Life-Job Satisfaction Relationship and the Role of Personality



Life satisfaction homeostasis and the role of personality

Francie Garretto

Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Commerce

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of Bachelor of Arts (Honours) Degree

School of Psychology

December 2000

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Without the following people, I would not have been able to complete this year.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Robert A. Cummins, for his insightful direction and constructive feedback. I would also like to thank Dr. Paul Dudgeon for his statistical advice.

Importantly, I would like to thank my grandmother for her emotional and financial support throughout my studies. I would also like to thank my parents, Julie and Angelo, for their encouragement and support. Also, thank you to my siblings, Joe, Bianca, Rachel, and Jessica for their humour and perspective.

I would like to thank Marg for taking time out of her postgraduate studies to review my thesis. Thanks to the Honours Class of 2000 for their friendship, especially Debra and Kate.

A special thank you to Brad, for his constant encouragement, patience, and understanding.

Last but not least, thank you to all the volunteers who participated in this study.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW

List of Figures i

Abstract 1

1. Life Satisfaction 2

1.1 Dispositional mood and personality determinants of life satisfaction 3

1.2 Life Satisfaction at a predetermined level 6

2. Job Satisfaction 9

2.1 Dispositional mood and personality determinants of job satisfaction 10

3. The Relationship between Life Satisfaction and Job Satisfaction 11

3.1 Gender 12

3.2 Occupation and occupational prestige 13

4. Conclusion 14

5. References 16

CHAPTER TWO: EMPIRICAL REPORT

List of Tables i

List of Figures ii

Abstract 1

1. Introduction 2

1.1 Life satisfaction homeostasis 2

1.2 Personality determinants of life satisfaction and job satisfaction 6

1.2.1 Neuroticism and extraversion 6

1.2.2 Conscientiousness 7

1.3 Present study 8

2. Method 8

2.1 Participants 8

2.2 Instruments 9

2.2.1 Life satisfaction 9

2.2.2 Job satisfaction 9

2.2.3 Personality 10

2.3 Procedure 10

3. Results 11

3.1 Data Screening 11

3.1.1 Accuracy and completeness of the data set 11

3.1.2 Normality of distributions and outliers 12

3.2 Descriptive Statistics 12

3.3 Hypothesis Testing 14

3.3.1 Life satisfaction homeostasis 15

3.3.2 Personality predictors of life satisfaction and job satisfaction 20

4. Discussion 21

4.1 Life satisfaction homeostasis 22

4.1.1 Job satisfaction 23

4.2 Personality predictors of life satisfaction and job satisfaction 25

4.3 Some psychometric insights 26

4.4 Conclusions 27

References 28

Appendices 33

CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW

List of Figures

Figure 1. A homeostatic model of life satisfaction 8

Abstract

Life satisfaction and job satisfaction are multidimensional constructs, similarly influenced by dispositional mood (positive/negative affect) and personality (neuroticism and extraversion). That is, life satisfaction and job satisfaction are both positively related to positive affect and extraversion, and negatively related to negative affect and neuroticism. Thus, people satisfied with their life and job tend to experience more positive affect, be extroverted, experience less negative affect, and be less neurotic than people dissatisfied with their life and job. However, it is equivocal whether other dimensions of personality, such as conscientiousness, also effect life satisfaction and job satisfaction. Additional support for the role of personality is evident as individuals appear to have a predetermined level of life satisfaction that is held under homeostatic control. However, it is unclear whether the components or domains of life satisfaction, such as work, are similarly held under homeostatic control. Recent research indicates a mutual life-job satisfaction relationship, that is, people who have satisfying jobs tend to have satisfying lives, and vice versa. This reciprocal relationship suggests that the homeostatic mechanism employed by individuals to maintain life satisfaction at a set point, may also influence levels of job satisfaction. However, gender, occupation, and occupational prestige appear to influence life satisfaction and job satisfaction in different ways, suggesting that job satisfaction may not be held under homeostatic control.

The Life-Job Satisfaction Relationship and the Influence of Personality

“When work is a pleasure, life is a joy! When work is a duty, life is slavery” (Gorky, 1927, p.108).

Turn of the century Russian writer Maksim Gorky recognised the relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. As a significant and central aspect of many people’s lives, work can contribute to life satisfaction by providing income, a sense of identity, a network of supportive relationships, and meaning to life. Furthermore, recent literature indicates a mutual relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. That is, people who have satisfying jobs will have satisfying lives, and vice versa. Life satisfaction and job satisfaction are also both multifaceted constructs, similarly influenced by dispositional mood (positive/negative affect) and personality (neuroticism/extraversion). However, it is equivocal whether other dimensions of personality, such as conscientiousness, also effect life satisfaction and job satisfaction. It is also apparent that gender, occupation, and occupational prestige influence both life satisfaction and job satisfaction but apparently in different ways. This paper will examine the nature of life satisfaction and job satisfaction, and their degree of interdependence.

1.0 Life Satisfaction

At the most simple form of measurement, Life Satisfaction (LS) can be measured as a single response to a question concerning satisfaction with ‘life as a whole’ (Andrews & Withey, 1976). However, as single items do not specify the aspects of life for which satisfaction is important, it is more informative to measure LS in areas or domains of life (Diener, 1984). According to Campbell, Converse, and Rodgers (1976), LS comprises five domains: health, material well-being, intimacy, productivity, and emotional well-being. In addition to these, Cummins (1991) has suggested the domains of safety and place in the community.

A major debate among researchers is whether LS is influenced by traits or the surrounding environment (Land, 1999; Stones, Hadjistavropoulos, Tuuko & Kozma, 1995; Veenhoven, 1994; 1996). According to the state theory (a bottom-up model), levels of LS fluctuate with variations in the surrounding environment. In contrast, the trait theory (a top-down model) states that despite environmental changes LS remains at a level predetermined by durable traits, such as personality. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that both traits and the environment exert some influence, and recent research is indicating a strong influence from dispositional mood and personality.

