marrying age, were now viewed in a different lens. Young men were not perceived the same way, though they were now too, eligible bachelors for marriage to these young women. This cultural fascination allowed for women to be perceived in a different, detrimental light. 08889200This image is a painting from 1440, a century after the plague. St. George is depicted slaying a dragon, to save the princess who is seen on the left of the painting. This image is a popularized myth, as St. George was canonized and recognized in medieval Europe for his valiant quest to slay the dragon and save the princess. However, this image shows something starkly different than other images of its same subject and kind of the time. The dragon slain, is overtly female. No other illustrations of this event, in the 15th centuries, show the dragon in such explicit female detail. The dragon is laying helplessly on her back, exposing her vagina and anus. St. George is mounting her lying body on his horse and killing her. There is no reason for a dragon of myth to be so overtly sexualized. The dragon in western literature and myth represents the beast, the evil, or terror that must be vanquished. Typically, they are not gendered. The oversexualization of the mythical beast is directly tied to the novel cultural fetishization of women, and their sexuality. As the female dragon lay dying, the damsel in distress is about to be saved by St. George. The helpless and pure princess is a dramatic foil to the harshness portrayed in the vicious slain dragon. This plays into the mindset of the helpless feminine, relying on a male to vanquish any troubles that cross her path, and for the male savior to save her. As the princess foils the dragon, the dragon’s sexuality is amplified. The sexualized, powerful female is made to be conquered by man. The powerful feminine is to be eliminated by man, and thus the meek and devoted female is who shall be saved in the end. This obsession with young women in the post plague era is very much relevant. Young women are commended for their purity, piety and potential to be a good wife. Conversely, young women; or all women for that matter; are vilified for the embrace of their biological sexuality and innate power. This common trend is shown not only in the painting of St. George but reflected in the various court proceedings previously mentioned that involve a woman exerting her individual power.The fetishization of young females had just begun. The post plague era allowed for women to more fully participate in medieval society than they previously had been able to, but with new power comes new responsibilities. In the case of the social judgement of women, this is an unfair burden that women have had to carry since the fate of humanity inside the Garden of Eden. Women were now more visible in society. This allowed for increased judgement from their peers, and specifically men. This increased fascination revived an aspect of femininity, but was not a beneficial factor in supporting women’s societal standing or rights. The post-plague era allowed for an array of social, economic and political changes for medieval women. These changes began to serve as stepping stones for women in society, to continue to further their quest for equality. Some of the changes are small, and experienced only by women of the time, such as the changes in attitudes towards marriage. Other changes, including the beginnings of the female based textile industry, are more everlasting in the societal activities of women. Had the Bubonic Plague not struck Europe in the exact time as it did, with inklings of societal change on the horizon of the 13th century, the changes borne out of the plague era for women may not have occurred as they did. In 2020, this concept of epidemic devastation is all too familiar. Perhaps now, we can employ hope and positivity that social change will arise out of the Corona virus pandemic. It is a deep hope that minority groups, the underemployed, uninsured, and the general poor will experience economic, social, and political changes that elevate their position in society too. Works CitedAberth, John.?From the Brink of the Apocalypse. Seconded. London: Routledge, 2009Boccaccio, Giovanni.?The Decameron. Translated by J. G. Nichols. New York, NY: Everyman's Library, 2009. (pg. 26-27).Campbell, Bruce M. S.?The Great Transition: Climate, Disease and Society in the Late-Medieval World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.“Episolae: Medieval Women's Letters.” Episolae: Medieval Women's Letters. Rymer, Foedera, n.d. . Ferrante, Joan, trans. New York, n.d.Horrox, Rosemary.?The Black Death. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007.Horrox, Rosemary, and W. Mark. Ormrod. A Social History of England: 1200-1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.Jonathan Mackman and Matthew Stevens. "Case types," in?Court of Common Pleas: the National Archives, Cp40 1399-1500, (London: Centre for Metropolitan History, 2010),?British History Online, accessed April 15, 2020, . “The Law of Inheritance.” The Law of Inheritance: Mapping the Medieval Countryside. University of Winchester , n.d. . London, England, n.d. .“Lettres De Rois, Reines Et Autres Personnages Des Cours De France Et D'Angleterre.” Lettres De Rois, Reines Et Autres Personnages Des Cours De France Et D'Angleterre. Paris: Paris, Imperial Royale, 1839. . “Maastricht Hours.” Maastricht Hours. Low Countries, 1300. . "Memorials: 1395," in Memorials of London and London Life in the 13th, 14th and 15th Centuries, ed. H T Riley (London: Longmans, Green, 1868), 539-541. British History Online, accessed February 17, 2020, , Eric. “Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency.” Currency Converter: Pounds Sterling to Dollars. University of Wyoming, n.d. , Kim M. Medieval Maidens: Young Women and Gender in England, 1270-1540. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003. . EPUB.Reid, Alison D. “Medieval Distaff.” Alison D. Reid, February 21, 2016. . Robbia, Andera della. Florence, Italy, n.d. . “Rymer, Foedera.”?Rymer, Foedera, n.d. .“St. George Killing a Female Dragon.” St. George Killing a Female Dragon. Bodleain Library, Oxford, 1440. . AppendixFigures-5688528642900Figure 1 (left) – The Five-Step plague Cycle: enzootic, epizootic, panzootic, zoonotic and pandemic. Campbell, The Great Transition. (pg. 236) INCLUDEPICTURE "/var/folders/_s/q2w2t43164j7bv3x9g7j5wwr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/page1image28295792" \* MERGEFORMATINET Figure 2 (below) – English Grain Harvests: 1320-79. Campbell, The Great Transition. (pg. 288)8318506756100 INCLUDEPICTURE "/var/folders/_s/q2w2t43164j7bv3x9g7j5wwr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/page2image28135280" \* MERGEFORMATINET INCLUDEPICTURE "/var/folders/_s/q2w2t43164j7bv3x9g7j5wwr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/page2image28135280" \* MERGEFORMATINET 222250107393200Figure 3 – Male laborer’s daily real wage rates before and after the Black Death: Spain, Tuscany and England. Campbell, The Great Transition, (pg. 311). Attention paid only to the real wage rates of male laborers in England. INCLUDEPICTURE "/var/folders/_s/q2w2t43164j7bv3x9g7j5wwr0000gn/T/com.microsoft.Word/WebArchiveCopyPasteTempFiles/page3image28280656" \* MERGEFORMATINET Figures-425450000Figure 4 – The Spread of plague in Western Europe, February 1348 to September 1350. Campbell, The Great Transition. (pg. 304). 314791647884900Figure 5- (right) Manuscript Image of Nun dancing. “Maastricht Hours.” Maastricht Hours. Low Countries, 1300-24FiguresFigure 6 - “St. George Killing a Female Dragon.” St. George Killing a Female Dragon. Bodleain Library, Oxford, 1440. . ................
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