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AP Biology Comprehensive Free Response Question ListA.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: CHEMISTRY OF LIFEWaterOrganic Molecules in organismsFree energy changesEnzymes(1968)Suppose that you have isolated an extract from a tissue and you have found that the extract speeds up the rate of a particular reaction. What kind of information would you need to demonstrate that the substance responsible for increasing the rate of this reaction is an enzyme? Explain how this information would indicate that the catalytic effect is due to an enzyme.(1969)Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise specifications. Discuss the levels of structural organization within proteins which are responsible for specific molecular interaction.(1972)A class of biology students performed an experiment on the digestion of starch by salivary amylase. Each student determined the length of time required for different dilutions of his saliva to digest completely a standard concentration of starch. Iodine was used to test for the presence of starch. The results obtained by some of the class are summarized in the table below.TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OF STARCH WITH VARIOUS SALIVA DILUTIONS(saliva: H2O)Student 1:9 (10%)1:19 (5%)1:49 (2%)1:99 (1%)A45 seconds50 seconds100 seconds135 secondsB(no end point)C90 seconds100 seconds200 seconds270 secondsD260 seconds300 seconds600 seconds800 secondsa.Present the data for Student A in graphic form.b.Carefully examine the data collected by the four students above and state as many conclusions as you can that are supported by these data.c.Assuming there have been no errors in techniques, form as many hypotheses as you can to explain the differences observed.d.Design one experiment to test the validity of one hypothesis. Clearly state what data you would want to collect in this experiment to test your hypothesis.(1973)Hypotheses derived from laboratory experiments and field observations have been advanced to explain the origin of life on earth. Starting with a probable prelife environment, describe the formation and evolution of the various trophic forms (nutrition types) to and including unicellular organisms. Describe at least one experiment whose results support one of these scientific hypotheses.(1978) Give specific examples to illustrate the theory of enzyme action, and include in your discussion the effects of each of the following:a.Substrate concentrationb.pH shiftsc.Temperature petitive inhibition.(1981)Discuss the biological importance of each of the following organic compounds in relation to cellular structure and function in plants and animals.a. Carbohydrates b. Proteins c. Lipids d. Nucleic Acids (1975)Describe the chemical compositions and configuration of enzymes and discuss the factors that modify enzyme structure and/or function.(1991)Carbon is a very important element in living systems.a.Describe the various characteristics of the carbon atom that make possible the building of a variety of biological molecules.b.Explain how reactions involving carbon-containing compounds can contribute to the greenhouse effect.c.The following structures are examples of two different categories of biological compounds. Describe how each category of compounds is important to the structure and functions of living systems.Category ICategory II A drawing of a phospholipid* A drawing of an amino acid*Drawings not available(1994)Enzymes are biological catalysts.a.Relate the chemical structure of an enzyme to its specificity and catalytic activity.b.Design a quantitative experiment to investigate the influence of pH or temperature on the activity of an enzyme.c.Describe what information concerning the structure of an enzyme could be inferred from your experiment.(1996) The unique properties (characteristics) of water make life possible on Earth. Select three properties of water and:a. for each property, identify and define the property and explain it in terms of the physical/chemical nature of water.b. for each property, describe one example of how the property affects the functioning of living organisms.(2001) Proteins-large complex molecules- are major building blocks of all living organisms. Discuss the following in relation to proteins.(a) The chemical composition and levels of structure of proteins.(b) The roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis(c) The roles of proteins in membrane structure and transport of molecules across the membraneA.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: CELLS:Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellsSubcellular organizationCell cycle and its regulation(1959)Some of the differentiated structures of plant and animal cells are cell walls, plasma membranes, chromosomes, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and spindle fibers. Discuss four of these with respect to:1) function and 2) physico-chemical nature.(1960)a. Make a schematic diagram of a generalized plant or animal cell, showing the structure of its parts as revealed by electron microscopy. Make a diagram the size of a full page and label it completely, indicating whether the cell is from a plant or an animal.b. List the parts included in your diagram and describe briefly the activities or functions thought to be performed by each one.(1964)a. Describe the structure of the cell membrane as revealed by electron microscopy and biochemical studies.b. Explain how the passage of substances through the cell membrane is regulated by the physical and chemical properties of the substances involved.c. Explain how the concentration of a solute on either side of a semi-permeable membrane affects osmosis.(1969)Suppose a team of scientists is examining the cells of a newly discovered species. They observe under the light microscope an organelle that appears to be different from any that has been described before. Assume that you are the director of the research team. Describe the methods that you would have the team use to determine whether the structure is a mitochondrion, ribosome, lysosome, nucleolus, or indeed a new organelle. Discuss the advantages and limitations of each method in revealing the role of the unknown organelle in the living cell.(1970)Electron microscope studies have revealed the probable structures of plasma membranes and the membranes of various cell components.a.Describe the kinds of observations and experiments that are used to study the basic structure and molecular components of these membranes.b.Discuss mechanisms by which materials are thought to move across membranes.c.Discuss the significance of membranes in the biochemical events which occur in mitochondria and chloroplasts.(1975)All living cells exploit their environment for energy and for molecular components in order to maintain their internal environments. Describe the roles of several different membrane systems in these activities.(1978)Describe a model of the cell membrane of a eukaryotic cell and discuss different ways in which substances move across the membrane.(1981)Describe the structural arrangement and function of the membranes associated with each of the following eukaryotic organelles:a.Mitochondrionb.Endoplasmic Reticulumc.Chloroplastd.Golgi Apparatus(1983)Describe the fluid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane. Discuss the role of the membrane in the movement of materials through by each of the following processes.a.Active Transportb.Passive Transport(1984)Describe the structure of a generalized eukaryotic plant cell. Indicate the ways in which a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell would differ in structure from this generalized eukaryotic plant cell.(1987)Discuss the process of cell division in animals. Include a description of mitosis and cytokinesis, and of the other phases of the cell cycle. Do not include meiosis.(1993)Membranes are important structural features of cells.a.Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of materials across a membrane.b.Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either cellular respiration or photosynthesis.(1994)Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma membrane, specialized endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeletal elements, and mitochondria, function together in the contraction of skeletal muscle cells.(1998) Cells transport substances across their membranes. Choose THREE of the following four types of cellular transport.OsmosisActive Transport Facilitated diffusion Endocytosis/exocytosisFor each of the three transport types you choosea. describe the transport process and explain how the organization of cell membranes functions in the movement of specific molecules across the membrane.b. explain the significance of each type of transport to a specific cell (you may use different cell types as examples.) (2006)A major distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the presence of membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes.a. Describe the structure and function of TWO eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles other than the nucleus.b. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some non-membrane-bound components in common. Describe the function of TWO of the following and discuss how each differs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.DNACell wallRibosomesc. Explain the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells and discuss an example of evidence supporting this theory.(2006) Sexual reproduction requires that half of the chromosomes in a zygote come from one parent and the other half from the second parent.a. Describe the process by which a germ cell's complement of chromosomes is halved in the formation of gametes.b. Choose one organism or group of organisms that reproduce asexually. Describe the mode of asexual reproduction in that organism and explain the advantages to the organism of asexual reproduction.c. Choose one organism of group of organisms that reproduce sexually. Describe the mode of asexual reproduction in that organism and explain the advantages to the organism of sexual reproduction. (2007) Membranes are essential components of all cells.Identify THREE macromolecules that are components of the plasma membrane in a eukaryotic cell and discuss the structure and function of each.Explain how membranes participate in THREE of the following biological processes:Muscle contractionFertilization of an eggChemiosmotic production of ATPIntercellular signalingA.P. BIOLOGY: HEREDITY AND EVOLUTIONA. HEREDITYMeiosis and gametogenesisEukaryotic chromosomesInheritance patternsB. MOLECULAR GENETICSRNA and DNA structure and functionGene regulationMutationViral structure and replicationNucleic acid technology and applications(1960)Discuss the gene, with regard to structure, duplication, mutation, and nature of action.(1962)Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA has been described as the chemical basis of heredity. Discuss present-day concepts regarding its:a.chemical nature and physical structureb.mode of duplicationc.relationship to protein synthesis(1963)Describe two experiments, one from the area of bacterial transformation and the other from the field of viruses, that have helped to establish the belief that DNA is the chemical basis of heredity.(1965)Biologists and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past quarter century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the activities of living matter. These areas of progress include the structure and code of the DNA molecule.Discuss this development and its impact on biological though and progress. Your answer should include:a.a brief account of the developmentb.the names of the most prominent investigators involvedc.the nature of its impact on biology.(1965)Discuss the role of each of the following in protein synthesis:a.soluble or transfer RNAb.messenger RNAc.ribosomesd.ATP(1967)The formation of Watson–Crick complementary base pairs between single strands of molecules of nucleic acids occurs in at least three separate reactions. Discuss each of these reactions from the following points of view:a.the type of nucleic acids involvedb.the role of each nucleic acid in the duplication of cellular constituents.(1969)Proteins and nucleic acids are fundamental molecules of the living state.a. Write word equations for the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids, using the appropriate subunits.b. A wide variety of macromolecules exists in proteins and nucleic acids. For each group, explain how it is possible to have such great variety of structure with a relatively small number of different subunits.c. Proteins functioning as enzymes exhibit precise specifications. Discuss the levels of structural organization within proteins which are responsible for specific molecular interaction.(1974)Describe protein synthesis in terms of molecular structures of the nucleic acids and using a specific example, explain how a new phenotypic characteristic may result from a change in DNA.(1977)Proteins are composed of amino acid subunits which form stable three-dimensional structures.a.Describe how the genetic instructions coded in DNA are translated into the primary structure (sequence of amino acids subunits) of a protein molecule.b.Explain how interactions among the individual amino acid subunits influence the transformation of the molecule into its three-dimensional structure and how they stabilize it.(1979)In relation to the chemical nature of the gene, describe:a.the chemical structure of the geneb.the replication (self-copying) of the genec.gene mutations, including chromosomal aberrations(1982)A portion of a specific DNA molecule consists of the following sequence of nucleotide triplets:TACGAACTTGGGTCCThis DNA sequence codes for the following short polypeptide.methionine – leucine – glutamic acid – proline – arginineDescribe the steps in the synthesis of this polypeptide. What would be the effect of a deletion or an addition in one of the DNA nucleotides? What would be the effect of a substitution in one of the nucleotides?(1984)Experiments by the following scientists provided critical information concerning DNA. Describe each classical experiment and indicate how it provided evidence for the chemical nature of the gene.a.Hershey and Chase – bacteriophage replicationb.Griffith and Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty – bacterial transformation.c.Messelson and Stahl – DNA replication in bacteria.