1.1 Dispositional mood and personality determinants of life satisfaction

Affect and personality appear to influence Life Satisfaction (LS) in similar ways. Within the literature, affect and personality are treated as discrete constructs, however, emotions and personality traits are so closely linked that is it often difficult to distinguish the items on a mood scale from those on a personality inventory (McCrae & Costa, 1991). Despite this similarity, affect and personality will be discussed as separate constructs.

The model of affect frequently cited in the literature is Watson and Tellegen’s (1985) Positive/Negative Affect. Positive Affect (PA) represents the extent to which a person “avows a zest for life”, whereas, Negative Affect (NA) represents the extent to which a person “reports feeling upset or unpleasantly aroused” (Watson & Tellegen, 1985, p.221). Various studies (Diener, Larsen, Levine & Emmons, 1985; Diener, Smith & Fujita, 1995; Huelsman, Nemanick & Munz, 1998) have shown that PA and NA are not the bipolar opposites (i.e. negatively correlated) that their names suggest but, rather, they are orthogonal dimensions (i.e. uncorrelated or independent). In addition, PA and NA have been shown to individually contribute to LS. Research has consistently observed a positive relationship between PA and LS, whereas, NA has a negative relationship with LS (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Lucus, Diener & Suh, 1996; McCrae & Costa, 1991), indicating that people satisfied with their lives tend to experience more PA and less NA than people dissatisfied with their lives.

More recently, however, compelling evidence has indicated the superiority of a more elaborate, circumplex model of affect with two orthogonal dimensions labelled Pleasantness and Activation (Feldman Barrett & Russell, 1998; Larsen & Diener, 1992; Yik, Russell & Feldman-Barrett, 1999). Pleasantness is represented by pleasant emotions (e.g. relaxed) and unpleasant emotions (e.g. fearful). Activation reflects emotions with high activation (e.g. energetic) and low activation (e.g. fatigue). Given the recency of this model, researchers have not had the opportunity to investigate its relationship with personality and LS. Consequently, this paper will focus on the research concerning PA and NA.

A further interesting feature of the affect literature is its relationship with personality, particularly neuroticism and extraversion, two dimensions in the five-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992). One of the most consistently observed and replicated findings is that PA is positively correlated with extraversion but generally unrelated to neuroticism, and that NA is positively correlated with neuroticism but generally unrelated to extraversion (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Emmons & Diener, 1985; Headey & Wearing, 1989; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991; McCrae & Costa, 1991; Watson & Clark, 1984). Thus, individuals who experience PA tend to be extraverted (e.g. friendly, active, optimistic), whereas, individuals who experience NA tend to be neurotic (e.g. indecisive, insecure, anxious).

Although the remaining dimensions in the five-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992), (conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience), are seldom studied in this context, they also have been shown to exhibit a positive relationship with PA (McCrae & Costa, 1991; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997; Watson & Clark, 1992). Thus, individuals who experience PA tend to be conscientious (e.g. careful, organised, hardworking), agreeable (e.g. helpful, sympathetic, courteous) and open (e.g. original, creative, liberal).

It is therefore clear that affect is related quite substantially to personality, as is also LS. That is, LS is positively correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with neuroticism (Brebner, Donaldson, Kirby & Ward, 1995; Emmons & Diener, 1985; Furnham & Brewin, 1990; Headey & Wearing, 1989; Herringer, 1998; Pavot, Diener & Fujita, 1990), indicating that people dissatisfied with their life tend to be more neurotic and less extraverted than people satisfied with their life. The majority of LS and personality research has focused on neuroticism and extraversion as they are considered to represent enduring dispositions that have a temperamental or direct influence on LS (McCrae & Costa, 1991). Together extraversion and neuroticism have been shown to explain between 35% (Headey & Wearing, 1989; 1992) and 42% (Brebner et al., 1995) of the variance in LS. However, the importance of extraversion to LS may have been overestimated as it has been found that neuroticism has a stronger correlation with LS than extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Hart, 1999; Heaven, 1989; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997). Thus, levels of LS may be more responsive to a neurotic disposition than an extraverted nature.

In contrast, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience, are considered to exert an indirect or instrumental affect on LS (McCrae & Costa, 1991). That is, they may foster certain life situations that promote PA and minimise NA, which then influences overall LS. For example, conscientious, hardworking people are likely to experience situations that are more positive because their efficiency and competence fosters achievement-related successes, which contributes to LS. However, conscientiousness may also have a direct effect on LS as it has been found to have a stronger correlation with LS than extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997), which further indicates the significance of extraversion to LS may have been exaggerated. In addition, despite McCrae and Costa (1991) reporting a stronger correlation between LS and conscientiousness, than LS and extraversion, they concluded that conscientiousness only indirectly influences LS. Thus, levels of LS may be more responsive to both a neurotic and conscientious disposition rather than an extraverted nature. Although all five dimensions of personality seem to have independent influences on LS (McCrae & Costa, 1991), it is unclear whether the strongest determinants are neuroticism and extraversion or neuroticism and conscientiousness.

Most research in this area is limited however, by the use of university students as respondents (e.g. Brebner et al., 1995; Emmons & Diener, 1985; Furnham & Brewin, 1990; Herringer, 1998; Pavot, Diener & Fujita, 1990; Ramanaiah, Detwiler & Byravan, 1997). As will be indicated in the next section, LS is at risk in an aversive environment and students are generally financially poor with tremendous academic pressures, thus their LS is low. Consequently, data derived from students cannot be regarded as being representative of the link between LS and personality within the general population (Cummins, 2000a).

Nevertheless, affect and personality are considered strong predictors of LS. Additional support for the role of personality is evident, as individuals appear to have a predetermined level of LS that is held under homeostatic control.

