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Conventions Defined_____________________________________________________________We analyse texts at four levels:TextParagraphSentenceWordGeneric Conventions (analysis at the level of the text)These are conventions that might be considered to be specific to a genre (although there's always overlap) and are easiest to think about at a whole text level, such as:narrative conventions might be characterisation, setting, point of view, conflict, suspense. Then?there are more specific conventions that we might associate more with novels, short stories, films, stage drama. The problem/solution structure of a documentary or the order-disorder-order structure of a narrative.You can even get more specific and look at the conventions of sub-genres such as westerns, romances, horror and their blends/hybrids.Better responses are able to look at more specialised conventions for genre?When a question asks you to discuss generic conventions, approach this as the conventions of the particular genre that you are analysing (narrative, visual, non-fiction, filmic, poetic etc). Where does structure fit in?Looking at the structure of a text involves consideration of genre, as well as patterns and repetitions.It can mean looking at changes between paragraphs or parts of a text. These changes can signal shifts in mood, argument or style,that are part of a text’s development.Look at the opening and closing of a text and what happens in between.Looking at structure can involve noticing juxtapositions, parallels, contrasts, similarities throughout the text or between parts of the text.Consider common structures like order-chaos-order, cyclical and texts that begin ‘in medias res’ etc.Language Conventions (analysis at the level of the word and sentence)These are conventions that might be considered to be specific to at the word and sentence level (although there is always overlap). You will find considerable overlap here such as where both poetry and feature articles can?use metaphor or allusion even if the generic conventions are different.Syntax and Punctuation: Sentence structure (the arrangement of words in a sentence), length of sentences, punctuation etc can create effects. Be aware of sentence types – simple, compound, parallel, balanced, fragmented – to discuss specifically.For example, stand alone sentences may work to emphasise a particular idea, or slow down the rhythm/pace; short sentences may create suspense (staccato) or convey a certain simplicity of thought; long sentences can imply complexity of thought processes, or slow the reading down; word order may create rhythm. Diction: Word choices (consider nuances, connotations, descriptive words, associations we often have with certain words etc). Word choice is crucial in positioning readers to make meaning no matter the text type/ genre. It is vital to look carefully at the words. Look at descriptive passages, words spoken by the narrator and dialogue. We may also associate particular words with other texts or subject areas. For example, with non-fiction writing in particular the use of economic discourse and the discourse of rational argument is important in positioning readers to accept certain ways of thinking.Be clear on the difference between what is descriptive and what is figurative – many students use the terms ‘descriptive language’ and ‘emotive language’ loosely and inaccurately.Diction includes idiom, jargon, description etc.Know about modality of verbs.Figurative Language: Similes, metaphors, personification, onomatopoeia, metonymy etc. SymbolismCharacters, settings, gestures, colours, clothing, objects, physical placement within a space, body language etc can all be read symbolically; That is, they are concrete but can be read as conveying meaning over and above their simple existence. They act as signifiers of meaning.Some symbols are universally recognised eg a crucifix, swastika, Star of David; others acquire particular meanings in the context of a particular culture or narrative. Phallic symbol – an object that represents male power/ sexuality – eg guns, cars, swords Symbols can be interpreted because of our common experiences with texts. ImageryAn image is a clear, vivid description of an object, character or scene. It is often visual, but can appeal to any of the five senses: look (visual), smell (olfactory), sound (auditory), feel (tactile), taste (gustatory). Imagery can also provide the reader with a sense of movement (kinaesthetic).The use of images in texts is called imagery. Figurative language is also imagery. It is often useful to speak of clusters or patterns of images.Discourse can be read through such patterning.Sound imagery (aural imagery, auditory devices) is also important and achieved through word choices: onomatopoeia, assonance, alliteration, sibilance, rhythm, rhyme etc.ToneTone indicates the writer’s attitude to the subject matter, events and/or characters of the text and sometimes to the reader. In the case of a first person narrator, tone may indicate the narrator’s attitude to the subject matter. You may be able to speak about the overall tone of a text ie tragic, reflective, comic, serious, ironic; however, it may also be the case with a longer text, that the tone shifts at times.The tone of a piece of writing is analogous to the tone of voice in speech; it gives emphasis and meaning to the words.A reader’s interpretation of tone may vary depending on their experience. This is especially the case with irony or sarcasm, where some readers may ‘miss’ the tone because the intended meaning is the opposite of what is actually being said.Tone is achieved through the choice and use of words and syntax. Clues are provided through the use of words that signal a particular attitude. A character’s tone during dialogue is a method of characterisation. In the case of first person narrator, the tone may help construct him/ her.After deciding on the tone of a passage of text, you need to ask yourself how this indicates the writer or narrator’s attitude to other characters, what is happening, settings etc. Tone may indicate the writer’s attitude to the assumed/ intended reader, and also how he/ she may wish us to respond.Here are some useful words for describing tone:Earnest, sincere, imperious, sarcastic, supercilious, mocking, serious, sombre, angry, bitter, maudlin, melodramatic, cynical, critical, knowledgeable, mournful, reflective, poignant, light-hearted, flippant, didactic, inspirational, uplifting, defiant, optimistic, pessimistic, snide, guileless, innocent, na?ve, reflective, elegiac, meditative, sad, biblical, condescending, patronising, chiding, flirtatious, simpering, strident, jolly, wry, plaintive, tragic, dramatic, comic.Dickens’ tone in Bleak House is one of moral outrage.Sister Aloysius’ tone in Doubt is frequently patronising, imperious and cynical. She adopts a superior and world weary attitude…; however, at the end of the text, she is less sure of herself, her faith and her actions and her tone reflects this…The narrator of Things We Didn’t See Coming often has a self-deprecating tone revealed when…Stylistic ConventionsStyle is a particular way of texturing language through choices about words, syntax and punctuation. This may vary throughout a text. Another definition: to specify a writer’s style you need to examine tone, imagery, diction and other techniques and devices. These may include choice of narrator/ voice, symbolism or extracts from other texts.It can also be classified according to period (eg Romantic) in which text written, according to the kind of language (poetic, scientific, journalistic)/ level of language (colloquial or formal).Some writers are known to have a distinctive style. Here are some examples of ways of describing this:Definition from Moon’s ‘Literary Terms’:Style refers to any use of language (including words, phrases, sentences, images and so on) that is distinctive to a particular text. Readers often enjoy style on a purely aesthetic level, but style can also be examined in order to consider how it affects the meanings readers make. The stylistic features of a text may be noticeable because of repetition (eg repeated short sentences), contrast (eg a simple everyday word amongst a passage of complex vocabulary), and pattern (a series of images which develop a comparison). Moon goes on to say that there are 4 basic dimensions of style in a print text: Diction (word choice). This refers to the type of words which dominate a text eg common language or specialised vocabularies, precise or ambiguousSyntax (word order) – this refers to the ordering of elements in a sentence. Unusual syntax often has significance for readers. In poetry, syntax is often manipulated for rhythm (I would add speeches to this)Rhetorical devices eg metaphors, personification, similes, symbols Sentence organisation – simple, complex, sentence length, and various arrangements through repetition or patterning.Hemingway’s style is renowned for its simplicity. He achieves this effect with short sentences, few adjectives and the repetition of phrases.David Malouf’s style is flowing and lyrical, with long sentences and the use of many adjectives.Henry James often uses slow, rhythmical sentences, in which the weight of sound on one side of the semi-colon is balanced by the weight of sound on the other. The carefully considered sound patterns enhances the sense that the ideas are connected.This is where reading reviews of texts may be helpful. Having a wide vocabulary with which to describe style is also crucial. ................
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