(1985)Describe the operon hypothesis and discuss how it explains the control of messenger-RNA productions and the regulation of protein synthesis in bacterial cells.(1986)Describe the biochemical composition, structure, and replication of DNA. Discuss how recombinant DNA techniques may be used to correct a point mutation.(1987)Describe the production and processing of a protein that will be exported from a eukaryotic cell. Begin with the separation of the messenger RNA from the DNA template and end with the release of the protein at the plasma membrane.(1990)Describe the steps of protein synthesis beginning with the attachment of a messenger RNA molecule to the small subunit of a ribosome and ending with the release of the polypeptide from the ribosome. Include in your answer a discussion of how the different types of RNA function in this process.(2001) Proteins-large complex molecules- are major building blocks of all living organisms. Discuss the following in relation to proteins.(a) The chemical composition and levels of structure of proteins.(b) The roles of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis(c) The roles of proteins in membrane structure and transport of molecules across the membrane(2005)Protein synthesis is vital for cell growth and metabolism.(a)Describe transcription and translation.(b)Identify similarities between transcription and translation.(c)Identify differences between transcription and translation.(d)Describe structural changes that can occur to a protein after translation to make it function properly.(2005)The unit of genetic organization in all living organisms is the chromosomes.(a)Describe the structure and function of the parts of a eukaryotic chromosome. You may wish to include a diagram as part of your description.(b)Describe the adaptive (evolutionary) significance of organizing genes into chromosomes.(c)How does the function and structure of the chromosome differ in prokaryotes?(2009)The flow of genetic information from DNA to protein in eukaryotic cells is called the central dogma of biology.(a) Explain the role of each of the following in protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells.? RNA polymerase? Spliceosomes (snRNPs)? Codons? Ribosomes? tRNA(b) Cells regulate both protein synthesis and protein activity. Discuss TWO specific mechanisms of protein regulation in eukaryotic cells.(c) The central dogma does not apply to some viruses. Select a specific virus or type of virus and explain how it deviates from the central dogma.A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: CELLULAR ENERGETICSCoupled ReactionsFermentation and cellular respirationPhotosynthesisRESPIRATION QUESTIONS:(1963)Compare the intermediate steps in the fermentation of a molecule of sugar by yeast with respiration in a muscle tissue cell. Include in your answer the role of ATP formed in each of these two processes.(1965)Biologist and biochemists have made outstanding progress within the past quarter century in elucidating principles and structures which govern the activities of living matter. These areas of progress include:a.The structure and code of the DNA moleculeb.The use of radioactive isotopes as tracers in biological processes.c.The citric acid cycle and its relationship to mitochondria.d.The use of electron microscopy in revealing the structure of the cell.Discuss any one of these developments and its impact on biological thought and progress. Your answer should include:a.a brief account of the developmentb.the names of the most prominent investigators involvedc.the nature of its impact on biology.(1967)When a cell is metabolizing in the absence of oxygen and it is then exposed to an environment containing oxygen, a series of oxidation-reduction reactions is initiated which enables the cell to increase its activities.a.Outline the oxidation-reduction reactions that are initiated under these conditions and indicate the point at which molecular oxygen interacts with the oxidative system.b.Explain how the cell derives additional energy by switching from non-oxidate to oxidative metabolism.(1977)Explain how the molecular reactions of cellular respiration transform the chemical bond energy of Krebs cycle substrates into the more readily available bond energy of ATP. Include in your discussion the structure of the mitochondrion and show how it is important to the reactions of the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain.(1982)Describe the similarities and differences between the biochemical pathways of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Include in your discussion the major reactions, the end products, and energy transfers.(1989)Explain what occurs during the Krebs (citric acid) cycle and electron transport by describing the following:a.The location of the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain in the mitochondriab.The cyclic nature of the reactions in the Krebs cycle.c.The production of ATP and reduced coenzymes during the cycled.The chemiosmotic production of ATP during electron transport.(1997) Photosynthesis and cellular respiration recycle oxygen in ecosystems. Respond to TWO (and only two) of the following:a. Explain how the metabolic processes of cellular respiration and photosynthesis recycle oxygen.b. Discuss the structural adaptations that function in oxygen exchange between each of the following organisms and its environment: a plant; an insect; a fish.c. Trace a molecule of O2 from the environment to a muscle cell in a vertebrate of your choice. (2005)Yeast cells are placed in an apparatus with a solution of sugar (a major nutrient for yeast metabolism). The apparatus detects bubbles of gas released by the yeast cells. The rate of respiration varies with the surrounding temperatures as indicated by the data below.Temperature (°C)010203040506070Number of bubbles of gas produced per minute037127410(a)Graph the results on the axes provided. Determine the optimum temperature for respiration in yeast.(b)Respiration is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Using your knowledge of enzymes and the data above analyze and explain the results of this experiment.(c)Design an experiment to test the effect of varying the pH of the sugar solution on the rate of respiration. Include a prediction of the expected results.(2009) ATP and GTP are primary sources of energy for biochemical reactions.(a) Describe the structure of the ATP or the GTP molecule.(b) Explain how chemiosmosis produces ATP.(c) Describe TWO specific cell processes that require ATP and explain how ATP is used in each process.(d) An energy pyramid for a marine ecosystem is shown below. Label each trophic level of the pyramid and provide an example of a marine organism found at each level of this pyramid. Explain why the energy available at the top layer of the pyramid is a small percentage of the energy present at the bottom of the pyramid.PHOTOSYNTHESIS QUESTIONS:(1962)Discuss two experiments in which the use of isotopes as tracers has contributed to present knowledge of the photosynthesis process. One experiment should deal with the light phase and the other with the dark phase.(1965)Discuss the effect of each of the following factors on the rate of photosynthesis in a living plant:a. carbon dioxided. mineral nutritionb. light intensitye. water conservationc. temperature(1971)The process of photosynthesis consists of two phases, the light reactions and the dark reactions. Discuss each of these groups of reactions and their interrelationships.(1974)The overall equation for aerobic respiration is usually written as the reverse of the overall equation for photosynthesis. What features of the biochemical pathways involved in the two processes are the reverse of one another and what features are not?(1978)Explain how the molecular reactions of photosynthesis transform light energy into chemical bond energy. Include in your discussion the relationship between chloroplast structure and light and dark reactions.(1979)In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:a.measuring the rate of transpirationb.measuring the rate of photosynthesisc.separating pigments(1982)Describe the similarities and differences between the biochemical pathways of aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Include in your discussion the major reactions, the end products, and energy transfers.(1983)Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the following.a.Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storageb.Adaptations for food translocation and water transport.c.Specialized adaptations to a desert environment.(1986)Describe the light reactions of photosynthesis for both a C3 & a C4 plant. Trace the path of a carbon dioxide molecule from the point at which it enters a plant to its incorporation into a glucose molecule. Include leaf anatomy and biochemical pathways in your discussion of each type of plant.(1995) Energy transfer occurs in all cellular activities. For 3 of the following 5 processes involving energy transfer, explain how each functions in the cell and give an example. Explain how ATP is involved in each example you choose.° Cellular movement° Active transport° Synthesis of molecules° Chemiosmosis° FermentationA.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: HEREDITYMeiosis and gametogenesisEukaryotic chromosomesInheritance patterns(1961)A major concept of the gene theory of inheritance is that the genes are located in chromosomes. Explain how each of the following helps to establish this idea:a.A genotypic ration of 1:2:1 in offspring of heterozygotesb.The phenomenon of crossing overc.Other chromosomal aberrationsd.The phenomenon of sex determination, as in man(1963)a) In corn, a gene for colored (C) kernels is dominant over one for colorless (c) kernels and a gene for smooth (S) kernels is dominant over one for shrunken (s) kernels. Describe a controlled genetic experiment to demonstrate that those genes are linked.b) Genetic evidence indicates that these genes are linked and that their cross value is approximately 4%. Describe the process of crossing over and explain how its percentage is determined. (Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in explanation.)(1966)The gene was first thought to be a discrete factor or particle that controls a gross character of an organism such as flower color or eye color. With the discovery of specific relationships between genes, enzymes and proteins, this concept has changed radically. Cite three specific experiments that illustrate these changes and explain our present concept of the gene.(1967)a) Describe in a brief paragraph the characteristics of mutation.b) List the various alterations in the hereditary material that result in mutations. Illustrate with triple diagram.c) Discuss the ways in which one of the alterations that you list in part b causes hereditary changes.(1970)In most organisms, there are characteristic sets of chromosomes within cell nuclei. Describe ways in which the kinds or numbers of chromosomes in the following cells differ from the usual situation and discuss the possible significance of these differences:a.children whose cells have an extra autosomeb.cells from different members of a hive of honeybeesc.red blood cells in mammalsd.salivary gland cells in Drosophilae.cells in tetraploid strains of wheatf.gametes in humans containing extra sex chromosomes(1972)Several kinds of organisms have been important in genetics research. How have studies of microorganisms, peas, Drosophila, and man each made a different contribution to our knowledge of genetics?(1976)Each year a number of children are born with biological defects that impair normal function. For THREE of the following conditions, discuss such aspects as the biological cause, the methods of treatment and possible means of detection and/or prevention.a.Phenylketonuria (PKU)b.Sickle cell anemiac.Trisomy 21 (Downs’ syndrome)d.Cretinisme.Erythoblastosis fetalisf.Blue-baby conditiong.Tay-Sachs(1977)Discuss three of the following phenomena in which sex chromosomes are involved with particular reference to their significance or consequences in humans.a.Sex determinationb.Sex-linked inheritancec.Formation of Barr bodies (sex chromatin)d.Variation in kinds and numbers of sex chromosomes(1980)Describe in detail the process of meiosis as it occurs in an organism with a diploid chromosome number of 4 (2n = 4). Include labeled diagrams in your discussion. Indicate when and how each of the following deviates from these conclusions.a.Autosomal linkageb.Sex-linked (X-linked) inheritancec.Polygenic (multiple-gene) inheritance(1988)Discuss Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment. Explain how the events of meiosis I account for the observations that led Mendel to formulate these laws.(1993)Assume that a particular genetic condition in a mammalian species causes an inability to digest starch. This disorder occurs with equal frequency in males and females. In most cases, neither parent of affected offspring has the condition.a.Describe the most probable pattern of inheritance for this condition. Explain your reasoning. Include in your discussion a sample cross(es) sufficient to verify your proposed pattern.b.Explain how mutation could cause this inability to digest starch.c.Describe how modern techniques of molecular biology could be used to determine whether the mutant allele is present in a given individual.(1995) The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 4,900 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y).XXY300700900500a. Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation of DNA fragments.b. Describe the results you would expect from the electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestions occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion.I. DNA digested with only enzyme XII. DNA digested with only enzyme YIII. DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combinedIV. Undigested DNAc. Explain both of the following.(1) The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes(2) the different results you would expect if a mutation occurred at the recognition site for the enzyme(1995) An organism is heterozygous at two genetic loci on different chromosomes.a.Explain how these alleles are transmitted by the process of mitosis to daughter cellsb. Explain how these alleles are distributed by the process of meiosis to gametesc. Explain how the behavior of these two pairs of homologous chromosomes during meiosis provides the physical basis for Mendel’s two laws of inheritance. (Labeled diagrams that are explained in your answer may be useful.)