1.2 Life satisfaction at a predetermined level

Life Satisfaction (LS) data are not normally distributed but negatively skewed: people tend to rate their LS above the mid-point of a scale (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Cummins, 1995; 1998; Headey & Wearing, 1988). This level of uniformity suggests the possibility of a reference point for all LS studies which would overcome the inherent problems of interpreting LS data generated by different LS scales that are non-comparable. To develop an hypothesized “gold standard” for LS, Cummins (1995) combined normative population studies that used different LS scales. Using the population sample means as data, Cummins found LS could be expressed as 75(2.5%SM. Percent of scale maximum (%SM) represents the standardisation of Likert scale data to a range from zero to 100. Thus, people tend to report that they are three-quarters satisfied with their lives, and using two standard deviations to define the boundaries of normal range, such population sample means are predicted to lie between 70% and 80%. Based on individual data, Cummins (2000a) found LS could be expressed as 75(18%SM, and using the standard deviations to define the boundaries of normal range, individuals levels of LS are predicted to lie between 40% and 100%. Therefore, it appears that LS is not free to vary over the potential range of zero to 100%SM but normally operates within a narrow range.

However, the “gold standard” statistic could merely reflect an inadequacy in the LS scales as most people’s LS scores are between 40%SM and 100%SM. Thus, when researchers use a five point Likert scale with a mid-point 50%SM and maximum point 100%SM, the mean point is 75%SM. In addition, when researchers use a seven point Likert scales the two middle points are 67%SM and 83%SM, thus, the mean point is also 75%SM. However, an exceptional degree of concordance has been found between LS measured using a single item on a seven point Likert scale; ratings of imagined worst and best life on a 100 point imaginary scale; and the Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale (ComQol; Cummins, 1997; Mellor, Cummins & Loquet, 1999). Therefore, LS may indeed have an average level of 75%SM within general population samples.

The theories proposed to explain the set levels of LS for an individual person are similar, in that they build on each other. Based on the adaptation level theory (Helson, 1964), Brickman, Coates and Janoff-Bulman (1978) suggested that major life events, such as winning the lottery or becoming a quadriplegic/paraplegic, will only temporarily affect LS because the process of habituation erodes the impact of good/bad fortune. However, sample sizes were small (22 lottery winners and 29 accident survivors) and the time lapsed since winning the lottery or the accident was between one month and one year. Thus, if more time had lapsed people would have had an opportunity to fully consider the extent to which these events have changed their lives.

In addition, the dynamic equilibrium model (Headey & Wearing, 1989) proposed that LS is maintained by stable personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience) that predispose people to experience stable levels of favourable/adverse life events. Therefore, when an event deviates from the normal pattern, personality returns people back to their normal levels of LS.

Similarly, Cummins (2000a; 2000b; 2000c) proposed a homeostatic model outlined in Figure 1. This model suggests that LS is set by an integrated system of personality, positive cognitive biases, and environmental conditions. The purpose of homeostatic control is to keep people feeling positive about themselves and their lives, despite variations in their surrounding environment that could lead to negative states, such as depression, stress and anxiety (Cummins, 2000b). It is suggested that the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion sets LS within a high positive range which is maintained by positive cognitive biases pertaining to the self and the environment (Cummins & Cahill, 2000).

Figure 1. A homeostatic model of life satisfaction

In this model, LS is related to three aspects of the self: a sense of worth (self-esteem), a sense that one can change the environment in accordance with the needs of the self (perceived control), and a sense of hopefulness for the future (optimism) (Cummins & Nistico, 2000). The almost ubiquitous positivity of these cognitions implies they are positive cognitive biases (Taylor & Brown, 1988; 1994). For example, people have a pervasive tendency to rate positive attributes, such as cheerfulness and enthusiasm, as more indicative of themselves than others. In addition, people believe they have control over circumstances that are actually determined by chance, such as gambling. People also estimate that pleasant events are more likely to happen to themselves than to others. Thus, these positively biased cognitions may constitute an adaptive mechanism which maintains LS within a high positive range (Cummins & Nistico, 2000).

Impinging on these positive cognitive biases are environmental factors (Cummins, 2000c; Cummins & Cahill, 2000). Levels of LS may be held above the threshold of 40%SM in a stimulating environment, such as a self-enhancing workplace that contributes to perceived control and suggests a bright future. However, LS may fall below the threshold, under the influence of a persistent, aversive environment, such as an unpleasant workplace, where the sense of self has been diminished, where perceived control has failed and where the future looks bleak.

In summary, LS is a multifaceted construct strongly influenced by dispositional mood and personality. Various theories have been proposed to explain consistent findings in levels of LS, including that LS is held under homeostatic control. To date, no published study has explored whether satisfaction with life domains, such as work, are similarly influenced by this homeostatic mechanism.

2.0 Job Satisfaction

The concept of Job Satisfaction (JS) has been of interest since the inaugural work of Hoppock (1935). It has been proposed that JS is related to various areas of concern for employers, such as employee turnover (Mobley, 1977), productivity, absenteeism, and commitment (Locke, 1976; Mottaz, 1985). The popularity of JS also stems from the belief that it affects mental and physical well-being, and contributes to overall life satisfaction (Locke, 1976; Mottaz, 1985).

Despite a plethora of studies, JS remains a vague construct. At the most basic form of measurement, JS can be considered as a single response to a question concerning satisfaction with ‘job as a whole’. It is also considered as the aggregate of satisfaction across various dispositional and situational factors (Arvey, Bouchard, Segal & Abraham, 1989; Ferrat, 1981; Locke, 1976; Mottaz, 1985). For example, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Davis, England & Lofquist, 1967) is frequently employed to measure intrinsic JS which reflects satisfaction with work content, such as task variety, and extrinsic JS which reflects satisfaction with the work environment, such as pay.

