CHAPTER 2



CHAPTER 35

PLANT STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DEVELOPMENT

Learning objectives

The Plant Body

1. Describe and compare the three basic organs of vascular plants. Explain how these basic organs are interdependent.

2. List the basic functions of roots. Describe and compare the structures and functions of fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, and adventitious roots.

3. Describe the basic structure of plant stems.

4. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance.

5. Describe and distinguish between the leaves of monocots and eudicots.

6. Describe the three tissue systems that make up plant organs.

7. Describe and distinguish between the three basic cell types of plant tissues. For each tissue, describe one characteristic structural feature and explain its functional significance.

8. Explain the functional relationship between a sieve-tube member and its companion cell.

The Process of Plant Growth and Development

9. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate growth. Give an example of each type of growth.

10. Distinguish between annual, biennial, and perennial plants.

11. Explain this statement: “In contrast to most animals, which have a stage of embryonic growth, plants have regions of embryonic growth.”

12. Distinguish between the primary and secondary plant body.

13. Describe in detail the primary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.

14. Describe in detail the secondary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.

15. Name the cells that make up the tissue known as wood. Name the tissues that comprise the bark.

Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development

16. Explain why Arabidopsis is an excellent model for the study of plant development.

17. Explain what each of these Arabidopsis mutants have taught us about plant development:

a. fass mutant

b. gnom mutant

c. KNOTTED-1 mutant

d. GLABRA-2 mutant

18. Define and distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth.

19. Explain why (a) the plane and symmetry of cell division, (b) the orientation of cell expansion, and (c) cytoplasmic microtubules are important determinants of plant growth and development.

20. Explain how pattern formation may be determined in plants.

21. Give an example to demonstrate how a cell’s location influences its developmental fate.

22. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem.

23. Describe how three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs in Arabidopsis.

CHAPTER 36

RESOURCE ACQUISITION AND TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR PLANTS

Learning objectives:

Resource Acquisition by Land Plants

1. Explain how variation in shoot morphology may enhance light capture by plants in specific environments.

2. Explain how mycorrhizae enhance uptake of materials by roots.

3. Describe the evidence for recognition of “non-self” by buffalo grass stolons. Explain the benefit of such recognition.

General Principles of Transport in Plants

4. Describe how proton pumps function in transport of materials across plant membranes, using the terms ‘proton gradient’, ‘membrane potential’, and ‘cotransport’.

5. Define osmosis and water potential. Explain how water potential is measured.

6. Explain how solutes and pressure affect water potential.

7. Explain how the physical properties of plant cells are changed when the plant is placed into solutions that have higher, lower, or the same solute concentration.

8. Define the terms flaccid, plasmolyze, turgor pressure, and turgid.

9. Explain how aquaporins affect the rate of water transport across membranes.

10. Distinguish between the symplast and the apoplast.

11. Describe three routes available for short-distance transport in plants.

12. Define bulk flow and describe the forces that generate pressure in the vascular tissue of plants.

13. Relate the structure of sieve-tube cells, vessel cells, and tracheids to their functions in bulk flow.

Absorption of Water and Minerals by Roots

14. Explain what routes are available to water and minerals moving into the vascular cylinder of the root.

15. Explain how the endodermis functions as a selective barrier between the root cortex and vascular cylinder.

Transport of Xylem Sap

16. Describe the potential and limits of root pressure to move xylem sap.

17. Define the terms transpiration and guttation.

18. Explain how transpirational pull moves xylem sap up from the root tips to the leaves.

19. Explain how cavitation prevents the transport of water through xylem vessels.

20. Explain this statement: “The ascent of xylem sap is ultimately solar powered.”

The Control of Transpiration

21. Explain the importance and costs of the broad external surface area and extensive inner surface area of many leaves.

22. Discuss the factors that may alter the stomatal density of a leaf.

23. Describe the role of guard cells in photosynthesis-transpiration.

24. Explain how and when stomata open and close.

25. Describe the cues that trigger stomatal opening at dawn.

26. Explain how xerophytes reduce transpiration.

27. Explain why crassulacean acid metabolism is an important adaptation to reduce transpiration in arid environments.

Translocation of Phloem Sap

28. Define and describe the process of translocation. Trace the path of phloem sap from a primary sugar source to a sugar sink.