(1998) By using the techniques of genetic engineering, scientists are able to modify genetic material so that a particular gene of interest from one cell can be incorporated into a different cell.Describe a procedure by which this can be done.Explain the purpose of each step of your procedureDescribe how you could determine whether the gene was successfully incorporatedDescribe an example of how gene transfer and incorporation have been used in a biomedical or commercial application.(1999) Scientists seeking to determine which molecule is responsible for the transmission of characteristics from one generation to the next knew that the molecule must (1) copy itself precisely, (2) be stable but able to be changed, and (3) be complex enough to determine the organism’s phenotype.°Explain how DNA meets each of the three criteria stated above.°Select one of the criteria stated above and describe experimental evidence used to determine that DNA is the hereditary material. (2000) Information transfer is fundamental to all living organisms. For two of the following examples, explain in detail how the transfer of information is accomplished.a. The genetic material in one eukaryotic cell is copied and distributed to two identical daughter cells.b. The gene in a eukaryotic cell is transcribed and translated to produce a protein.c. The genetic material from one bacterial cell enters another via transformation, transduction, or conjugation. (2002) The human genome illustrates both continuity and change.(a) Describe the essential features of two of the procedures/techniques below. For each of the procedures/techniques you describe, explain how its application contributes to understanding genetics. o The use of a bacterial plasmid to colon and sequence a human geneo Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)o Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis(b) All humans are nearly identical genetically in coding sequences and have many proteins that are identical in structures and function. Nevertheless, each human has a unique DNA fingerprint. Explain this apparent contradiction.(2004)Meiosis reduces chromosome number and rearranges genetic information.(a)Explain how the reduction and rearrangement are accomplished in meiosis.(b)Several human disorders occur as a result of defects in the meiotic process. Identify one such chromosomal abnormality; what effects does it have on the phenotype of people with the disorder? Describe how this abnormality could result from a defect in meiosis.(c)Production of offspring by parthenogenesis or cloning bypasses the typical meiotic process. Describe either parthenogenesis or cloning and compare the genomes of the offspring with those of the parents.(2010) Certain human genetic conditions, such as sickle cell anemia, result from single base-pair mutations in DNA.(a) Explain how a single base-pair mutant in DNA can alter the structure and, in some cases, the function of aprotein.(b) Explain, using a specific example, the potential consequences of the production of a mutant protein to thestructure and function of the cells of an organism.(c) Describe how the frequency of an allele coding for a mutant protein may increase in a population over time.A.P. OUTLINE: EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGYEarly evolution of lifeEvidence for evolutionMechanisms of evolution(1959)Discuss how each of the following contributes evidence that evolution has occurred.a.Paleontologyb.Geographical distributionc.Biochemical studies(1959)Each group of organisms has a specific set of adaptations (either in the parent animals or in the eggs they produce) which helps to insure the survival of sufficient young to maintain the population. Briefly summarize and compare the structures or other adaptations bearing on this problem as found in an amphibian, a reptile, a marsupial, and a placental mammal. What generalizations can be made from these comparisons?(1960)Although the arthropods began as aquatic animals, the majority have become terrestrial. Discuss the adaptive modifications in the arthropods for terrestrial existence with reference to locomotion, reproduction, and development, respiration, and water balance.(1960)The factors of mutation and isolation are believed to play significant roles in speciation. For each of these factors discuss:a.how it may occurb.the role it plays in speciation(1963)Discuss the evolution of both land animals and land plants from aquatic ancestors with respect to their adaptations for:a.water conservationb.supportc.embryo protection(1964)On the archipelago of the Galapagos Islands, which most geologists believe to be of volcanic origin without ever having had any land connection with the west coast of South America, Darwin discovered a group of small finches. These birds have since been classified into more than a dozen species. These birds have differences, particularly in their adaptations for food-getting. It is believed that all these species are descendants of a single species which migrated from the mainland. On the mainland there has never been more than a single species even though the rate of mutation is thought to be the same in both locations. Explain how each of the following could have played a role in the development of the many species of Galapagos finches:a.polyploidyb.genetic driftc.geographic isolationd.unoccupied ecologic nichese.Explain why the mainland species has not differentiated into more than one species.(1966)In the vertebrates, changes in mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic development have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and indicate their contribution to the evolutionary success of the following animals:a.fishb.amphibianc.birdd.mammal(1966)The theory of organic evolution is based on interpretations of observations from diverse areas. Describe the observations from each of the following areas and explain how they support the theory:a.parative anatomy or embryologyc.biochemistry or genetics(1970)An interbreeding population sometimes gives rise to two populations. Discuss the possible roles of each of the following factors in the formation of two distinct species.a.isolationb.selectionc.mutationd.genetic drift (Sewall Wright phenomenon)(1972)Cite evidence from biochemistry, paleontology, and population genetics that has led biologists to accept the theory of evolution.(1973)On the basis of reliable sampling studies made during a 5-year period, the following observations were made about the turtle populations of two lakes, one 300 miles north of the other. Indicate and discuss factors that might account for this unequal distribution.a.Turtles of species A are abundant in the northern lake where turtles of species B are rare.b.Turtles of species B are abundant in the southern lake where turtles of species A are rare.(1974)Heredity variations are essential to the evolution of populations.a.Describe the different types of hereditary variability.b.Explain how this variability can lead to the origin and maintenance of species. (1975)Most mammals live on land. Describe and discuss the evolutionary adaptations that make mammals better adapted to life on land than amphibians.(1977)Two geographically isolated populations usually will diverge over a long period of time.a.Describe how the two populations may become different, including factors that can account for these differences.b.Discuss factors that may prevent interbreeding if the two populations ever again occupy the same area.(1978)Describe the nature of each of the following and discuss the role of natural selection in each situation:a.Industrial melanismb.DDT resistance in insectsc.Sickle cell anemia and malaria(1979)Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection had a significant influence on the understanding of the evolution of organisms. Discuss each of the following:a.the importance of Darwin’s voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle to the development of his theory.b.the major points proposed by Darwin in his theory.c.two major refinements in Darwin’s theory that stem from modern findings.(1980)Discuss the significance of each of the events listed below in the evolution of living things.a.Primordial reducing atmosphereb.Origin of photosynthesisc.Increase in atmospheric oxygen and the development of the ozone layerd.Origin of eukaryotes(1981)Define, discuss, and give an example of how each of the following isolating mechanisms contributes to speciation in organisms.a.Geographical barriersb.Ecological (including seasonal) isolationc.Behavioral isolationd.Polyploidy(1982)Describe the special relationship between the two terms in each of the following pairs.a.Convergent evolution of organisms and Australiab.Blood groups and genetic driftc.Birds of prey and DDT(1984)Describe the modern theory of evolution and discuss how it is supported by evidence from two of the following three areas.a.Population geneticsb.Molecular parative anatomy and embryology(1984)Describe how the following adaptations have increased the evolutionary success of the organisms that possess them. Include in your discussion the structure and function related to each adaptation.a.C4 metabolismb.Amniotic eggc.Four-chambered heartd.Pollen(1986)Describe the process of speciation. Include in your discussion the factors that may contribute to the maintenance of genetic isolation.(1989)Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model.a.Indicate the conditions under which allelic frequencies (p and q) remain constant from one generation to the next.b.Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and the frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits, of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits, the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.)c.If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two generations?(1990)a. Describe the difference between the terms in each of the following pairs:1. Coelomate versus acoelomate body plan2. Protostome versus deuterostome development3. Radial versus bilateral symmetry b. Explain how each of these pairs of features was important in constructing the phylogenetic tree shown below. Use specific examples from the tree in your discussion.(1992)Evolution is one of the major unifying concepts of modern biology.a.Explain the mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change.b.Describe how scientists use each of the following as evidence for evolution.1. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics2. Comparative biochemistry3. The fossil record(1994)Genetic variation is the raw material for evolution.a.Explain three cellular and/or molecular mechanisms that introduce variation into the gene pool of a plant or animal population.b.Explain the evolutionary mechanisms that can change the composition of the gene pool.(1994)Select two of the following three pairs and discuss the evolutionary relationships between the two members of each pair you have chosen. In your discussion include structural adaptations and their functional significance.PAIR A:green algaePAIR C:amphibiansvascular plants reptilesPAIR B:prokaryoteseukaryotes(1995) The problems of survival of animals on land are very different from those of survival of animals in an aquatic environment. Describe four problems associated with animal survival in terrestrial environments but not in aquatic environments. For each problem, explain an evolutionary solution.(1997) In a laboratory population of diploid, sexually reproducing organisms a certain trait is studied. This trait is determined by a single autosomal gene and is expressed as two phenotypes. A new population was created by crossing 51 pure-breeding (homozygous) dominant individuals with 49 pure breeding (homozygous) recessive individuals. After four generations, the following results were obtained.NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALSGenerationDominantRecessiveTotal151491002280028032408032043001004005360120480a. Identify an organism that might have been used to perform this experiment, and explain why this organism is a goodchoice for conducting this experiment.b. On the basis of the data, propose a hypothesis that explains the change in the phenotypic frequency between generation 1 and generation 3.c. Is there evidence indicating whether or not this population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Explain.(1998) The evolutionary success of organisms depends on reproduction. Some groups of organisms reproduce asexually, some reproduce sexually, while others reproduce both sexually and asexually.a. Using THREE different organisms, give an example of one organism that reproduces sexually, one that reproduces asexually, and one that reproduces BOTH sexually and asexually. For each organism given as an example, describe two reproductive adaptations. These adaptations may be behavioral, structural, and/or functional.b. What environmental conditions would favor sexual reproduction? Explain. What environmental conditions would favor asexual reproduction? Explain.(1999) Scientists recently have proposed a reorganization of the phylogenetic system of classification to include the domain, a new taxonomic category higher (more inclusive) than the Kingdom category, as shown in the following diagram.Universal AncestorDomain BacteriaDomain ArchaeaDomain Eukarya(Eubacteria)(Archaebacteria)(Eukaryotes)°Describe how this classification scheme presents different conclusions about the relationships among living organisms than those presented by the previous five-kingdom system of classification.°Describe three kinds of evidence that were used to develop the taxonomic scheme above, and explain how this evidence was used. The evidence may be structural, physiological, molecular, and/or genetic.°Describe four of the characteristics of the universal ancestor.(2001) Charles Darwin proposed that evolution by natural selection was the basis for the differences that he saw in similar organisms as he traveled and collected specimens in South America and on the Galapagos Islands.a. Explain the theory of evolution by natural selection as presented by Darwin.b. Each of the following relates to an aspect of evolution by natural selection. Explain three of the following.( i) Convergent evolution and the similarities among species (ecological equivalents) in a particular biome (e.g., tundra, taiga, etc.)(ii.) Natural selection and the formation of insecticide-resistant insects or antibiotic-resistant bacteria(iii) Speculation and isolation(iv) Natural selection and behavior such as kinesis, fixed-action pattern, dominance hierarchy, etc.