Various factors have been found conducive to JS, including a positive job attitude (Blood, 1969; Pool, 1997; Staw & Ross, 1985), the level of responsibility and freedom (Mottaz, 1985; Slavitt, Stamps, Piedmont & Haase, 1978), supportive co-workers, and opportunities for personal development (Cherniss & Egnatios, 1978). Factors linked with reduced JS include work overload, ambiguous goals and policies (Cherniss & Egnatios, 1978), poor job performance (Petty, McGee & Cavender, 1984), emotional exhaustion (Koeske, Kirk, Koeske & Rauktis, 1994), mental and physical ill-health (Kirkcaldy, Cooper, Shepard & Brown, 1994), lack of a sense of personal accomplishment (Burke, 1998; Burke & Greenglass, 1994) and high work stress and strain (Boey, 1998). Although it is generally accepted that the characteristics of the employee and the workplace environment interact to influence JS, the majority of JS research has concentrated on the dispositional or internal components.

2.1 Dispositional mood and personality determinants of job satisfaction

Affect and personality appear to influence Job Satisfaction (JS) and life satisfaction in similar ways. For example, JS is positively correlated with Positive Affect (PA) and negatively related to Negative Affect (NA) (Agho, Price & Mueller, 1992; Levin & Stokes, 1989; Necowitz & Roznowski, 1994; Watson & Slack, 1993), indicating that people satisfied with their employment tend to experience more PA and less NA than people dissatisfied with their employment. Similarly, JS is positively correlated with extraversion and negatively related to neuroticism (Day & Bedeian, 1995; Fogarty, Machin, Albion, Sutherland, Lalor, & Revitt, 1999; Hart, 1999; Tokar & Mezydlo Subich, 1997), suggesting that people dissatisfied with their job tend to be more neurotic and less extraverted than people satisfied with their job. However, like life satisfaction, the JS literature may have overstated the importance of extraversion as it has been found that neuroticism has a stronger correlation with JS than extraversion (Fogarty et al., 1999; Hart, 1999; Tokar & Mezydlo Subich, 1997). Thus, levels of JS may be more responsive to a neurotic disposition than an extraverted nature.

Conscientiousness is also positively correlated with JS (Day & Bedeian, 1995; Fogarty et al., 1999). Conscientious people tend to exhibit important positive work attitudes, such as being hardworking, achievement-orientated, persistent, and punctual (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Barrick, Mount & Strauss, 1993). Therefore, like life satisfaction, it is unclear whether the strongest personality determinants of JS are neuroticism and extraversion or neuroticism and conscientiousness.

In summary, JS is a multidimensional construct strongly influenced by dispositional mood and personality. As work is a significant and central aspect of many people’s lives, the nature of the relationship between life satisfaction and JS is of both theoretical and practical interest.

3.0 The Relationship between Life Satisfaction and Job Satisfaction

The life-job satisfaction relationship has been portrayed in the literature by three rival hypotheses (Wilensky, 1960), that differ simply in the nature of the correlation. The spillover hypothesis proposes that one domain ‘spills over’ onto the other, such that people who have satisfying jobs will have satisfying lives, and vice versa. That is, it posits a positive correlation between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. Alternatively, the compensation hypothesis predicts that workers with dissatisfying jobs seek more enjoyable and interesting non-work lives. This hypothesis suggests a negative correlation between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. Furthermore, the segmentation hypothesis proposes that there is no relationship between life satisfaction and job satisfaction. A weak or non-significant correlation between life satisfaction and job satisfaction would support this hypothesis.

There is strong empirical support for the spillover hypothesis (Bamundo & Kopelman, 1980; Iris & Barrett, 1972; Judge & Watanabe, 1994; Keon & McDonald, 1982; Orpen, 1978; Rain, Lane & Steiner, 1991; Rousseau, 1978; Tait, Padgett & Baldwin, 1989; Warr, Cook & Wall, 1979). Thus, employees appear to move between the domains of work and non-work, carrying the influence of each sphere of activity into each other. The evidence for this life-job satisfaction relationship is a moderately low, yet consistently positive correlation. However, correlational analysis does not allow inferences of the direction of causality.

Various statistical techniques, such as structural equation modelling (Orpen, 1978; Schmitt & Bedeian, 1982; Schmitt & Mellon, 1980), have been used to explore the direction of the life-job satisfaction relationship. Some researchers have found job satisfaction to be more influenced by life satisfaction than the reverse (Near, Rice & Hunt, 1978; Schmitt & Mellon, 1980), while others report that life satisfaction is more influenced by job satisfaction (Chacko, 1983; Orpen, 1978). However, various studies have revealed a reciprocal relationship in which there is a bidirectional flow between life satisfaction and job satisfaction (Judge & Hulin, 1993; Judge & Locke, 1993; Judge & Watanabe, 1993; Keon & McDonald, 1982; Schmitt & Bedeian, 1982).

This mutual life-job satisfaction relationship suggests that the homeostatic mechanism employed by individuals to maintain life satisfaction at a set point, may also influence levels of satisfaction with domains of life, such as work. To date, no published study has explored whether job satisfaction is held under homeostatic control. I suspect that specific areas of life, such as work, are influenced by various factors that may make homeostasis less likely to operate. For example, gender, occupation, and occupational prestige appear to influence life satisfaction and job satisfaction in different ways, suggesting that job satisfaction may not be held under homeostatic control.

3.1 Gender

One of the most consistently observed and replicated findings is that levels of life satisfaction do not vary by gender (Abrams, 1973; Andrews & Withey, 1976, Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Diener & Diener, 1995). Similarly, levels of job satisfaction tend to be invariant across gender (Cramer, 1994; Ebeling, King & Rodgers, 1979; Kavanagh & Halpern, 1977; Schmitt & Mellon, 1980; Tait et al., 1989). However, some researchers have found men to be more satisfied with their jobs than women (Hulin & Smith, 1964; Lefkowitz, 1994; Sauser & York, 1978). At a simple level, these differences in levels of job satisfaction may be due to factors which covary with gender, such as occupation, occupational prestige, pay, and promotion opportunities. It is possible that women tend to be less satisfied with their jobs because they experience greater conflicts between family and work than do men (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998), they are generally paid less (Australian Bureau of Statistics; ABS, 2000) and they occupy fewer prestigious jobs (ABS, 1999). Levels of job satisfaction also appear to be influenced by occupation and occupational prestige.

