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Saint Joseph College

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Some Notes on Key Words in Tests, Assignments, and Exams.

Plus a Note on Organization of Response

For Use by Undergraduate and Graduate Students

In the Department of Child Study/Education/Special Education

In class tests and assignments, final examinations, and the comprehensive examination, you will typically be presented with a question for you to answer or a sentence which directs you to perform some action—both in relation to the content of the current course or, in the case of the comprehensive exam, one or more courses of the program which you are pursuing The purpose is to provide a sample to the course or program. For you to be successful, you must know this content, be able to recall it, be able to understand it, be able to relate it to and combine it with other content which you are expected to know, be able to apply it to practical situations, and be able to develop knowledge-based and reasoned opinions, judgements, and, sometimes, decisions regarding it (Bloom, 1956). Knowing the content cannot be stressed too much. However, no test, assignment, or exam is a license for you to write down everything you know. As mentioned above, you are to provide a sample of your knowledge of the specific content. But the sample is to be structured, and the particular structure is determined by your instructor and is indicated in the question for you to answer or a sentence which directs you to perform some action by key words, verbs which indicate what action you are to take in organizing your writing. By responding appropriately to these key words, you indicate your knowledge of the content and your mental powers in making use of this knowledge.

It is not uncommon for students who have the necessary knowledge of the content to fail in adequately responding to the given question and action statement. The chief reasons for this are inadequate attention to the key words and, possibly, lack of understanding of what the key words and defined below with, in some cases, related comments added. Unless noted otherwise, all quoted definitions are from Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1991).

Key Word ANALYZE

Definition “To study or determine the nature and relationship of parts of by analysis” (p. 83). Analysis is defined as “separation of a [complex] whole into its component parts” (p. 82).

Comment The antonym of analyze is synthesize

Key Word APPLY

Definition “To put to use esp. for some practical purpose [;] . . . to put into operation or effect” (p. 97).

Key Word ARGUE

Definition “To give reasons for or against something” (p. 102); the related term argumentation is defined as “the act or process of forming reasons and of drawing conclusions and applying them to a case in discussion” (p. 102).

Comment See argue under discuss below. In academic writing, argue does not involve “contentious or heated argument” (p. 362).

Key Word CLASSIFY

Definition “To arrange in classes[;] . . . to assign to a category” (p. 246)

Comment The relevant definitions of class are “a group, set, or kind sharing common attributes” and “a division or rating based on grade or quality” (p. 245)

Key Word COMBINE

Definition The meaning of this term is presented in relation to similar terms:

JOIN, COMBINE, UNITE, CONNECT, LINK, ASSOCIATE, RELATE mean to bring or come together into some manner of union. JOIN implies a bringing into contact or conjunction of any degree of closeness; COMBINE implies some merging or mingling with corresponding loss of identity of each unit; UNTIE implies somewhat greater loss of separate identity; CONNECT suggests a loose or external attachment with little or no loss of identity; LINK may imply strong connection or inseparability of elements still retaining identity; ASSOCIATE stresses the mer fact of frequent occurrence or existence together in space or in logical relation; RELATE suggests the existence of a real or presumed logical connection (p. 651).

Key Word COMPARE

Definition “To examine the character or qualities of esp. in order to discover resemblances or differences [;] . . . to set side by side in order to show differences and likenesses . . . [with] an aim of showing relative values or excellences by bringing out characteristic qualities whether similar or divergent” (p. 267-268).

Comment For comparison to take place, “the character or qualities of” at least two concepts, theories, programs, etc. are each examined, that is, scrutinized “closely and with minute detail . . . in order to determine the nature, condition, or quality” (p. 1056). The results of this examination are then “set side by side in order to show differences and likenesses . . . [with] an aim of showing relative values or excellences by bringing out characteristic qualities whether similar or divergent.”

Key Word CONTRAST

Definition “To compare or appraise in respect to differences” (p. 285).

Comment Follow the same procedure as you would for compare [which see], that is, examine at least two concepts, theories, programs, etc. “in order to determine the nature, condition, or quality” of each; set the results “side by side,” but for contrast the purpose is to show differences. Sometimes an assignment or test will read “compare and contrast”; in such a case this is a clue that the examination and setting “side by side” will reveal both similarities and differences.

Key Word DESCRIBE

Definition “To represent or give an account of in words” (p.343); the related term description is defined as “an act of describing; specif: discourse intended to give a mental image of something experienced (as a scene, person, or sensation)” (p. 343).

Comment Description involves a process of translation, form experience to words. Descriptive words, vigorous verbs and specific adjectives, may be needed.