(v) Natural selection and heterozygote advantage.(2004)Darwin is considered the "father of evolutionary biology." Four of his contributions to the field of evolutionary biology are listed below.The nonconstancy of speciesBranching evolution, which implies the common descent of all speciesOccurrence of gradual changes in speciesNatural selection as the mechanism for evolution(a)For each of the four contributions listed above, discuss one example of supporting evidence.(b)Darwin's ideas have been enhanced and modified as new knowledge and technologies have become available. Discuss how two of the following have modified biologists' interpretation of Darwin's original contributions.Hardy-Weinberg equilibriumPunctuated equilibriumGenetic engineering(2005) In the evolution of organisms, major adaptations arose in certain groups, opening new evolutionary possibilities. For two of the following types of organisms, discuss the evolutionary significance of the features listed.(a)Flowering: flowers, fruits and seeds, and broad leaves(b)Flatworms: three germ layers, bilateral symmetry, and cephalization(c)Segmented worms: segmentation, coelom, and digestive system(d)Reptiles: amniotic eggs, waterproof skin, and well-developed lungs(2008) Evolution is one of the unifying themes of biology. Evolution involves change in the frequencies of alleles in a population. For a particular genetic locus in a population, the frequency of the recessive allele (a) is 0.4 and the frequency of the dominant allele (A) is 0.6.(a) What is the frequency of each genotype (AA, Aa, aa) in this population? What is the frequency of the dominant phenotype?(b) How can the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium be used to determine whether this population is evolving?(c) Identify a particular environmental change and describe how it might alter allelic frequencies in this population. Explain which condition of the Hardy-Weinberg principle would not be met.(2008) Scientists use the concept of homology in identifying evolutionary relationships among organisms. Features shared by two groups of organisms are said to be homologous if the similarities reflect shared ancestry. Homology is found in comparisons of structural, molecular, biochemical, developmental, physiological, and behavioral characteristics of organisms. Select THREE of the following hypotheses and explain TWO examples of homology that support each hypothesis.(a) Chloroplasts are related to photosynthetic prokaryotes.(b) Spiders and insects are closely related.(c) Echinoderms (sea stars and their relatives) are closely related to the chordates (the phylum that includes vertebrates).(d) Reptiles and birds are closely related.(e) Humans and chimpanzees are closely related primates.(2009) Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species.(a) The evolution of a species is dependent on changes in the genome of the species. Identify TWO mechanisms of genetic change, and explain how each affects genetic variation.(b) Based on the data in the table below, draw a phylogenetic tree that reflects the evolutionary relationships of the organisms based on the differences in their cytochrome c amino-acid sequences and explain the relationships of the organisms. Based on the data, identify which organism is most closely related to the chicken and explain your choice.(c) Describe TWO types of evidence—other than the comparison of proteins—that can be used to determine the phylogeny of organisms. Discuss one strength of each type of evidence you described.THE NUMBER OF AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES IN CYTOCHROME c AMONG VARIOUS ORGANISMSHorse Donkey Chicken Penguin SnakeHorse 0 1 11 13 21Donkey 0 10 12 20Chicken 0 3 1818Penguin 0 1717Snake 0A.P. OUTLINE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN PLANTS (1959)Considering the respective roles played by the root, stem, and leaf in the life of a dicotyledonous plant, contrast the organization of these three organs.(1961)Discuss the movement of water from the soil through a vascular plant during transpiration with regard to:a.tissues traversedb.processes and forces involvedc.environmental factors which are conducive to a high rate of transpirationd.the effects of this process upon the plant(1962)The opening and closing of the stomata are, in part, associated with the changing osmotic relationships existing between the guard cells and the surrounding epidermis and mesophyll.a.Describe the structure of a guard cell and discuss the osmotic relationships that tend to result in stomatal opening.b.Stomata are usually closed in the dark but tend to open in the light. Describe two possible causes of change in the guard cells or in their environment which result in stomatal opening.(1964)Each of the five leaf structures indicated in the diagram below is related to either the raw materials of, by products of, or regulation of the rate of leaf photosynthesis.a.Name the five structures in order.b.Discuss how each may regulate or in some way affect the rate of photosynthesis.***Diagram not available(1969)For plants, adaptations to a land environment are different from adaptations to a fresh water environment. Using your knowledge about anatomy, development, and physiology of angiosperms, discusses the problems in a land existence and adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these problems.(1973)Seeds that are randomly positioned when planted in a pot of soil placed on a window sill produce seedlings with downward growing roots and upward growing shoots. Above ground, the shoots are oriented toward light. Describe the physiological mechanisms that occur to produce:a.the downward growth of the rootsb.the upward growth of the shootsc.the bending of the shoots toward the light(1974)Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary environments: changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the chemical environment. Choose any one of these environmental factors and describe mechanisms by which plants may adjust to changes in that factor.(1976)Discuss the manner in which water, minerals, and organic compounds are transported in flowering plants.(1978)Discuss the structural and functional adaptations found in higher plants that enable them to conserve water under different environmental conditions.(1979)In relation to plants, describe in detail one way of:a.measuring the rate of transpirationb.measuring the rate of photosynthesisc.separating pigments(1980)In flowering plants, describe in detail the transport of water, carbohydrates, and inorganic solutes (nitrates, for example). Discuss the theories that have been proposed to explain how these substances are transported.(1983)Relate the structure of an angiosperm leaf to each of the following.a.Adaptations for photosynthesis and food storage.b.Adaptations for food translocation and water transport.c.Specialized adaptations to a desert environment.(1994)Define the following plant responses and explain the mechanism of control for each. Cite experimental evidence as part of your discussion.a.Phototropismb.Photoperiodism(1988)Trace the pathway in a flowering plant as the water moves from the soil through the tissues of the root, stem, and leaves to the atmosphere. Explain the mechanisms involved in conducting water through these tissues.(1990)Discuss the adaptations that have enabled flowering plants to overcome the following problems associated with life on land:a.The absence of an aquatic environment for reproductionb.The absence of an aquatic environment to support the plant bodyc.Dehydration of the plant(1992)Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples, describe the physiological mechanisms involved in the response.(1995) Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain nutrients from their environment in different ways.a. Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional requirements of angiosperms and vertebrates.b. Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for obtaining nutrients from the environment. Relate structure to function.c. Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain two symbiotic relationships that aid in nutrient uptake, using examples from angiosperms and/or vertebrates. (Both examples may be angiosperms, both may be vertebrates, or one may be from each group.) (2006) The movement of water through vascular plants is important to their survival.a. Explain the mechanism of water movement through vascular plants during transpiration. Include a discussion of how the anatomy of vascular plants and the properties of water contribute to this process.b. Explain how gas exchange affects transpiration.c. Describe TWO adaptations that affect the rate of transpiration in desert plants.(2006) While studying transpiration, a scientist used a dendrometer to record the small daily changes in the diameter of a tree trunk at two different heights (2 meters and 3 meters) above the ground at the same time. The diameter decreased in the daytime. This decrease happened first at the higher location. Discuss the following in relation to water movement in plants.a. Identify how TWO different environmental factors could be involved in the daily fluctuations shown above.b. Discuss the mechanisms involved in the uptake and transport of water by vascular plants.c. Discuss the role of water in the normal functioning of plants.A.P. OUTLINE: PLANT REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT1.Alternation of generations in moss, fern, pine, and flowering plantsa. Spore and gamete formationb. Fertilization and sporophyte formation2.Seed structure and germination3.Growth and development: hormonal control (1960)The seed is the organ having great survival value. Discuss (a) the structure of seeds from this point of view, and (b) the phenomenon and biological importance of dormancy of seeds.(1961)Trace the evolutionary trends shown by the gametophyte generation in a bryophyte (a liverwort or moss), a fern, and a pine with respect to:a.origin and structureb.mode of nutritionc.structure and mode of transport of the spermd.relative size and longevity compared to the sporophyte generation (1962)pare the nutrition of bread mold (Rhizopus) with that of the gamethophyte generation of a ferrn.pare the conduction of food materials, water, and salts in the sporophyte generation of a liverwort with that in the sporophyte generation of a fern.pare sexual reproduction in an alga (such as Spirogyra or Oedogonium) with that in a moss.(1964)During its development from zygote to maturity, a bean plant forms the following structures:l. stem2. secondary roots3. vascular cambium4. embryo sac5. cotyledonsA.Describe briefly the developmental origin of each of the five.B.Describe briefly the functions of each of the five.(1965)Discuss trends in the evolution of the sporophytes and gametophytes, using a moss, fern, and a flowering plant, as examples emphasizing:a.structure or morphologyb.mode of nutrition(1965)The diagram at the right represents a longitudinal section of a complete flower. This is one of the most highly evolved structures in the plant kingdom and is at least partially responsible for the degree of success that these organisms have achieved in our present environment.a.Name the numbered parts and give the function of each in the life cycle of the plant.b.Tell in what way each of these parts has improved the chances of survival of this plant as compared with a fern.(1967)Asexual reproduction is common among plants, including the fungi. Explain four methods of sexual reproduction (either natural or artificial) and give an example of each.(1968)Flowering plants have become the predominant, widespread plants of the land whereas ferns are more restricted in their distribution. Explain the features of flowering plants that have made them more successful than the ferns.(1969)For plants, adaptations to a land environment are different from adaptations to a fresh water environment. Using your knowledge about anatomy, development, and physiology of angiosperms, discuss the problems in a land existence and adaptations of angiosperms that have evolved as solutions to these problems.(1975)Most flowering plants live on land. Describe and discuss evolutionary adaptations that make flowering plants better adapted to life on land than mosses.(1977)Discuss the reproduction of a flowering plant, including pollination, fertilization, fruit formation, and seed development.(1982)In the life cycles of a fern and a flowering plant, compare and contrast each of the following: a.The gametophyte generationb.Sperm transport and fertilizationc.Embryo protection(1985)Describe the structure of a bean seed and discuss its germination to the seedling stage. Include in your essay hormonal controls, structural changes, and tissue differentiation.(1987)Describe the effects of plant hormones on plant growth and development. Design an experiment to demonstrate the effect of one of these plant hormones on plant growth and development.(1996) Numerous environmental variables influence plant growth. Three students each planted a seedling of the same genetic variety in the same type of container with equal amounts of soil from the same source. Their goal was to maximize their seedling’s growth by manipulating environmental conditions. Their data are shown below. Plant Seedling Mass (grams) Day 1 Day 30Student A 424Student B 535Student C 464a. Identify three different environmental variables that could acount for differences in the mass of the seedlings at day 30. Then choose one of these variables and design an experiment to test the hypothesis that your variable affects growth of these seedlings.b. Discuss the results you would expect if your hypothesis is correct. Then provide a physiological explanation for the effect of your variable on plant growth. (2005)Angiosperms (flowering plants) have wide distribution in the biosphere and the largest number of species in the plant kingdom.(a)Discuss the function of four structures for reproduction found in angiosperms and the adaptive (evolutionary) significance of each.(b)Mosses (bryophytes) have not achieved the widespread terrestrial success of angiosperms. Discuss how the anatomy and reproductive strategies of mosses limit their distribution. (c)Explain alternation of generations in wither angiosperms or mosses.(2008) Flowering plants have evolved various strategies for fertilization.(a) Describe the process of fertilization in flowering plants.(b) Discuss TWO mechanisms of pollen transfer and the adaptations that facilitate each mechanism.Some species of flowering plants have evolved mechanisms to prevent self-fertilization.