3.2 Occupation and Occupational Prestige

Levels of life satisfaction have also been shown to be invariant across occupations and occupational prestige (Near et al., 1978). However, levels of job satisfaction tend to fluctuate with occupation and the status of an occupation (Bamundo & Kopelman, 1980; Mottaz, 1985; Near et al., 1978; Weaver, 1978). Levels of job satisfaction tend to increase from labourers (e.g. factory workers), to clerical-services (e.g. receptionists), to managerial staff (e.g. supervisors), and to professionals (e.g. teachers). These differences in levels of job satisfaction may be due to factors which covary with occupation and occupational prestige, such as gender, pay, and work autonomy (Ebeling, King & Rodgers, 1979; Weaver, 1977). It is possible that lower-level employees tend to be less satisfied with their employment than higher-level employees because they have lower incomes, fewer benefits (ABS, 1999), and less challenging and interesting work (Mottaz, 1985).

However, the majority of these studies measured life satisfaction and job satisfaction by single-items rather than multi-items scales (e.g. Bamundo & Kopelman, 1980; Mottaz, 1985; Near et al., 1978). In addition, these studies are relatively old and recent research has focused on specific occupations with unique job pressures, such as police officers (e.g. Burke, 1998) and nurses (e.g. Boey, 1998), rather than a variety of occupations representative of the aforementioned categories.

In summary, the interdependent life-job satisfaction relationship suggests that the homeostatic mechanism employed by individuals to maintain life satisfaction at a set point may also influence levels of job satisfaction. However, gender, occupation, and occupational prestige appear to influence job satisfaction and life satisfaction in different ways, suggesting that job satisfaction may not be held under homeostatic control.

4.0 Conclusion

Life satisfaction and job satisfaction are multidimensional constructs, similarly influenced by dispositional mood and personality. That is, life satisfaction and job satisfaction are positively related to positive affect and extraversion, and negatively related to negative affect and neuroticism. Thus, people satisfied with their life and job tend to experience more positive affect, be extroverted, experience less negative affect, and be less neurotic than people dissatisfied with their life and job. Despite these similarities, gender, occupation, and occupational prestige appear to influence life satisfaction and job satisfaction in different ways. Various questions arise from this review of the literature, such as:

➢ What is the relationship between extraversion and life satisfaction when the effects of conscientiousness are controlled? The majority of life satisfaction literature may have overestimated the influence of extraversion as both neuroticism and conscientiousness have stronger correlations with life satisfaction than extraversion.

➢ Is job satisfaction held under homeostatic control? The significant life-job satisfaction relationship suggests that the homeostatic mechanism employed by individuals to maintain life satisfaction at a set point, may also influence levels of job satisfaction. However, it is possible that the more specific the area of life, the more variables involved, consequently, homeostasis is less likely to operate.

Answers to these questions may help determine whether neuroticism and extraversion similarly maintain life satisfaction and job satisfaction, and the extent to which they are influenced by gender, occupation, and occupational prestige.

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CHAPTER TWO

EMPIRICAL REPORT

List of Tables

Table 1: Mean (standard deviations in parenthesis) expressed as a percentage of scale

maximum (SM%) and zero-order correlations between satisfaction variables 14

Table 2: Occupation groups mean (standard deviations in parenthesis) life satisfaction and

job satisfaction expressed a percentage of scale maximum (SM%) 16

Table 3: Mean domain percentage scores across occupation groups (standard deviations in

parenthesis) 18

Table 4: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis of personality to life satisfaction 20

Table 5: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis of personality to job satisfaction 21

Abstract

It has recently been proposed that a homeostatic mechanism operates to maintain life satisfaction within a narrow adaptive range and that neuroticism and extraversion are central to this homeostatic system. However, it is unclear whether the strongest personality predictors of life satisfaction are neuroticism, extraversion, or conscientiousness. It is also equivocal whether specific areas of life satisfaction, such as job satisfaction, are similarly held under homeostatic control. This study will investigate the idea of life satisfaction homeostasis and explore personality predictors of life satisfaction and job satisfaction. It is hypothesised that levels of life satisfaction will be within the range of 40% and 100%SM and that levels of job satisfaction will be within a similar range because job satisfaction is influenced by life satisfaction homeostasis. In addition, it is expected that the addition of conscientiousness will improve predictions of both life satisfaction and job satisfaction beyond that of neuroticism and extraversion. Respondents to a 68-item anonymous questionnaire were 212 (101 females) full-time employees who were divided into four occupation groups; professionals, clerical-service, tradespeople, and labourers. Ages ranged from 18 to 67 years. Analysis of life satisfaction and job satisfaction revealed no overall difference in levels between occupation groups. However, evidence is presented to suggest that life satisfaction is maintained through domain compensation, where falling satisfaction in one domain is compensated by rising satisfaction in another. In addition, neuroticism appears to be the strongest personality predictor of both life satisfaction and job satisfaction. Implications for future research are also discussed.