29. Describe the process of sugar loading and unloading.

30. Define pressure flow. Explain the significance of this process in angiosperms.

The Dynamic Symplasm

31. Describe how and why plasmodesmata may change in function, number, and pore size.

32. Describe the roles of phloem in electrical signaling and systemic transport.

CHAPTER 37

SOIL AND PLANT NUTRITION

Learning objectives:

The Role of Soil in Plant Nutrition

1. Define soil texture and soil composition.

2. Explain how soil is formed.

3. Name the components of topsoil.

4. Describe the composition of loams and explain why they are the most fertile soils.

5. Explain how humus contributes to the texture and composition of soils.

6. Explain why plants cannot extract all of the water in soil.

7. Explain how the presence of clay in soil helps prevent the leaching of mineral cations.

8. Define cation exchange, explain why it is necessary for plant nutrition, and describe how plants can stimulate the process.

9. Explain why soil conservation is necessary in agricultural systems but not in natural ecosystems. Describe an example of human mismanagement of soil.

10. Explain how soil pH determines the effectiveness of fertilizers and a plant’s ability to absorb specific mineral nutrients.

11. Describe problems resulting from farm irrigation in arid regions.

12. Describe actions that can reduce loss of topsoil due to erosion.

13. Explain how phytoremediation can help detoxify polluted soil.

Nutritional Requirements of Plants

14. Describe the ecological role of plants in transforming inorganic molecules into organic compounds.

15. Define the term ‘essential nutrient’.

16. Explain how hydroponic culture is used to determine which minerals are essential nutrients.

17. Distinguish between macronutrient and micronutrient.

18. Name the nine macronutrients required by plants.

19. List the eight micronutrients required by plants and explain why plants need only minute quantities of these elements.

20. Explain how a nutrient’s role and mobility determine the symptoms of a mineral deficiency.

21. Describe an example of a genetically modified plant tailored to do well in particular soil conditions.

Plants and Rhizobacteria

22. Define the term rhizosphere.

23. Explain how plant-growth-enhancing rhizobacteria act to enhance plant growth.

24. Summarize the ecological role of each of the following groups of bacteria.

a. ammonifying bacteria

b. denitrifying bacteria

c. nitrogen-fixing bacteria

d. nitrifying bacteria

25. Define nitrogen fixation and write an overall equation representing the conversion of gaseous nitrogen to ammonia.

26. Describe the development of a root nodule in a legume.

27. Explain how a legume protects its nitrogen-fixing bacteria from free oxygen, and explain why this protection is necessary.

28. Describe the basis for crop rotation.

29. Explain why a symbiosis between a legume and its nitrogen-fixing bacteria is considered to be mutualistic.

30. Explain why a symbiosis between a plant and a mycorrhizal fungus is considered to be mutualistic.

31. Distinguish between ectomycorrhizae and arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Plant Parasites, Epiphytes, and Predators

32. Name one modification for nutrition in each of the following groups of plants:

a. parasitic plants

b. epiphytes

c. carnivorous plants

CHAPTER 38

ANGIOSPERM REPRODUCTION AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Learning objectives:

The Three Fs: Flowers, Double Fertilization, and Fruits

1. In general terms, explain how the basic plant life cycle with alternation of generations is modified in angiosperms.

2. List four floral parts in order from outside to inside a flower.

3. From a diagram of an complete flower, correctly label the following structures and describe the function of each structure:

a. Sepal

b. Petals

c. Stamen (filament and anther)

d. Carpel (style, ovary, ovule, and stigma)

4. Distinguish between:

a. Complete and incomplete flowers

b. Bisexual and unisexual flowers

c. Microspores and megaspores

5. Explain by which generation, structure, and process spores are produced.

6. Explain by which generation, structure, and process gametes are produced.

7. Describe the production and structure of the male gametophyte of a flowering plant.

8. Describe the development of an embryo sac and explain the fate of each of its cells.

9. Explain how pollen can be transferred between flowers.

10. Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.

11. Outline the process of double fertilization. Explain the adaptive advantage of double fertilization in angiosperms.

12. Describe the fate of the ovule and ovary after double fertilization. Note where major nutrients are stored as the embryo develops.

13. Describe the development and function of the endosperm. Distinguish between liquid endosperm and solid endosperm.

14. Describe the development of a plant embryo from the first mitotic division to the embryonic plant with rudimentary organs.