(c) Discuss an evolutionary advantage of preventing self-fertilization.(d) Describe TWO mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization.(2010) On a trip to a dense forest, a biologist noticed that millipedes (small invertebrates) were plentiful under logs butwere rarely seen in any other location.(a) Propose THREE environmental variables (two abiotic and one biotic) that could explain why millipedes are found more frequently under logs.(b) For ONE of the abiotic environmental variables you chose above, design a controlled experiment to test a hypothesis that this factor affects the distribution of millipedes on the forest floor. Describe data that would support your hypothesis.(c) Suppose that you were examining the distribution of a plant, instead of the millipede. Describe modifications in the experiment that you designed in (b) that would be required to determine whether the abiotic factor you chose affects the distribution of the plant.(2009)Discuss the patterns of sexual reproduction in plants. Compare and contrast reproduction in nonvascular plantswith that in flowering plants. Include the following topics in your discussion:(a) alternation of generations(b) mechanisms that bring female and male gametes together(c) mechanisms that disperse offspring to new locationsA.P. OUTLINE: ANIMAL SYSTEMSReproduction, growth and developmentStructural, physiological, and behavioral adaptationsResponse to the environment (1959)The blood, lymph, and other internal fluids have often been referred to as the “internal environment” of the cells. Many parts of the body are involved in maintaining the constancy of this internal environment. Discuss how 1) the kidneys and 2) the endocrine glands help to maintain the constancy of the internal environment.(1961)Describe and compare the excretory system of a flatworm (Platyhelminthes), an earthworm (Annelida), and a grasshopper (Arthropoda). Include labeled diagrams with your answer.(1961)Discuss the structure and function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system of a mammal. What neuroransmitters are associated with each system? Labeled diagrams may be included with your answer.(1962)a. Compare the digestive system of a planarian with that of an earthworm.b. Compare the body wall of a hydra with that of a tapeworm.c. Compare the circulatory system of a crayfish with that of an earthworm.(1964)a. Make a schematic diagram of a typical myelinated motor neuron. Make the diagram the size of a full page and label it completely.b. List the parts included in your diagram and describe briefly the function performed each one.c. Discuss the mechanism of synaptic transmission.(1964)In normal metabolism, the glucose concentration of the blood tends to remain constant (within a range of 80 to 120 milligrams per hundred milliliters). Discuss the role of each of the following in maintaining this homeostatic condition:a.the kidneysb.the islands of Langerhansc.the pituitary gland(1964)Describe the structure and the mechanism of operation of each of the following:a.a pseudopodium b. a flagellumc.a striated muscle cell(1965)Discuss each of the following as it relates to the functioning of the heartbeat in a mammal:a.the autonomic nervous systemb.the structure of cardiac musclec.the sinus node, the atrial-ventricular bundle (bundle of His)(1966)Irritability or responsiveness to stimuli is a common characteristic of living organisms. Among many others these responses include.a.Geotropic responses in plantsb.Simple reflex responses in animalsDiscuss each of these responses. Your answer should include a description of:a.the responseb.an experiment which will demonstrate the responsesc.the mechanisms involved in the responses(2007) Cephalization and the development of a brain were important steps in animal evolution. a. Discuss the evolutionary origin and adaptive significance of cephalization in animal phyla.b. Describe the development of the nervous system in the vertebrate embryo.c. At the sound of shattering glass, people quickly turn their heads. Discuss how the human nervous system functions to produce this type of response to an external stimulus. (1967)Nitrogenous waste products are excreted by animals in various forms. Many aquatic animals excrete ammonia, birds and reptiles excrete uric acid, and man excretes urea. Describe the formation of two of these waste products and discuss the adaptive value of these three methods of nitrogenous excretion.(1968)Self-regulatory or homeostatic feedback mechanisms are present in the endocrine, vascular, and respiratory systems of vertebrates. Describe one such feedback system, discussing the evidence which indicates that feedback occurs.(1971)Describe the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic nervous system of vertebrates. How does this system help a vertebrate to survive?(1971)The transmission of an impulse from a nerve to the surface of a resting muscle initiates a contraction in that muscle. Biochemical and biophysical studies of muscle tissue have resulted in an explanation for muscle contraction known as the sliding-filament hypothesis.a.Describe the chemical changes that occur when a nerve impulse is transmitted to the surface of a resting muscle cell.b.Describe the internal structure of a muscle fiber as revealed by electron microscopy.c.On the basis of this structure, explain the sliding-filament hypothesis.(1973)The action of organs and organ systems must be coordinated. Discuss the interaction of factors involved in controlling heart rate and breathing rate in mammals during periods of relaxation and periods of stress.(1974)Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary environmental changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the chemical environment. Choose any one of these environmental factors and describe mechanisms by which a) animals and b) plants may adjust to changes in that factor.(1975)Regulation of biological systems is commonly achieved by means of feedback control. In each of the following systems, describe how feedback control is used for regulation, and give a specific example for each system.a. the size of a populationb. the rate of a physiological processc. the rate of an enzyme reaction(1975)The immune response of organisms involve antigens, antibodies, and other factors, Describe the immune response and discuss its role in three of the following phenomena:a.blood transfusionsb.Rh incompatibilityc.tissue transplants(1976)Discuss the intake, transport, exchange, and release of gases in mammals.(1978)Discuss the mechanism by which a muscle cell contracts or a nerve cell transmits an impulse Include in your discussion the relationship between cell structure and function.(1979)Describe the structure and function of the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine as digestive and endocrine organs in the human. (For each organ, include the relevant cell types and their functions).(1980)In humans, discuss the transport of gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide) by the blood and the exchange of these gasses between the blood and cells of the body. Include in your discussion the cellular and fluid composition of the blood.(1981)Describe the structure and function of the mammalian kidney. Include a discussion of the regulation of water balance by kidney and hormonal interaction.(1981)Describe the structure and function of the reflex arc in higher vertebrates. Include a description of the cell types and a discussion of the mechanism of transmission of the impulse.(1982)Describe the following mechanisms of response to foreign materials in the human body.a.The antigen-antibody response to a skin graft from another person.b.The reactions of the body leading to inflammation of a wound infected by bacteria.(1983)Describe the structure of a mammalian respiratory system. Include in your discussion the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration.(1984)Discuss the source and actions of each of the following pairs of hormones in humans and describe the feedback mechanisms that control their release.a.Insulin...glucagonb.Parathyroid hormone...calcitoninc.Thyrotropin (TSH)...thyroxin (T4)(1985)Describe the anatomical and functional similarities and differences within each of the following pairs of structures.a.Artery….veinb.Small intestine….colonc.Skeletal muscle….cardiac muscled.Anterior pituitary….Posterior pituitary(1986)Beginning at the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, describe the physical and biochemical events involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber. Include the structure of the fiber in your discussion.(1986)Describe the processes of fat and protein digestion and product absorption as they occur in the human stomach and small intestine. Include a discussion of the enzymatic reactions involved.(1987)Discuss the processes of exchange of O2 and CO2 that occur at the alveoli and muscle cells of mammals. Include in your answer a description of the transport of these gases in the blood.(1989)Describe negative and positive feedback loops, and discuss how feedback mechanisms regulate each of the following.a.The menstrual cycle in a nonpregnant human femaleb.Blood glucose levels in humans(1991)The graphs below shows the response of the human immune system to exposure to an antigen. Use this graph to answer part a and part b of this question.a.Describe the events that occur during period I as the immune system responds to the initial exposure to the antigen.b.Describe the events that occur during period II following a second exposure to the same antigen.c.Explain how infection by the AIDS virus (HIV) affects the function of the T and B lymphocytes.(1991) Describe the structure of the mammalian heart and factors that affect heart rate. Compare the circulatory system and heart of a fish and amphibians to the circulatory system and heart of the mammals.(1992) Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples, describe the physiological mechanisms involved in the response. (Repeated question in plants)(1992) Biological recognition is important in many process at the molecular, cellular, tissue, and organismal levels. Select three of the following, and for each of the three that you have chosen, explain how the process of recognition occurs and give an example.anisms recognize others as members of their own species.b.Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.c.Antigens trigger antibody responses.d.Nucleic acids are complementary.e.Target cells respond to specific hormones(1993)Many physiological changes occur during exercise.a. Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that an exercise session causes short-term increases in heart rate and breathing rate in humans.b. Explain how at least three organ systems are affected by this increased physical activity and discuss interactions among these systems.(1995) Angiosperms (flowering plants) and vertebrates obtain nutrients from their environment in different ways.a. Discuss the type of nutrition and the nutritional requirements of angiosperms and vertebrates.b. Describe 2 structural adaptations in angiosperms for obtaining nutrients from the environment. Relate structure to function.c. Interdependence in nature is evident in symbiosis. Explain two symbiotic relationships that aid in nutrient uptake, using examples from angiosperms and/or vertebrates. (Both examples may be angiosperms, both may be vertebrates, or one may be from each group.)(1996) Structure and function are related in the various organ systems of animals.Select two of the following four organ systems in vertebrates:° respiratory° digestive° excretory° nervousFor each of the two systems you choose, discuss the structure and function of two adaptations that aid in the transport or exchange of molecules (or ions). Be sure to relate structure to function in each example.(2000) Feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to maintain the steady-state physiological condition known as homeostasis. Choose three of the following and for each explain how feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis. a) blood glucose concentrationd) osmolarity of the blood b) calcium ion concentration in bloode) pulse rate in mammalsc) body temperature in mammals(2001) In biological systems, structure and function are related. Choose three of the following components of organ systems.alveolusvillusnephronsarcomerecapillaryneurona. For each component, describe the structure of the component and explain how that structure is responsible for the function of that component.b. For the three components that you chose in part a, explain how the structure of the component contributes to the functioning of the organ system to which it belongs. (2002) The complexity of structure and function varies widely across the animal kingdom. Despite this variation, animals exhibit common processes. These include the following.Transport of materialsResponse to stimuliGas exchangeLocomotion(a) Choose two of the processes above and for each, describe the relevant structures and how they function to accomplish the process in the following idaria (e.g., hydra, jellyfish)Annelida (e.g., earthworm)Chordata (e.g., mouse) (b) Explain the adaptive (evolutionary) value(s) of the structural examples you described in part a.(2005)An important defense against diseases in vertebrate animals is the ability to eliminate, inactivate, or destroy foreign substances and organisms. Explain how the immune system achieves three of the following:Provides an immediate nonspecific immune responseActivates T and B cells in response to an infectionResponds to a later exposure to the same infectious agentDistinguishes self from nonself(2006) The evolution of circulatory systems allowed larger and more-complex animals to arise.a. Describe the respiratory and digestive systems' specialized structures that facilitate the movement of oxygen and glucose into the circulatory system of mammals.b. Explain how oxygen and glucose are transported within the circulatory system of mammals.c. Explain the transfer of oxygen and glucose from the blood and into the active cells of mammals.A.P. OUTLINE: REPRODUCTION (1962)A. Name and describe the origin, function, and mechanism of operation of the four extra-embryonic membranes of a bird. (Labeled diagrams may be used as aids in explanation).B. For three of these membranes of a bird briefly describe one variation in either development or function in a mammal, such as a human.