Life Satisfaction Homeostasis and the Role of Personality

Work is a central aspect of many people’s lives. It can contribute to life satisfaction by providing income, sense of identity, a network of supportive relationships, and meaning to life (Myers & Diener, 1995). Furthermore, life satisfaction is mutually related to job satisfaction, that is, people who have satisfying lives will have satisfying jobs, and vice versa (Judge & Watanabe, 1993; Keon & McDonald, 1982; Schmitt & Bedeian, 1982). It has recently been suggested that life satisfaction is held within a narrow adaptive range by operation of a homeostatic mechanism (Cummins, 2000a; 2000b; 2000c). However, it is unclear whether the areas or domains of life satisfaction, such as job satisfaction, are similarly held under homeostatic control. Personality is central to this idea of life satisfaction homeostasis and it has been suggested that the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion sets life satisfaction within a high positive range (Cummins, 2000a; 2000b; 2000c). However, it is unclear whether neuroticism, extraversion, or conscientiousness exerts the strongest influence. The present study will address these issues in relation to both life satisfaction and job satisfaction.

1.1 Life satisfaction homeostasis

For many years, researchers have recognised that life satisfaction tends to remain stable (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Heady & Wearing, 1988; 1989). For example, Headey and Wearing (1989) proposed their dynamic equilibrium model to explain the observation that, following a negative adverse life event that reduced life satisfaction, people tend to return to their original level over time. In 1995, Cummins found that the combination of 16 normative population mean scores in life satisfaction from six western countries were similar. As these studies used different life satisfaction scales, the data were standardised to a statistic called percent of scale maximum (%SM) which converts any Likert scale score into a common metric ranging 0 to 100. Following this conversion, Cummins found that the 16 mean scores combined to yield 75(2.5%SM. Thus, people tend to report that they are three-quarters satisfied with their lives, and the population mean scores can be predicted to lie within the two standard deviations range of 70% to 80%SM. This ‘gold standard’ was subsequently confirmed using life satisfaction studies from countries representing all geographical regions (Cummins, 1998). In addition, using the data from individual people, Cummins (2000a) found life satisfaction could be expressed as 75(18%SM. Thus, any individual’s life satisfaction mean scores can be expected to lie within the two standard deviations range of 40% to 100%SM.

To explain this positive range of life satisfaction, Cummins (2000a; 2000b; 2000c) proposed the homeostatic model outlined in Figure 1. This model suggests that life satisfaction is set by an integrated system of personality, positive cognitive biases, and environmental conditions. It is suggested that the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion, two dimensions in the five-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992), sets life satisfaction within a high positive range which is maintained by positive cognitive biases pertaining to the self and the environment (Cummins & Cahill, 2000).

Figure 1. A homeostatic model of life satisfaction

It has been stated that the purpose of homeostasis is to keep people feeling positive about themselves and their lives, despite variations in their surrounding environment that could lead to negative states, such as depression, stress, and anxiety (Cummins, 2000b). In this model, life satisfaction is related to three aspects of the self: a sense of worth (self-esteem), a sense that one can change the environment in accordance with the needs of the self (perceived control), and a sense of hopefulness for the future (optimism) (Cummins & Nistico, 2000). The almost ubiquitous positivity of these cognitions has led to the implication that they are positive cognitive biases (Taylor & Brown, 1988; 1994). For example, people have a pervasive tendency to rate positive attributes, such as cheerfulness and enthusiasm, as more indicative of themselves than others. In addition, people believe they have control over circumstances that are actually determined by chance, such as gambling. People also estimate that pleasant events are more likely to happen to themselves than to others. Thus, these positively biased cognitions may constitute an adaptive mechanism which maintains life satisfaction within a high positive range (Cummins & Nistico, 2000).

Impinging on these positive cognitive biases are environmental factors (Cummins, 2000c; Cummins & Cahill, 2000). Life satisfaction may be sustained in a stimulating environment, such as a self-enhancing workplace that contributes to perceived control and suggests a bright future. Conversely, a persistent, aversive environment, such as an unpleasant workplace, where the sense of self has been diminished, where perceived control has failed, and where the future looks bleak, may challenge homeostasis. That is, an adverse environment may cause the homeostatic system to fail, such that the mean life satisfaction is driven down below 70%SM (Cummins, 2000a).

However, there should be no change in levels of life satisfaction over time, if the person has the capacity to adapt to the new situation. Based on the adaptation level theory (Helson, 1964), Brickman, Coates, and Janoff-Bulman (1978) suggested that life events, such as winning the lottery or becoming a paraplegic, will only temporarily effect life satisfaction because the process of habituation erodes the impact of good/bad fortune. For example, whilst people may immediately experience a change in satisfaction after changing something in their life, such as leaving a dissatisfied job, they would gradually become used to their new job and then fail to perceive a difference in their current and previous job.

Another process that may assist life satisfaction homeostasis is domain compensation, where falling satisfaction in one domain is compensated by rising satisfaction in another (Best, Cummins, & Lo, 2000). In their pioneering study, Campbell, Converse, and Rodgers (1976) suggested that life satisfaction is based on satisfaction with five distinct areas or domains: health, material well-being, intimacy, productivity, and emotional well-being. In addition to these, Cummins (1991) suggested satisfaction with the domain of safety and place in community. These seven domains underpin the Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale (ComQol; Cummins, 1997) which has been adopted for this study. Thus, life satisfaction is a global evaluation of specific areas or domains of life. It has recently been suggested that the presence of domain compensation may assist life satisfaction homeostasis (Best, Cummins, & Lo, 2000). For example, farmers’ satisfaction with what they had achieved in their life reduced when they left the land, but their overall life satisfaction remained stable because they enhanced their relationships with close family and friends (Best, Cummins, & Lo, 2000). However, research on domain compensation is in its infancy and this is only the second study to explore this mechanism.

