Chapter 2



Put Learning into Action with Sniffy, the Virtual Rat

Chapter 2. Research Methods

The following material refers to Sniffy, the Virtual RatTM2.0: Pro Version, a separate Wadsworth product that consists of a student manual and a CD.

1. p. 57, 2nd paragraph. This would be a good point at which to read Chapter 1: Introduction to Sniffy, the Virtual Rat TM 2.0: Pro Version (hereafter, Sniffy Pro). Pages numbers and exercises in these notes will refer to pages and exercises in Sniffy Pro. Page references from the textbook by Powell et al. will be identified as such.

2. p. 59, 2nd paragraph. Note: the Sniffy Pro exercises use a cumulative recorder to provide a measure of the rat’s behavior.

3. p. 60, 3rd paragraph. Note: Sniffy Pro uses a somewhat different technique to measure the intensity of behavior. As you can probably imagine, measuring salivation in a rat is more difficult that in a dog. As a result, classical conditioning studies with Sniffy measure behavioral intensity with a movement ratio and a suppression ratio, using a technique called the conditioned emotional response (CER). If you want to know more about the movement and suppression ratios and the CER, you can go to pp. 10-13 in Sniffy Pro or pp. 112-115 in the textbook.

4. p. 82, 4th paragraph. Note: As indicated on p. 2, the Sniffy Pro software developers filmed real rats engaging in various behaviors, then digitized these images to animate Sniffy. However, for ethical reasons, the rats were never actually give electric shocks. To read about how Sniffy was animated to represent a rat receiving a shock, see p. 13.

5. p. 83, last paragraph. This would be a good place at which to start working with the Sniffy Pro software. Read the Preface for instructions on how to load the software onto your computer.

Chapter 3. Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

1. p. 98, first paragraph. Sniffy Exercise 15 (pp. 104-108) deals with the habituation of an elicited response. However, at this point you probably have not learned enough about the operation of the Sniffy Pro software to complete this exercise easily. It will be mentioned again in Chapter 4.

2. p. 107, last paragraph. Note: Remember that classical conditioning studies with Sniffy use conditioned suppression (also called the conditioned emotional response), rather than salivation, to measure the amount of learning.

3. p. 113, 4th paragraph. See pp. 10-14 for more information on the conditioned emotional response (CER) and the measures of the CER used in the Sniffy Pro software—the movement ratio and the suppression ratio.

4. p. 116, 1st paragraph beneath the box. See pp. 77-78 for additional information about excitatory and inhibitory conditioning.

5. p. 117, 2nd paragraph. Read Chapter 2 (pp. 7-31) in Sniffy Pro. This chapter describes in detail the procedures for running and interpreting the classical conditioning studies with Sniffy. If you have not already done so, follow the instructions in the Preface (pp. ix-xiv) to install the Sniffy Pro software on your computer. Pages 139-140 describe the features of Sniffy’s operant chamber. You should complete Exercises 22-24 (pp. 145-156) to train Sniffy to press the bar.

6. p. 118, 2nd paragraph. Note: The classical conditioning studies in Sniffy Pro use delayed conditioning.

Chapter 4. Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

1. p. 129, 3rd paragraph. Read pp. 33-41 and follow the instructions for Exercise 1. Once you complete the exercise, Sniffy will have learned, through classical conditioning, a basic CS-US association. That is, the CS (here, a tone) predicts the occurrence of a US (an electric shock). You may find it helpful to read pp. 173-178, which include a description of the variable-ratio 25 (VR 25) schedule of reinforcement that you will use in Exercise 1. After completing Exercise 1, you should move ahead and complete Exercise 4 (pp. 45-53). This exercise demonstrates the effect of CS intensity on learning. Similarly, complete Exercise 5 (pp. 53-56), which demonstrates how the intensity of the US can influence learning in classical conditioning.

2. p. 130, last paragraph. Follow the instructions to complete Exercise 2 (pp. 41-43) in order to extinguish the conditioned response you established in Exercise 1.

3. p. 131, last paragraph. Follow the instructions to complete Exercise 3 (pp. 44-45), and observe the spontaneous recovery of the CR you extinguished in Exercise 2.

4. p. 135, 2nd paragraph. Read pp. 77-78 for additional information on inhibitory conditioned stimuli.