(1966)In vertebrates, changes in the mechanisms of fertilization and embryonic development have been of adaptive value. Compare these mechanisms and indicate their contribution to the evolutionary success of the following animals:A. FishB. AmphibianC. BirdD. Mammal(1974)Compare and contrast the origin and maturation of the male and female gametes in a flowering plant and in a mammal.(1976)During development in multicellular organisms, the cells become different from one another, even though they possess a common genetic heritage. Describe experiments in several organisms which explore the problem of differentiation at the gene level, the cell level, or the tissue level, and discuss how these experiments have aided our understanding of development.(1979)Describe the role of the hypothalamus, the pituitary hormones, and the ovarian hormones in the regulation of the human menstrual cycle. Include in your discussion the concept of feedback control and the way in which fertilization of the egg alters the menstrual cycle.(1988)Discuss the processes of cleavage, gastrulation, and neurulation in the frog embryo; tell what each process accomplishes. Describe an experiment that illustrates the importance of induction inDevelopmentAP OUTLINE: ECOLOGYPopulation dynamicsCommunities and ecosystemsGlobal Issues (1959)Starting with an open pond of water or with a bare sand beach, discuss the natural succession from a pioneer community to a climax community with respect to 1) physiographic factors, 2) biotic factors, and 3) the order of some of the successional stages which might be expected to occur.(1961)Describe the complete cyclic movement of nitrogen within a balanced biotic community.(1963)From an ecological standpoint, discuss briefly the interaction of organisms in: a) the carbon-oxygen cycleb) a specific food chain.(1966)The retreat of a glacier leaves barren rock and soil that may be low or lacking in organic material. Characterize the changes that might occur over a long period of time following the retreat of the glacier. Your answer should include a) physical and chemical changes b) changes in flora, and c) changes in fauna.(1966)A small, upland, temperate-zone lake of 200 acres surface area and a maximum depth of 10 meters at the middle is created behind an earthfill dam. High land surrounding the lake is covered with deciduous forest. Springs and a permanent stream, flowing into the lake from pasture grassland provide a constant supply of water. For the next five years, the lake and stream remain undisturbed. At the end of the five-year period:a)what organism could be expected in samples taken from the middle of the lake? b)what organisms could be collected from shallow water at the end of the stream entrance?c)how, during the five-year period, did the organisms come to the lake, and why did they thrive there?(1971)A mature forest community is completely destroyed by fire. Describe the stages of succession bywhich this community is restored.(1972)A very long-term trip into deep space, lasting at least a decade, is being planned. You have beenassigned the responsibility of designing a balanced ecosystem that will meet the needs of you and several others in the spaceship. Cite the specific types of organisms that you would take and include the role that each would play in the ecosystem. (Assume that the problem of temperature control in the spaceship has been solved.)(1976)Discuss the web of life in a biological community. Your essay would focus on energy flow, conversion, and loss in food chains, including the concepts of trophic levels and pyramids.(1978)Human beings have altered the environment in a variety of ways. Discuss the beneficial and harmful modifications of the environment brought about by the use of the following:a)Nuclear energyb)Fertilizers and pesticidesc)Fossil fuels and metals(1979)Explain and illustrate with one specific example each of the following concepts:a)competitive exclusion (Gause’s principle)b)ecological successionc)nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles(1980)Many areas of North America that were once covered with many small lakes and ponds have undergone succession and are now continuously covered with forests. Give a detailed description of the events (biotic and abiotic factors) that lead to the establishment of a climax forest.(1981)Define, discuss, and give an example of each of the following close interactions of species.a)Predator-prey relationshipsb)Commensalismc)Mutualismd)Parasitism(1983)Describe the trophic levels in a typical ecosystem. Discuss the flow of energy through theecosystem, the relationship between the different trophic levels, and the factors that limit the numberof trophic levels.(1985)Describe the process of ecological succession from a pioneer community to a climax community.Include in your answer a discussion of species diversity and interactions, accumulation of biomass, and energy flow.(1986)Describe the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Trace these elements from the pointof their release from a decaying animal to their incorporation into a living animal.(1989)Using an example for each, discuss the following ecological concepts.a)Successionb)Energy flow between trophic levelsc)Limiting factorsd)Carrying capacity(1993)Living organisms play an important role in the recycling of many elements within an ecosystem. Discuss how various types of organisms and their biochemical reactions contribute to the recycling of either carbon or nitrogen in an ecosystem. Include in your answer one way in which human activity has an impact on the nutrient cycle you have chosen.(1998) Interdependence in nature is illustrated by the transfer of energy through trophic levels. The diagram below depicts the transfer of energy in a food web of an Arctic lake located in Alaska.a. Choosing organisms from four different trophic levels of this food web as examples, explain how energy is obtained at each trophic level.b. Describe the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels and discuss how the amount of energy available at each trophic level affects the structure of the ecosystem.c. If the cells in the dead terrestrial plant material that washed into to the lake contained a commercially produced toxin, what would be the likely effects of this toxin on this food web? Explain.(2003) Many populations exhibit the following growth curve:(a) Describe what is occurring in the population during phase A.(b) Discuss THREE factors that might cause the fluctuations shown in phase B.(c) Organisms demonstrate exponential (r) or logistic (K) reproductive strategies. Explain these two strategies and discuss how they affect population size over time.(2004)Organisms rarely exist alone in the natural environment. The following are five examples of symbiotic relationships.Plant root nodulesDigestion of celluloseEpiphytic plantsAIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)AnthraxChoose four of the above and for each example chosen,(a) identify the participants involved in the symbiosis and describe the symbiotic relationship, and(b)discuss the specific benefit or detriment, if any, that each participant receives from the relationship.(2005)Survival of organisms depends on adaptive behavior and species interactions.(a)Behaviors of organisms may be influenced by environmental factors. Select two of the following types of behavior. For each type, explain(i)how the environment affects the behavior, and(ii)why this behavior increases the survivorship of individuals of a species.Taxis/KinesisMigrationCourtship(b)Interactions among populations may have an effect on densities of the species that interact. Predation represents an important interaction among populations. The curves below depict the population densities of three species: a small herbivore, a larger herbivore, and a carnivore.Identify which curve represents which of the species listed, and justify your answer by describing the changes in the population densities of these three species over time. (2006) According to fossil records and recent published observations, two species of leaf-eating beetles (species A and B) have existed on an isolated island in the Pacific Ocean for over 100,000 years. In 1964 a third species of leaf-eating beetle (species C) was accidentally introduced on the island. The population size of each species has been regularly monitored as shown in the graph above.a. Propose an explanation for the pattern of population density observed in species C.b. Describe the effect that the introduction of beetle species C has had on the population density of species A and species B. Propose an explanation for the patterns of population density observed in species A and in species B.c. Predict the population density of species C in 2014. Provide a biological explanation for your prediction.d. Explain why invasive species are often successful in colonizing new habitats.(2006) In many ways, all organisms in a food web can be said to be solar-powered. The producer level of the food web is responsible for the transformation of the solar energy into a form that can be used by other living organisms.a. Discuss the role of green plants in transforming the Sun's energy into a form that can ultimately be used by heterotrophs.b. Discuss the flow of energy from producers through top carnivores in a food web in terms of the laws of thermodynamics.(2007) Compared with other terrestrial biomes, deserts have extremely low productivity. Discuss how temperature, soil composition, and annual precipitation limit productivity in deserts.Describe a four-organism food chain that might characterize a desert community, and identify the trophic level of each organism.Describe the results depicted in the graph. Explain one anatomical difference and one physiological difference between species A and B that account for the CO2 uptake patterns shown. Discuss the evolutionary significance of each difference. CO2 UPTAKE FOR TWO SPECIES OF DESERT PLANTS OVER 24 HOURSMidnight 6 A.M. Noon 6 P.M. Midnight(2010) The diagram above shows the succession of communities from annual plants to hardwood trees in a specific areaover a period of time.(a) Discuss the expected changes in biodiversity as the stages of succession progress as shown in the diagramabove.(b) Describe and explain THREE changes in abiotic conditions over time that lead to the succession, as shownin the diagram above.(c) For each of the following disturbances, discuss the immediate and long-term effects on ecosystemsuccession.(i) A volcano erupts, covering a 10-square-kilometer portion of a mature forest with lava.(ii) A 10- square-kilometer portion of a mature forest is clear-cut.(2010) On a trip to a dense forest, a biologist noticed that millipedes (small invertebrates) were plentiful under logs butwere rarely seen in any other location.(a) Propose THREE environmental variables (two abiotic and one biotic) that could explain why millipedes arefound more frequently under logs.(b) For ONE of the abiotic environmental variables you chose above, design a controlled experiment to test ahypothesis that this factor affects the distribution of millipedes on the forest floor. Describe data that wouldsupport your hypothesis.(c) Suppose that you were examining the distribution of a plant, instead of the millipede. Describemodifications in the experiment that you designed in (b) that would be required to determine whether theabiotic factor you chose affects the distribution of the plant.(2010) Bacteria play central biological roles.(a) Bacteria may act asproducersparasitesmutualistic symbiontsdecomposersSelect THREE of the ecological roles above. For each one you choose, describe how bacteria carry out the roleand discuss its ecological importance.(b) Explain how bacteria can be altered to make genetically engineered products.A.P. BIOLOGY OUTLINE: BEHAVIOR (1970) In recent years, studies of animal behavior have become increasingly important. Answer either a or b below.a)Describe experiments that demonstrate how honeybees communicate the location of a food source to other members of the hive.b)Discuss several examples and the possible biological functions of territoriality in the vertebrates other than man.(1982)Define and explain the role of each of the following in social behavior:a)Territorialityb)Dominance hierarchiesc)Courtship behavior (Instinct)(1983)Describe and given an example of each of the following. Include in your discussion the selective advantage of each.a)Pheromonesb)Mimicryc)Stereotyped behavior (instinct)(1985)Describe releasers, imprinting, and communication, as each of these terms relates to animalbehavior. You may include in your answer a discussion of the classical studies of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl von Frisch. A.P. LABORATORY QUESTIONS(1988)After an enzyme is mixed with its substrate, the amount of product formed is determined at 10 second intervals for 1 minute. Data from this experiment are shown below.Time (sec)0102030405060Product formed (mg)0.000.250.500.700.800.850.85Draw a graph of these data and answer the following questions.a.What is the initial rate of this enzymatic reaction?b.What is the rate after 50 seconds? Why is it different from the initial rate?c.What would be the effect on product formation if the enzyme were heated to a temperature of 100° C for 10 minutes before repeating the experiment. Why?d.How might altering the substrate concentration affect the rate of the reaction? Why?e.How might altering the pH affect the rate of the reaction? Why?(1990)The results below are measurements of cumulative oxygen consumption by germinating and dry seeds. Gas volume measurements were corrected for changes in temperature and pressure.Cumulative Oxygen Consumed (mL)Time (minutes)010 20 30 4022°C Germinating Seeds0.08.816.023.732.0Dry Seeds0.00.2 0.1 0.0 0.110°C Germinating Seeds0.02.96.2 9.412.5Dry Seeds0.00.00.2 0.1 0.2a.Using graph paper, plot the results for the germinating seeds at 22°C and at 10°C.b.Calculate the rate of oxygen consumption for the germinating seeds at 22°C, using the time interval between 10 and 20 minutes.c.Account for the differences in oxygen consumpton observed between:(1) germinating seeds at 22°C and at 10°C;(2) germinating seeds and dry seedsd.Describe the essential feature of an experimental apparatus that could be used to measure oxygen consumption by a small organism. Explain why each of these features is necessary.