There is some empirical support for life satisfaction homeostasis in studies of different occupation groups, such as between professionals, managers, and labourers (Near, Rice, & Hunt, 1978; Pearson, 1998), artists and scientists (Sheldon, 1994), night-shift workers and day-shift workers (Furnham & Hughes, 1999). In these studies, life satisfaction is held within a high positive range and appears resistant to change. As life satisfaction homeostasis is a global phenomenon, job satisfaction may be influenced by this process. Levels of job satisfaction tend to significantly increase from labourers (e.g. factory workers), to clerical-services employees (e.g. receptionists), to professional occupations (e.g. teachers), (Bhalla, Jones, & Flynn, 1991; DeMoreaes, Swan, & Cooper, 1993; Mottaz, 1985; Pearson, 1998). However, group mean job satisfaction scores appear within a similar range as life satisfaction, 50% to 80%SM. Thus, job satisfaction may be influenced by life satisfaction homeostasis.

Both life satisfaction and job satisfaction appear to be influenced by life satisfaction homeostasis, that is, they tend to be held within a high positive range and resistant to change. Personality is central to this idea of life satisfaction homeostasis, as it has been suggested that the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion sets life satisfaction within a high positive range (Cummins, 2000a; 2000b; 2000c). However, it is unclear whether the strongest personality predictors of life satisfaction and job satisfaction are neuroticism, extraversion, or one of the other personality dimensions.

1.2 Personality predictors of life satisfaction and job satisfaction

1.2.1 Neuroticism and extraversion

The majority of research that has simultaneously considered life satisfaction and personality has focused on neuroticism and extraversion, two dimensions in the five-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992). One of the most consistently observed and replicated findings is that life satisfaction is positively correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with neuroticism (e.g. Brebner, Donaldson, Kirby, & Ward, 1995; Emmons & Diener, 1985; Furnham & Brewin, 1990). This association suggests that people who are satisfied with their lives tend to be more extraverted (e.g. outgoing, ambitious, assertive) and less neurotic (e.g. depressed, anxious, stressed) than people dissatisfied with their life. According to McCrae and Costa (1991), neuroticism and extraversion have a direct influence on life satisfaction. This is consistent with Cummins’ (2000a; 2000b; 2000c) suggestion that the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion sets life satisfaction within a high positive range. However, neuroticism has a stronger correlation with life satisfaction than extraversion (e.g. DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Heaven, 1989; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997), suggesting that it is the more pervasive personality dimension in this respect.

In a recent review of personality and vocational behaviour, Tokar, Fischer, and Subich (1997) showed that job satisfaction was also frequently associated with neuroticism and extraversion. Job satisfaction is positively correlated with extraversion and negatively related to neuroticism (e.g. Hart, 1999; Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 1999; Tokar & Subich, 1997), suggesting that people who are satisfied with their job tend to be more extraverted and less neurotic than people dissatisfied with their job. Thus, like life satisfaction, the interaction between neuroticism and extraversion may also set job satisfaction within a high positive range. However, similar to life satisfaction, research indicates that neuroticism has a stronger correlation with job satisfaction than extraversion (e.g. Fogarty, Machin, Albion, Sutherland, Lalor, & Revitt, 1999; Tanoff, 1999; Tokar & Subich, 1997).

Thus, life satisfaction and job satisfaction appear to be strongly influenced by neuroticism. However, it is unclear whether one of the other personality dimensions, such as conscientiousness, is also a strong personality predictor of life satisfaction and job satisfaction.

1.2.2 Conscientiousness

Of the five dimensions of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992), neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness have been shown to be the most important in predicting life satisfaction (Ramanaiah, Detwiler & Byravan, 1997). However, the relationship between satisfaction and conscientiousness is unclear. According to McCrae and Costa (1991), conscientiousness has an indirect or instrumental effect on life satisfaction. That is, conscientious, hardworking people are likely to experience situations that are more positive because their efficiency and competence which fosters achievement-related successes, contributing to life satisfaction. However, since conscientiousness has been found to have a stronger correlation with life satisfaction than extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; McCrae & Costa, 1991; Schmutte & Ryff, 1997), it is possible that conscientiousness will be an important predictor of life satisfaction.

Conscientiousness may also be an important predictor of job satisfaction. Conscientious people tend to exhibit important positive work attitudes, such as being hardworking, achievement-orientated, persistent, and punctual (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Barrick, Mount & Strauss, 1993). Further, research has found conscientiousness to be positively correlated with job satisfaction (Day & Bedeian, 1995; Fogarty et al., 1999; Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 1999). Of the five dimensions of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992), conscientiousness has been shown to be the only significant predictor of job satisfaction (Judge et al., 1999). However, conscientiousness has also been shown not to improve predictions of job satisfaction over and above neuroticism and extraversion (Miller, Griffin, & Hart, 1999). Thus, neuroticism and conscientiousness, rather than neuroticism and extraversion, may be the primary personality dimensions in life satisfaction homeostasis.

1.3 Present study

This study will compare levels of life satisfaction and job satisfaction across four occupation groups: professionals, clerical-services employees, tradespeople, and labourers. It is hypothesised that levels of life satisfaction will be within the range of 40% to 100%SM and that levels of job satisfaction will be within a similar range because job satisfaction is influenced by life satisfaction homeostasis. In addition, it is expected that the addition of conscientiousness will improve predictions of life satisfaction and job satisfaction beyond that of neuroticism and extraversion.

2. Method

2.1 Participants

The sample consisted of 101 (47.6%) full-time working females and 111 (52.4%) full-time working males recruited from numerous companies in a variety of industries. Ages ranged from 18 to 67 years (M=31.40; SD=11.36). Respondents were classified into four occupation categories in accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ classification of occupations (ABS, 1996); Professionals, including accountants and computer consultants (N = 91; 42.9%); Clerical-Services, including receptionists and sales assistants (N = 66; 31.1%); Tradespeople, including mechanics and bakers (N = 32; 15.1%); and Labourers, including factory hands (N = 23; 10.8%). Out of the 500 questionnaires distributed, 212 were returned, a response rate of 42.4%.