5. p. 135, 3rd paragraph. (Optional) Complete Exercise 10 (pp. 78-82), which is a demonstration of how a CS- can affect learning about a CS+. Read p. 58 for an explanation of the notation used on p. 78.

6. p. 137, 4th paragraph. (Optional) Complete Exercise 11 (pp. 83-86), which demonstates the power of a CS- to influence behavior. In this exercise, a CS- inhibits responding not only to the initial CS+ with which it was conditioned, but it also inhibits responding to a CS+ with which the CS- has not been paired previously. Read p. 58 for an explanation of the notation used on p. 83.

7. p. 139, 5th paragraph. Read pp. 87-88 for additional information on higher-order conditioning.

8. p. 140, last paragraph. Complete Exercise 13 (pp. 94-97) in order to train Sniffy to respond to a CS2.

9. p. 144, 1st paragraph. If you have not already done so, be sure to read pp. 87-88 for additional information on sensory preconditioning and why it is different from higher-order conditioning.

10. p. 145, last paragraph. Complete Exercise 12 (pp. 88-94). The background information for this exercise makes reference to stimulus-response (S-R) and stimulus-stimulus (S-S) associations. For now, you do not need to be particularly attentive to this distinction. However, you should be sure to select the S-S association option as specified in step 3 (pp. 89-90) of this exercise. S-S and S-R learning will be addressed in Chapter 5 of the textbook.

11. p. 146, 2nd paragraph. Complete Exercise 6 (pp. 57-64). In this exercise you will use the principles of compound conditioning to form an association between two CSs—a light and a tone. The exercise is divided into two parts. The first part involves the initial compound conditioning of the two CSs. In the second part, you will carry out a control procedure (see Chapter 2, pp. 64-67, in the textbook for a discussion of the importance of controls in experimental designs). The procedure involves a separate-pairing protocol in order to determine whether presenting the two CSs together or separately will produce different degrees of conditioning of the CSs.

12. p. 147, 3rd paragraph. Complete Exercise 8 (pp. 68-71) in order to test the relative importance of the salience of each CS in a compound stimulus.

13. p. 149, first paragraph. Complete Exercise 7 (pp. 64-68), which is an investigation of blocking in classical conditioning.

14. p. 152, first paragraph. Complete Exercise 20 (pp. 127-129), which demonstrates latent inhibition (the CS pre-exposure effect). You should also complete Exercise 21 (pp. 129-131), which demonstrates a related phenomenon, the US pre-exposure effect. You can compare the influence of these two pre-exposure effects by importing the data from Exercises 20 and 21 into a spreadsheet or statistical program to produce a graph of your results (see pp. 131-132; see also pp. 48-53 for further guidance on how to graph data from Sniffy Pro exercises). By now you also have enough experience with the Sniffy Pro software to complete Exercise 19 (pp. 123-127) on habituation. Before completing this exercise, it may be helpful to review the appropriate sections of Chapter 3 (pp. 96-98) in the textbook on the principles of habituation.

Chapter 5. Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

1. p. 169, first paragraph. Read pp. 99-102 for additional information on S-S and S-R models of classical conditioning and also details on how the Sniffy Pro software can be configured to test these two models.

2. p. 171, 2nd paragraph. Complete Exercises 14-18 (pp. 102-119). These exercises will provide you with additional understanding of the theoretical issues associated with the S-S and S-R models of learning.

3. p. 181, last paragraph. Complete Exercise 9 (pp. 71-74) for a demonstration of the overexpectation effect. Try to interpret the results for the movement ratio, suppression ratio, and CS response strength in terms of the Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning.

Chapter 6. Operant Conditioning: Introduction

1. p. 215, 2nd paragraph. Read pp. 135-136 for more information on Edward Thorndike and the Law of Effect.

2. p. 217, first paragraph. Read pp. 136-139 for more information on B. F. Skinner and operant conditioning.

3. p. 221, 3rd paragraph. Read pp. 140-143 for more information on reinforcement and punishment.

4. p. 237, last paragraph. Read pp. 213-214 for a description of shaping procedures in animal training. Complete Exercises 43-46 (pp. 215-222) to shape Sniffy to beg, to wipe his face, to roll over, and to perform other “tricks.” If you have a pet cat, you can complete Exercise 47 (pp. 222-225), which involves shaping your cat to beg or to walk on its hind legs.