(1991)A group of students designed an experiment to measure transpiration rates in a particular species of herbaceous plant. Plants were divided into four groups and were exposed to the following conditions.Group I– Room conditions (light, low humidity, 20°C, and little air movement)Group II– Room conditions with increased humidityGroup III– Room conditions with increased air movement (fan)Group IV – Room conditions with additional lightThe cumulative water loss due to transpiration of water from each plant was measure at 10-minute intervals for 30 minutes. Water loss was expressed as milliliters of water per square centimeter of leaf surface area. The data for all plants in Group I (room conditions) were averaged. The average cumulative water loss by the plants in Group I is presented in the table below.Average Cumulative Water Loss by the Plants in Group 1Time (minutes)Average cumulative Water Loss(milliliters H2O/centimeter2) 103.5 x 10-4 207.7 x 10-4 3010.6 x 10-4a.Construct and label a graph using the data for Group I. Using the same set of axes, draw and label three additional lines representing the results that your would predict for Groups II, III, and IV.b.Explain how biological and physical processes are responsible for the differences between each of your predictions and the data for Group I.c.Explain how the concept of water potential is used to account for the movement of water from the plant stem to the atmosphere during transpiration.(1992) A laboratory assistant prepared solutions of 0.8 M, 0.6 M, 0.4 M, and 0.2 M sucrose, but forgot to label them. After realizing the error, the assistant randomly labeled the flasks containing these four unknown solutions as flask A, flask B, flask C, and flask D.Design an experiment, based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, that the assistant could use to determine which of the flasks contains each of the four unknown solutions. Include in your answer (a) a description of how you would set up and perform the experiment; (b) the results you would expect from your experiment; and (c) an explanation of those results based on the principles involved. (Be sure to clearly state the principles addressed in your discussion.)(1994)Enzymes are biological catalysts.a.Relate the chemical structure of an enzyme to its specificity and catalytic activity.b.Design a quantitative experiment to investigate the influence of pH or temperature on the activity of an enzyme.c.Describe what information concerning the structure of an enzyme could be inferred from your experiment.(1995) The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 2400 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y).XXY300700900500a. Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation of DNA fragments.b. Describe the results you would expect from the electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestions occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion.I. DNA digested with only enzyme XII. DNA digested with only enzyme YIII. DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combinedIV. Undigested DNAc. Explain both of the following.(1) The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes(2) the different results you would expect if a mutation occurred at the recognition site for enzyme Y(1996) Numerous environmental variables influence plant growth. Three students each planted a seedling of the same genetic variety in the same type of container with equal amounts of soil from the same source. Their goal was to maximize their seedling’s growth by manipulating environmental conditions. Their data are shown below.Plant Seedling Mass (grams)Day 1Day 30Student A 424Student B 535Student C 464a. Identify three different environmental variables that could acount for differences in the mass of the seedlings at day 30. Then choose one of these variables and design an experiment to test the hypothesis that your variable affects growth of these seedlings.b. Discuss the results you would expect if your hypothesis is correct. Then provide a physiological explanation for the effect of your variable on plant growth.(1997) A scientist working with Bursatella leachii, a sea slug that lives in an intertidal habitat in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, gathered the following information about the distribution of the sea slugs within a ten-meter square plot over a 10-day period.DISTRIBUTION OF SLUGS WITHIN A TEN-METER SQUARE PLOTTime of DayAverage Distance Between Individuals (cm)Midnight8.04 A.M.8.98 A.M.44.8Noon174.04 P.M.350.58 P.M.60.5Midnight8.0a. For the data above, provide information on each of the following.Summarize the pattern.Identify THREE physiological or environmental variables that could cause the slugs to vary their distance from each other.Explain how each variable could bring about the observed pattern of distribution.b. Choose ONE of the variables that you identified and design a controlled experiment to test your hypothetical explanation. Describe results that would support or refute your hypothesis.(1998) By using the techniques of genetic engineering, scientists are able to modify genetic material so that a particular gene of interest from one cell can be incorporated into a different cell.Describe a procedure by which this can be done.Explain the purpose of each step of your procedureDescribe how you could determine whether the gene was successfully incorporatedDescribe an example of how gene transfer and incorporation have been used in a biomedical or commercial application.(2008) Measurements of dissolved oxygen (DO) are used to determine primary productivity in bodies of water.? Explain the relationship of dissolved oxygen to primary productivity.? How would the predicted levels of DO differ in each of the following pairs of water samples? Provide support for your prediction. Be sure to include a discussion of net productivity and gross productivity ii your answer.I. Pond water at 25°C vs. pond water at 15°CII. Pond water placed in the dark for 24 hours vs. pond water placed in light for 24 hours(1999) The rate of photosynthesis may vary with changes that occur in environmentental temperature, wavelength of light, and light intensity. Using a photosynthetic organism of your choice, choose only ONE of the three variables (temperature, wavelength of light, or light intensity) and for this variable° design a scientific experiment to determine the effect of the variable on the rate of photosynthesis for the organism;° explain how you would measure the rate of photosynthesis in your experiment;° describe the results you would expect. Explain why you would expect these results.(2000) The effects of pH and temperature were studied for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The following results were obtained.a. How do (1) temperature and (2) pH affect the activity of this enzyme? In your answer, include a discussion of the relationship between the structure and the function of this enzyme, as well as a discussion of how structure and function of enzymes are affected by temperature and pH.b. Describe a controlled experiment that could have produced the data shown for either temperature or pH. Be sure to state the hypothesis that was tested here.(2001) A biologist measured dissolved oxygen in the top 30 centimeters of a moderately eutrophic (mesotrophic) lake in the temperate zone. The day was bright and sunny, and the wind was calm. The results of the observations are presented below.HourO26:00 A.M.0.9mg/L8:00 A.M.1.7 mg/L10:00 A.M.3.1 mg/L12:00 noon4.9 mg/L2:00 P.M.6.8 mg/L4:00 P.M.8.1 mg/L6:00 P.M.7.9 mg/L8:00 P.M.6.2 mg/L10:00 P.M.4.0 mg/L12:00 midnight2.4 mg/La. Using the graph paper provided, plot the results that were obtained. Then, using the same set of axes, draw and label an additional line/curve representing the results that you would predict had the day been heavily overcast.b. Explain the biological processes that are operating the lake to produce the observed data. Explain also how these processes would account for your prediction of results for a heavily overcast day.c. Describe how the introduction of high levels of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates into the lake would affect subsequent observations. Explain your prediction(2002) The activities of organisms change at regular time intervals. These changes are called biological rhythms. The graph depicts the activity cycle over a 48-hour period for a fictional group of mammals called pointy-eared bombats, found on an isolated island in the temperate zone.a) Describe the cycle of activity for the bombats. Discuss how three of the following factors might affect the physiology and/or behavior of the bombats to results in this pattern of activity.TemperatureFood availabilityPresence of predatorsSocial behavior(b) Propose a hypothesis regarding the effect of light on the cycle of activity in bombats. Describe a controlled experiment that could be performed to test this hypothesis, and the results you would expect.(2002) The following experiment was designed to test whether different concentration gradients affect the rate of diffusion. In this experiment, four solutions (0% NaCl, 1% NaCl, 5%NaCl, and 10%NaCl) were tested under identical conditions. Fifteen milliliters (mL) of 0% NaCl were put into a bag formed of dialysis tubing that is permeable to Na+, Cl-and water. The same was done for each NaCl solution. Each bag was submerged in a separate beaker containing 300 mL of distilled water. The concentration of NaCl in mg/L in the water outside each bag was measured at 40 second intervals. The results from the 5% bag are shown in the table below.CONCENTRATION IN mg/L OF NaCl OUTSIDE THE 5% NaCl BAG Time (seconds) NaCl (mg/L)00401300220120320160400(a) On the axes provided, graph the data for the 5% NaCl solution(b) Using the same set of axes, draw and label three additional lines representing the results that you would predict for the 0% NaCl, 1% NaCl, and 10% NaCl solutions. Explain your predictions.(c) Farmlands located near coastal regions are being threatened by encroaching seawater seeping into the soil. In terms of water movement into or out of plant cells, explain why seawater could decrease crop production. Include a discussion of water potential in your answer.(2003). In fruit flies, the phenotype for eye color is determined by a certain locus. E indicates the dominant allele and e indicates the recessive allele. The cross between a male wild-type fruit fly and a female white-eyed fruit fly produced the following offspring.Wild-typeWild-typeWhite-eyedWhite-eyedBrown-eyed MaleFemale Male Female FemaleF1 0 45 55 0 1The wild-type and white-eyed individuals from the F1 generation were then crossed to produce the following offspring.F2 23 31 22 24 0(a) Determine the genotypes of the original parents (P generation) and explain your reasoning. You may use Punnett squares to enhance your description, but the results from the Punnett squares must be discussed in your answer.(b) Use a Chi-squared test on the F2 generation data to analyze your prediction of the parental genotypes. Show all your work and explain the importance of your final answer.(c) The brown-eyed female in the F1 generation resulted from a mutational change. Explain what a mutation is, and discuss two types of mutations that might have produced the brown-eyed female in the F1 generation.Critical Values of the Chi-Squared DistributionProbability (p) Degrees of Freedom (df) 1 2 3 4 50.053.845.997.829.4911.1The formula for Chi-squared is: X2 = S[(o-e)2/e] where o = observed number of individuals e = expected number of individuals S= the sum of the values (in this case, the differences, squared, divided by the number expected(2004)A controlled experiment was conducted to analyze the effects of darkness and boiling on the photosynthetic rate of incubated chloroplast suspensions. The dye reduction technique was used. Each chloroplast suspension was mixed with DPIP, an electron acceptor that changes from blue to clear when it is reduced. Each sample was placed individually in a spectrophotometer and the percent transmittance was recorded. The three samples used were prepared s follows:Sample 1 - chloroplast suspension + DPIPSample 2 - chloroplast suspension surrounded by foil wrap to provide a dark environment + DPIPSample 3 - chloroplast suspension that has been boiled + DPIPPercent Transmittance in Three SamplesTime (min)Light, Unboiled% TransmittanceSample 1Dark, Unboiled% TransmittanceSample 2Light, Boiled% TransmittanceSample 3028.829.228.8548.730.129.21057.831.229.41562.532.428.72066.731.828.5(a)On the axes provided, construct and label a graph showing the results for the three samples.(b)Identify and explain the control or controls for this experiment.(c)The differences in the curves of the graphed data indicate that there were differences in the number of electrons produced in the three samples during the experiment. Discuss how electrons are generated in photosynthesis and why the three samples gave different transmittance results.(2005)Water potential in potato cells was determined in the following manner. The initial masses of six groups of potato cores were measured. The potato cores were placed in sucrose solutions of various molarities. The masses of the cores were measured again after 24 hours. Percent changes in mass were calculated. The results are shown below.Molarity of Sucrose in BeakerPercent Change in Mass0.0M18.00.25.00.4-8.00.6-16.00.8-23.51.0-24.0 (a)Graph these data on the axes provided. From your graph, find the apparent molar concentration (osmolarity) of the potato core cells.(b)What are the components of water potential, and why is water potential important for the movement of water in plants?(c)Predict what would happen to typical animal cells placed in 0.0 M and 1.0 M sucrose solutions, and explain your prediction.(2005)Yeast cells are placed in an apparatus with a solution of sugar (a major nutrient for yeast metabolism). The apparatus detects bubbles of gas released by the yeast cells. The rate of respiration varies with the surrounding temperatures as indicated by the data below.Temperature (°C)010203040506070Number of bubbles of gas produced per minute037127410(a)Graph the results on the axes provided. Determine the optimum temperature for respiration in yeast.(b)Respiration is a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Using your knowledge of enzymes and the data above analyze and explain the results of this experiment.