Key Word DISCUSS

Definition The meaning of this term is presented in relation to similar terms:

DISCUSS, ARGUE, DEBATE, DISPUTE mean to discourse about in order to reach conclusions or to convince. DISCUSS implies a sifting of possibilities esp. by presenting considerations pro and con; ARGUE implies the offering of reasons or evidence in support of convictions already held; DEBATE suggests formal or public argument between opposing parties; it may also apply to deliberation with oneself; DISPUTE implies contentious or heated argument (p. 362).

Comment Thus discuss means “to discourse” [to express oneself in oral or written language] through “a sifting of possibilities [,] especially by [presenting] considerations pro and con” “in order to reach conclusions or to convince.” It does not mean presenting only one position or point of view, nor does it involve “contentious or heated argument.”

Key Word EVALUATE

Definition “To determine the significance or worth of [,] usu. By careful appraisal and study” (p. 429). There is the additional point, “EVALUATE suggest an attempt to determine either the relative or intrinsic worth of something in terms other than monetary” (p. 426).

Comment Barrett’s Taxonomy of cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Reading Comprehension (cited in & adapted by Heilman, Blair , & Rupley, 1981) presents a richer definition of evaluation than does New Collegiate, as well as five different types of evaluation.

Evaluation deals with judgement and focuses on qualities of accuracy, acceptability, worth, or probability of occurrence.

Judgements of Reality or Fantasy. Could this really happen? This judgment is based on experience

Judgments of Fact or Opinion. Does the author provide adequate support for his conclusion? Is he attempting to sway your opinion? This required [sic] analysis and evaluation [sic] of the reader’s knowledge as well as the author’s and the intent of the author.

Judgments of Adequacy and Validity. Is the information in keeping with your knowledge of the subject? This requires comparing sources of information with agreement and disagreement or completeness and incompleteness.

Judgments of Appropriateness. What part of the story best describes the main character? This requires judging relative adequacy of different parts of the selection to answer the question.

Judgments of Worth, Desirability and Acceptability. Was the character right or wrong in what he did? Was his behavior good or bad? How would you have handled the situation? Such questions call for judgements or moral codes and value systems (p. 243).

Key Word HYPOTHESIZE

Definition “To make a hypothesis” (p. 594). Hypothesis is defined as “ a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences [;] . . . [it] implies insufficient evidence to provide more than a tentative explanation” (p.594).

Key Word IDENTIFY

Definition To distinguish by “[establishing] the identity of” (p. 597) one or more persons or items from others.

Comment Often used in conjunction with another key term, such as identify and discuss.

Key Word ILLUSTRATE

Definition “To make clear by giving . . . as an example” (p. 600).

Comment An illustration does not truly exist, regardless of the way it is labeled, unless both the example is clear and the related point is clarified, that is, both made free from “obscurity, ambiguity, or undue complexity” (p. 247).

Key Word INFER

Definition “To derive as a conclusion from facts or premises” (p. 619). Further refinement of definition for this term is presented in relation to similar terms:

INFER, DEDUCE, CONCLUDE, JUDGE, GATHER mean to arrive at a mental conclusion. INFER implies arriving at a conclusion by reasoning from evidence; if the evidence is slight the term comes close surmise; DEDUCE adds to INFER the special implication of drawing a particular inference from a generalization; CONCLUDE implies arriving at a logically necessary inference at the end of a chain of reasoning; JUDGE stresses critical examination of the evidence on which a conclusion is based; GATHER suggests a direct or intuitive forming a conclusion from hints or implications” (p. 619).

Key Word LIST

Definition Create a series of words or concepts. “In any series, with or without enumeration, any item should be syntactically and conceptually parallel to the other items in the series” (American Psychological Association, 1984, p. 68)

Comment A list would, therefore, be comparable to this; brown, red, green, yellow; and not this: browner, color, red, textures.

Key Word SUMMARIZE

Definition “To tell in or reduce to a summary” (p. 1181). Summary is defined as “COMPREHENSIVE; esp.: covering the main points succinctly” (p. 1181). Comprehensive is defined as “covering completely or broadly: INCLUSIVE” (p. 270).

Comment Thus, summarize means to cover all the main points succinctly.

Key Word SYNTHESIZE

Definition “To combine or produce by synthesis” (p. 1198). Synthesis is defined as “the composition or combination of parts or elements so as to form a whole” (p. 1198).

Comment The antonym of synthesize is analyze.