2.2 Instruments

Life satisfaction data are typically negatively skewed which indicates that many people respond to only a restricted portion of a five or seven point Likert scale (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Cummins, 1995; 1998; Headey & Wearing, 1988). Consequently, in the present study the number of choice points were expanded to exploit smaller deviations. Both life satisfaction and job satisfaction were measured using an 11-point Likert scale, (0 = Completely Dissatisfied; 5 = Mixed: 10 = Completely Satisfied), as increasing response options has been shown to increase scale sensitivity rather than detract from scale reliability (Cummins, 1988; Cummins, 2000a).

The manuals for the life satisfaction and job satisfaction scales provide a vast amount of information about the psychometric properties of these scales. However, there is no indication of the amount of variance in single item questions concerning satisfaction with life/job-as-a-whole that can be accounted for by the multi-item scales. Thus, in the current study life satisfaction and job satisfaction were measured using a single question and a multi-item scale. It is reasonable to expect that a multi-item scale would explain about 70% of variance in a single question about the construct (Lo, 2000).

2.2.1 Life satisfaction

Life satisfaction was measured in two ways. Firstly, respondents were asked a single question “How satisfied are you with your life-as-a-whole?” (Andrews & Withey, 1976). The validity and reliability of single item scales suggests they are adequate if a very brief measure of life satisfaction is required (Diener, 1984). Secondly, respondents were asked to indicate their satisfaction with the seven domains in the Comprehensive Quality of Life Scale (ComQol; Cummins, 1997a). Items are written in widely applicable terms (See Appendix A). ComQol is a quick and simple scale to complete and yields a great deal of information reflecting the complexity of life satisfaction construct. The ComQol manual reports psychometric properties based on a random adult population (n = 794, 346 males), aged 51(15.5 years. Cronbach’s alpha for each of the domains ranged from .47 to .67. Content validity of the ComQol has been established (Cummins, 1996).

2.2.2 Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction was measured in two ways. Firstly, respondents were asked a single question “How satisfied are you with your job-as-a-whole?” Secondly, respondents were asked to indicate their satisfaction with 18 items comprising the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Davis, England & Lofquist, 1967). The MSQ manual indicates that factor analysis procedures produced two domains of satisfaction - intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. Intrinsic job satisfaction is measured by 12 items, such as satisfaction with the utilization of abilities and task variety. Extrinsic job satisfaction is measured by six items, such as satisfaction with company policies and promotion opportunities. The MSQ manual reports psychometric properties from a variety of occupational areas. Cronbach’s alpha for the two scales were .86 and .80, respectively.

2.2.3 Personality

Neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness were measured using Form S of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992). Respondents were asked to indicate how strongly they agreed or disagreed with each of 36 statements, using a five point Likert scale. Each personality dimension was measured using 12 statements comprising six facets. The facets of neuroticism were anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-conscientiousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability. The facets of extraversion were warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, and positive emotions. The facets of conscientiousness were competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation. NEO PR-R manual reports detailed psychometric properties based on a random adult population. Cronbach’s alpha for neuroticism, extraversion, and, conscientiousness were .82, .79, and .78, respectively.

2.3 Procedure

Following approval from the Deakin University Ethics Committee (see Appendix B), various Melbourne firms were contacted and invited to participate in this research project. The plain language statement provided sufficient information to allow respondents to decide whether they wanted to participate (see Appendix C). A 68 item questionnaire was constructed using the scales described above and demographic information regarding age, gender and occupation was also acquired (see Appendix A). The questionnaire took 15 to 20 minutes for its completion. Questionnaires were delivered to firms that agreed to distribute them among their full-time employees. To ensure anonymity, employees were asked not to put their name or the name of their employer on the questionnaire. By completing the questionnaire and returning it in the reply paid envelope provided, respondents were consenting to take part in this research. Employees were asked to complete the questionnaire after work hours to avoid disturbances to work productivity.

3. Results

3.1 Data screening

Prior to hypothesis testing, various issues were examined to determine the appropriateness of the data set for statistical analyses.

3.1.1 Accuracy and completeness of the data set

A review of the descriptive statistics revealed variable means and standard deviations which were considered plausible and showed minimum and maximum values which were within scale ranges. Missing values (n=35) were scattered randomly throughout the data. Each missing value was replaced with the overall sample mean for that item. However, this conservative method does reduce variance since the mean is closer to itself than to the missing value it replaces (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Twelve items on the NEO PI-R were recoded because they were worded negatively. The data set was considered to consist of valid responses as no respondents agreed with every personality statement or were completely satisfied with all aspects of their life and job.

3.1.2 Normality of distributions and outliers

All variables involved in hypothesis testing were checked for normality, except the life satisfaction variables (e.g. life-as-a-whole, ComQol totals, and domain scores), which are typically negatively skewed, irrespective of the scale used or the characteristics of the respondents (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, Converse & Rodgers, 1976; Cummins, 1995; 1998). Univariate outliers (n = 1) were recoded to (3.29 standard deviations (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Inspection of the data for multivariate outliers involved the regression of a variable selected arbitrarily, such as age, on the variables involved in hypothesis testing (e.g. personality). Multivariate outliers (n = 1) were deleted (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).

3.2 Descriptive statistics

The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations for life satisfaction and job satisfaction variables are presented in Table 1. The single item and multi-item measures of life satisfaction and job satisfaction were highly correlated, suggesting that they are measuring similar aspects of life satisfaction and job satisfaction. To investigate the amount of variance in single item questions concerning satisfaction with life/job-as-a-whole accounted for by the multi-item scales, two simple multiple regression analyses were performed. The cases-to-independent variables ratio exceeded the requirement 104 plus the number of independent variables, (1 independent variable and 211 cases) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). The scatterplots between residuals and predicted values were consistent with the assumptions of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity of residuals. In addition, there was no evidence of multicollinearity or singularity.

In the first simple multiple regression, the seven ComQol domains were found to explain 64.7% of the variance in responses to the single question concerning life-as-a-whole, F(7,203)=53.230, p ................
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