(c)Design an experiment to test the effect of varying the pH of the sugar solution on the rate of respiration. Include a prediction of the expected results. (2006) While studying transpiration, a scientist used a dendrometer to record the small daily changes in the diameter of a tree trunk at two different heights (2 meters and 3 meters) above the ground at the same time. The diameter decreased in the daytime. This decrease happened first at the higher location. Discuss the following in relation to water movement in plants.a. Identify how TWO different environmental factors could be involved in the daily fluctuations shown above.b. Discuss the mechanisms involved in the uptake and transport of water by vascular plants.c. Discuss the role of water in the normal functioning of plants.Results of Gel Electrophoresis(2007) A bacterial plasmid is 100 kb in length. The plasmid DNA was digested to completion with two restriction enzymes in three separate treatments: EcoRI, HaeIII, and EcoRI + HaeIII (double digest). The fragments were then separated with electrophoresis, as showna. Using the circle provided, construct a labeled diagram of the restriction map of the plasmid. Explain how you developed your map.b. Describe how: recombinant DNA technology could be used to insert a gene of interest into a bacteriumrecombinant bacteria could be identifiedexpression of the gene of interest could be ensuredc. Discuss how a specific genetically modified organism might provide a benefit for humans and at the same time pose a threat to a population or ecosystem.(2010) On a trip to a dense forest, a biologist noticed that millipedes (small invertebrates) were plentiful under logs butwere rarely seen in any other location.(a) Propose THREE environmental variables (two abiotic and one biotic) that could explain why millipedes are found more frequently under logs.(b) For ONE of the abiotic environmental variables you chose above, design a controlled experiment to test a hypothesis that this factor affects the distribution of millipedes on the forest floor. Describe data that would support your hypothesis.(c) Suppose that you were examining the distribution of a plant, instead of the millipede. Describe modifications in the experiment that you designed in (b) that would be required to determine whether the abiotic factor you chose affects the distribution of the plant.(2009) Describe how a plasmid can be genetically modified to include a piece of foreign DNA that alters the phenotypeof bacterial cells transformed with the modified plasmid. Describe a procedure to determine which bacterialcells have been successfully transformed.(2010) A new species of fly was discovered on an island in the South Pacific. Several different crosses were performed,each using 100 females and 100 males. The phenotypes of the parents and the resulting offspring were recorded.Cross I: True-breeding bronze-eyed males were crossed with true-breeding red-eyed females. All the F1offspring had bronze eyes. F1 flies were crossed, and the data for the resulting F2 flies are given in the tablebelow.F2 Phenotype Male FemaleBronze eyes 3,720 3,800Red eyes 1,260 1,320Cross II: True-breeding normal-winged males were crossed with true-breeding stunted-winged females. All theF1 offspring had stunted wings. F1 flies were crossed, and the data for the resulting F2 flies are given in the tablebelow.F2 Phenotype Male FemaleNormal wings 1,160 1,320Stunted wings 3,600 3,820Cross III: True-breeding bronze-eyed, stunted-winged males were crossed with true-breeding red-eyed, normal-wingedfemales. All the F1 offspring had bronze eyes and stunted wings. The F1 flies were crossed with true-breedingred-eyed, normal-winged flies, and the results are shown in the table below.Phenotype Male FemaleBronze eyes, stunted wings 2,360 2,220Bronze eyes, normal wings 220 300Red eyes, stunted wings 260 220Red eyes, normal wings 2,240 2,180(a) What conclusions can be drawn from cross I and cross II? Explain how the data support your conclusionsfor each cross.(b) What conclusions can be drawn from the data from cross III? Explain how the data support yourconclusions.(c) Identify and discuss TWO different factors that would affect whether the island’s fly population is inHardy-Weinberg equilibrium for the traits above.(2010) An experiment was conducted to measure the reaction rate of the human salivary enzyme ?-amylase. Ten mL of concentrated starch solution and 1.0 mL of ?-amylase solution were placed in a test tube. The test tube wasinverted several times to mix the solution and then incubated at 25°C. The amount of product (maltose) presentwas measured every 10 minutes for an hour. The results are given in the table below.Time (minutes) Maltose Concentration (?M)0 010 5.120 8.630 10.440 11.150 11.260 11.5(a) Graph the data on the axes provided and calculate the rate of the reaction for the time period0 to 30 minutes.(b) Explain why a change in the reaction rate was observed after 30 minutes.(c) Draw and label another line on the graph to predict the results if the concentration of ?-amylase wasdoubled. Explain your predicted results.(d) Identify TWO environmental factors that can change the rate of an enzyme-mediated reaction. Discuss howeach of those two factors would affect the reaction rate of an enzyme. (2008) Consumers in aquatic ecosystems depend on producers for nutrition.(a) Explain the difference between gross and net primary productivity.(b) Describe a method to determine net and gross primary productivity in a freshwater pond over a 24-hour period.In an experiment, net primary productivity was measured, in the early spring, for water samples taken from different depths of a freshwater pond in a temperate deciduous PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY IN A FRESHWATERPOND ECOSYSTEM DURING SPRING (c) Explain the data presented by the graph, including a description of the relative rates of metabolic processes occurring at different depths of the pond.(d) Describe how the relationship between net primary productivity and depth would be expected to differ if new data were collected in mid-summer from the same pond. Explain your prediction.(2010) Biological molecules can be separated by using chromatographic techniques. The diagram below shows theseparation of several spinach leaf pigments by paper chromatography. Using the diagram below(a) Explain how paper chromatography can be used to separate pigments based on their chemical and physical properties.(b) Discuss the role of pigments both in capturing light energy and in converting it to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.(c) Use the ruler shown above to determine the Rf value of xanthophyll. Show your calculations.(2009) An experiment on a species of small freshwater fish recorded their behavioral responses to differenttemperatures. Ten fish were each tested once, one at a time.To begin the experiment, a fish was removed from a stock tank (maintained at 22∞C) and placed in thetemperature-gradient tank drawn below. After the fish had spent 30 minutes in the temperature-gradient tank, thesection where the fish was located was recorded. Additional observations were recorded every 5 minutes, for atotal of 7 observations per fish. A summary of the combined data for all 10 fish appears below.(a) On the axes provided, construct the appropriate type of labeled graph showing the relationship between water temperature and fish distribution. Summarize the outcome of the experiment.(b) Identify TWO variables that were not specifically controlled in the experimental design, and describe how these variables might have affected the outcome of the experiment.(c) Discuss TWO ways that water temperature could affect the physiology of the fish in this experiment. Section Fish/SectionA 9B 11C 34D 12E 4BROAD, CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS THAT RELATE TO A THEME(1997) The survival of organisms depends on regulatory mechanisms at various levels. Choose THREE from the following examples. Explain how each is regulated.The expression of a geneThe activity of an enzymeThe cell cycle The internal water balance of a plantThe density of a population(1999) Communication occurs among the cells in a multicellular organism. Choose THREE of the following examples of cell-to-cell communication, and for each example, describe the communication that occurs and the types of responses that result from this communication.° Communication between two plant cells° Communication between two immune-system cells° Communication either between a neuron and another neuron, or between a neuron and a muscle cell° Communication between a specific endocrine-gland cell and its target cell(2000) To survive, organisms must be capable of avoiding, and/or defending against, various types of environmental threats. Respond to each of the following.a. Describe how adaptive coloration, mimicry, or behavior function as animal defenses against predation. Include two examples in your answer.b. Describe how bacterial or plants protect themselves against environmental threats. Include two examples in your answer.c. Compare the human primary immune response with the secondary immune response to the same antigen.(2003) Regulatory (control) mechanisms in organisms are necessary for survival. Choose THREE of the following examples and explain how each is regulated.(i) Flowering in plants(ii) Water balance in plants(iii) Water balance in terrestrial vertebrates(iv) Body temperature in terrestrial vertebrates(2003) Death is a natural and necessary part of life cycles at all levels of organization.(a) Discuss TWO examples of how cell death affects the development and functioning of a multicellular organism.(b) Discuss ONE example of how substances are degraded and reused in cells.(c) Discuss the evolutionary significance of death (2006) The relationship of structure to function is one of the major themes in biology. For three of the following structure/function pairs, describe the structure and then explain how the function is related to the structure.a. Enzyme structure/catalysisb. mRNA structure/protein synthesisc. Cell membrane structure/signal transductiond. Membrane protein structure/active transport or facilitated diffusion(2010) Homeostatic maintenance of optimal blood glucose levels has been intensively studied in vertebrate organisms.(a) Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose levels. Identify TWO pancreatic hormones and describe the effect of each hormone on blood glucose levels.(b) For ONE of the hormones you identified in (a), identify ONE target cell and discuss the mechanism by which the hormone can alter activity in that target cell. Include in your discussion a description of reception, cellular transduction, and response.(c) Compare the cell-signaling mechanisms of steroid hormones and protein hormones.(2008) The physical structure of a protein often reflects and affects its function.(a) Describe THREE types of chemical bonds/interactions found in proteins. For each type, describe its role in determining protein structure.(b) Discuss how the structure of a protein affects the function of TWO of the following.?Muscle contraction?Regulation of enzyme activity?Cell signaling(c) Abnormal hemoglobin is the identifying characteristic of sickle cell anemia. Explain the genetic basis of the abnormal hemoglobin. Explain why the sickle cell allele is selected for in certain areas of the world.(2008) Many biological structures are composed of smaller units assembled into more complex structures having functions based on their structural organization.For THREE of the following complex structures, describe the smaller units, their assembly into the larger structures, and one major function of these larger, organized structures.(a)A eukaryotic chromosome(b)A mature angiosperm root(c)A colony of bees(d)An inner membrane of a mitochondrion(e)An enzyme (2008) Regulation is an important aspect of all biological processes.For FOUR of the following processes, describe the specific role of the regulator and discuss how the process will be altered if the regulation is disrupted.ProcessRegulatorCell cycleCyclinMetabolic rateThyroxineOvarian cycleFollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Prey population dynamicsPredatorsEcological successionFire1. Biological molecules can be separated by using chromatographic techniques. The diagram above shows theseparation of several spinach leaf pigments by paper chromatography. Using the diagram above(a) Explain how paper chromatography can be used to separate pigments based on their chemical and physical properties.(b) Discuss the role of pigments both in capturing light energy and in converting it to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.(c) Use the ruler shown above to determine the Rf value of xanthophyll. Show your calculations.2. Certain human genetic conditions, such as sickle cell anemia, result from single base-pair mutations in DNA.(a) Explain how a single base-pair mutant in DNA can alter the structure and, in some cases, the function of a protein.(b) Explain, using a specific example, the potential consequences of the production of a mutant protein to the structure and function of the cells of an organism.(c) Describe how the frequency of an allele coding for a mutant protein may increase in a population over time.4. On a trip to a dense forest, a biologist noticed that millipedes (small invertebrates) were plentiful under logs butwere rarely seen in any other location.(a) Propose THREE environmental variables (two abiotic and one biotic) that could explain why millipedes are found more frequently under logs.(b) For ONE of the abiotic environmental variables you chose above, design a controlled experiment to test a hypothesis that this factor affects the distribution of millipedes on the forest floor. Describe data that would support your hypothesis.(c) Suppose that you were examining the distribution of a plant, instead of the millipede. Describe modifications in the experiment that you designed in (b) that would(2009)Many organisms require a continuing source of oxygen for respiration. Discuss important structural andphysiological adaptations for oxygen uptake in THREE of the following:? a paramecium? a tree? a fish? a mammal(2009)Water is essential to all living things.(a) Discuss THREE properties of water.(b) Explain each of the following in terms of the properties of water. You are not limited to the three propertiesdiscussed in part (a):? the role of water as a medium for the metabolic processes of cells? the ability of water to moderate temperature within living organisms and in organisms’ environments? the movement of water from the roots to the leaves of plants ................
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