A Note on Organization of Response

Many questions and directing sentences are complex and require complex responses. As an aid to clarifying the intended task, complex questions and directing sentences often have their component parts physically separated, with each separation indicated by the use of spacing (beginning on the next line), paragraphing, and insertion of numbers or letters. It is important that you, in organizing your response, also physically separate the component parts of your response by similar use of spacing, paragraphing, and insertion of numbers or letters. In those cases where you are presented complex questions and directing sentences without their component parts physically separated, in your response you must still address each component part. As an aid to you in the process of responding, to ensure that you address each part in turn and clarify the relationship of each to all the other parts, and as an aid to the reader, to ensure that each part is located and understood in relation to all the other parts, it is highly recommended that you engage in the process of analysis and physically separate the component parts.

An example of directing sentences which is complex follows:

Here are two models of communication between parents and teachers with two basic assumptions given for each:

1. Parent Education Model: (a) Parents are deficient in both knowledge and skills regarding children and effective parenting, and (b) such deficiencies are best addressed by parents being taught by professional teachers.

2. Parent and Teacher Cooperative Learning Model: (a) Parents and their children’s teachers possess knowledge and skills regarding their children and effective parenting (for parents) and social parenting (for teachers), and (b) both parents and teachers can become more knowledgeable to skillful in these areas through cooperative sharing of goals, information, and concerns.

Referring to both of the above models, identify and discuss the following in terms of probably effects: (a) children’s concepts of self, (b) parent’s perceptions and attitudes of their parenting role, (c) parent’s perceptions and attitudes of the perceptions and attitudes of themselves in relation to their students’ parents and families.

In this example the directing sentences have been physically separated into component parts by use of spacing, paragraphing, and insertion of both numbers an letters. To further clarify your understanding of the structure of this example, it would be helpful if you identified the paragraph beginning “Below are two models…” as ¶A, and the paragraph beginning “Referring to both of the above…” as ¶B. (Of course you can use ¶X and ¶Y or % and *; the point is to identify these two parts as major components of the whole which need to be dealt with differently.) Then you can clearly see that ¶A deals with what is the subject of these directing sentences, “two models of communication between parents and teachers.” The two models are the Parent Education Model and the Parent and Teacher Cooperative Learning Model. Each model is identified with two basic assumptions.

At this point it is expected that you will draw upon your knowledge of the subject, “models of communication between parents and teachers,” that is (a) that such models always have more than two basic assumptions and (b) that the identified models are generic (applicable to more than one specific model, all of which belong to the same category) rather than specific. This additional knowledge that you are expected to bring to this assignment assumes special importance when you look at the opening phrase of ¶B: “Referring to both the above models.” This phrase underscores the subject presented in the first sentence of ¶A, that this assignment focuses on the two models, not to the presented basic assumptions. With the addition of your knowledge of the subject, these models are understood as generic, not specific, and are not to be limited by the presented assumptions.

After this initial and connecting phrase, you can see what ¶B is about: here are the two key words: identify and discuss. From the above information on key words you know that you are, first, to distinguish by “[establishing] the identity of” (p. 597) one or more items from others, and, second, to express yourself in written language through “a sifting of possibilities [,] especially by [presenting] considerations pro and con” “in order to reach conclusions or to convince” (p. 362). The items which you are to identify and discuss are presented as (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e). And because the subject is the two models of communication between parents and teachers and you are to identify and discuss (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) in reference to both of the above models, your response would be organized as so:

Parent Education Model

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Parent and Teacher Cooperative Learning Model

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

(Note #1: In the example, the five elements, because they are within a sentence, are indicated by lowercase letters set in parentheses; in your response, because each will be a separate paragraph, they are indicated “by an Arabic numeral followed by a period but not inclosed or followed by parentheses” [American Psychological Association, 1984, p. 68])

(Note #2: You could, but it would not be advisable, to use the five elements as your main entries with the two models under each. The reason this would not be advisable is that it shifts the reader’s attention away from the subject, two models of communication between parents and teachers, and on to children, parents, and teachers.)

It will, of course, be in the five sections under each model where you indicate your knowledge of the content and your mental powers in making use of this knowledge. As far as content is concerned, put in as much as you can that is relevant and have space and time for. (And as you put in as much as you can that is relevant, remember to organize your ideas in paragraphs.) As far as adequately responding to the action statement, stick with the key words in your assignment, in this case, identifying and discussing. Although this example is highly complex and taps a wide range of knowledge, it sill is only a sample of what you know and what you can do. Admittedly, it may not have been the sample which you might have wished to have been given. But in any case, make your best effort, so your instructor will read and evaluate the very best you can do.

References

American Psychological Association. (1984). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.) (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1.Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

Heilman, A. W., Blair, T. R., & Rupley, W. H. (1981). Principles and practices of teaching reading (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary (9th ed.) (1991). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

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