15. From a diagram, identify the following structures of a seed and state a function for each:

a. Seed coat

b. Proembryo

c. Suspensor

d. Hypocotyl

e. Radicle

f. Epicotyl

g. Plumule

h. Endosperm

i. Cotyledon

16. Explain how a monocot and dicot seed differ.

17. Explain how seed dormancy can be advantageous to a plant. Describe some conditions for breaking dormancy.

18. Explain how fruit forms and ripens.

19. Distinguish between simple, aggregate, multiple, and accessory fruit. Give an example of each type of fruit.

20. Describe the process of germination in a garden bean and corn plant.

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction in Plants

21. Describe the natural mechanisms of vegetative reproduction in plants, including fragmentation and apomixis.

22. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of reproducing sexually and asexually.

23. Describe mechanisms that prevent self-pollination.

24. Explain various methods that horticulturalists use to propagate plants from cuttings.

25. Explain how the technique of plant tissue culture can be used to clone and genetically engineer plants.

26. Describe the process of protoplast fusion and its potential agricultural impact.

Plant Biotechnology

27. Compare traditional plant-breeding techniques and genetic engineering, noting similarities and differences.

28. Describe two transgenic crops.

29. Explain the benefits of introducing genes for Bt toxin into crop plants.

30. Describe arguments for and against the development and use of biofuels.

31. Explain the circumstances in which crop-to-weed trangene escape could occur. Describe four strategies that may prevent transgene escape.

CHAPTER 39

PLANT RESPONSES TO

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SIGNALS

Learning objectives:

Signal Transduction and Plant Responses

1. Compare the growth of a plant in darkness (etiolation) to the characteristics of greening (de-etiolation).

2. Describe the signal pathways associated with de-etiolation.

3. Describe the role of second messengers in the process of de-etiolation.

4. Describe the two main mechanisms by which a signaling pathway can activate an enzyme.

5. Explain, with examples, what researchers have learned about the activity of plant hormones by study of mutant plants.

Plant Responses to Hormones

6. Compare plant and animal responses to hormones.

7. For the following scientists, describe their hypothesis, experiments, and conclusions about the mechanism of phototropism:

a. Charles and Francis Darwin

b. Peter Boysen-Jensen

c. Frits Went

8. List six classes of plant hormones, describe their major functions, and note where they are produced in the plant.

9. Explain how a hormone may cause its effect on plant growth and development.

10. Describe a possible mechanism for the polar transport of auxin.

11. According to the acid-growth hypothesis, explain how auxin can initiate cell elongation.

12. Explain why 2,4-D is widely used as a weed killer.

13. Explain how the ratio of cytokinin to auxin affects cell division and cell differentiation.

14. Describe the evidence that suggests factors other than auxin from the terminal bud may control apical dominance.

15. Describe how auxin and gibberellins work together to stimulate stem elongation.

16. Explain the role of gibberellins in triggering seed germination.

17. Describe the functions of brassinosteroids in plants.

18. Describe the effects of ABA on seed dormancy and drought stress.

19. Describe the role of ethylene in the triple response to mechanical stress, apoptosis, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.

Plant Responses to Light

20. Define photomorphogenesis and note which colors are most important in regulating this process.

21. Compare the roles of blue-light photoreceptors and phytochromes.

22. Describe the phenomenon of chromophore photoreversibility and explain its role in light-induced germination of lettuce seeds.

23. Define circadian rhythm and explain what happens when an organism is artificially maintained in a constant environment.

24. Explain how light entrains biological clocks.

25. Define photoperiodism.

26. Distinguish between short-day, long-day, and day-neutral plants. Explain why these names are misleading.

27. Explain what factors other than night length may control flowering.

28. Describe the evidence that the CONSTANS gene plays a role in signaling flowering.

Plant Responses to Other Environmental Stimuli

29. Describe how plants apparently tell up from down. Explain why roots display positive gravitropism and shoots exhibit negative gravitropism.

30. Distinguish between thigmotropism and thigmomorphogenesis.

31. Describe how motor organs can cause rapid leaf movements.

32. Provide a plausible explanation for how a stimulus causing rapid leaf movement can be transmitted through the plant.

33. Describe the challenges posed by, and the responses of plants to, the following environmental stresses: drought, flooding, salt stress, heat stress, and cold stress.

Plant Defenses Against Herbivores and Pathogens

34. Explain how plants deter herbivores with physical and chemical defenses.

35. Describe how plants may recruit parasitoids to attack herbivorous caterpillars.

36. Describe how the hypersensitive response helps a plant limit the damage from pathogen attack.

37. Explain the role of salicylic acid in eliciting systemic acquired resistance to infection.

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