5. p. 244, last paragraph. You have already completed Exercise 23 (pp. 148-153) in which you shaped Sniffy to press a bar. However, you may wish to reread the exercise and compare it to the textbook’s discussion of shaping (pp. 242-246).

Chapter 7. Operant Conditioning: Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement

1. p. 259, 1st paragraph. Read pp. 173-176 for more information on continuous reinforcement (CRF) and partial reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, and VI) schedules.

2. p. 259, last paragraph. See p. 178 for more information on FR schedules, as well as a graphical representation of response rates on high and low FR schedules.

3. p. 262, 2nd paragraph. See pp. 177-178 for more information on VR schedules.

4. p. 264, 2nd paragraph. See pp. 178-179 for more information on FI schedules.

5. p. 265, last paragraph. See pp. 177-178 for more information on VI schedules.

6. p. 267, 2nd paragraph. Now it is time to learn more about the four different reinforcement schedules using the Sniffy Pro software. Be sure to read the section entitled “Setting Up a Schedule in the Design Operant Conditioning Experiment Dialog Box” (pp. 179-181) carefully, then complete Exercises 31-35 (pp. 181-186).

When moving Sniffy from a lower to a higher schedule (e.g., from VR 10 to VR 25), make sure that Sniffy’s rate of bar pressing on the lower schedule has stabilized before shifting to the higher schedule. You can tell if Sniffy’s response rate had stabilized by examining the slope of the line in the cumulative record (see p. 155). If the slope looks the same across about 300 responses (note: responses, not delivered reinforcers), then you can assume that Sniffy’s response rate has stabilized, and you can move on to a higher schedule.

Examining the Bar-Sound graph in the Operant Associations mind window is another way to see if you can safely proceed to a higher schedule. After shifting to a higher schedule, the Bar-Sound level will decrease due to extinction then gradually increase again to approach the maximum strength level. (For more information on extinction in operant conditioning, see Exercise 25 (pp. 156-160) or Chapter 8 (pp. 296-300) in the textbook. When the Bar-Sound graph has returned to a level close the maximum, you can move on to a higher schedule.

When completing exercises 32-35, remember the advice offered in Exercise 32 (p. 184): if you want to increase a reinforcement schedule from a low to a high value, you should do so in small increments, lest you “live dangerously” and extinguish Sniffy’s bar pressing altogether.

Chapter 8. Extinction and Stimulus Control

1. p. 300, 2nd paragraph. Complete Exercise 25 (pp. 156-160), which provides a demonstration of the extinction of Sniffy’s bar-pressing behavior after he was trained on a CRF (i.e., FR 1) schedule of reinforcement. Note the extinction bursts (p. 158) in the cumulative record.

Also complete Exercise 26 (pp. 161-163). It demonstrates the effect of secondary reinforcement during extinction. Reread pp. 235-237 the textbook regarding the use of secondary reinforcement in operant conditioning.

2. p. 303, 1st paragraph. Complete Exercise 36, which demonstrates Sniffy’s resistance to extinction when he has been trained previously on a partial reinforcement schedule.

3. p. 305, last paragraph. Complete Exercise 27 for a demonstration of spontaneous recovery following extinction.

4. p. 311, 2nd paragraph. Read pp. 191-197 for additional information on stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination and, specifically, on how Sniffy Pro models these operant conditioning processes. Next, carefully read the instructions on pp. 197-203, which will be important for your success with Exercises 37-42. Finally, complete Exercises 37-39 (pp. 203-207). Note that Sniffy Pro uses the symbol S+ rather than SD and S- rather than SΔ.

5. p. 313, first paragraph. See pp. 210-212 for more information on the peak shift effect.

6. p. 314, last paragraph. Complete Exercises 40-42 (pp. 207-210). When you have finished, generate graphs to show the peak shift effect similar to those illustrated on p. 211.

Chapter 9. Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

1. p. 369, last paragraph. Complete Exercise 30, which demonstrates the effect of repeated mild punishment administered during extinction that takes place after bar pressing has been reinforced on a CRF schedule.

2. p. 369, last paragraph. Complete Exercises 28 and 29. These two exercises contrast the effects of a mild and a severe positive punisher. Each of them is administered separately and only once at the outset of extinction that takes place after bar pressing has been reinforced on a CRF schedule.

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