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The 27 Bare BonesPunctuations, Sentence Structure, and Essay BasicsPunctuation#1: Sentence Structure RuleIf you have 2 complete thoughts in a sentence, you can divide them in three principal ways:1. Put a period and a capital letter between them.2. Put a semicolon between them.3. Put a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) between them.Example: Joe went to town. He forgot his wallet.Example: Joe went to town; he forgot his wallet.Example: Joe went to town, but he forgot his wallet.Example: Joe went to town and forgot his wallet. (No comma needed with only one complete thought.)#2: Eleven uses of commasa) To set off appositives—appositives rename the noun (single-name appositives require no commas) Example: Jim, the man in the black hat, is over there.Example: The play The Birthday Party was written by Harold Painter.b) To separate adjectives—use a comma between 2 adjectives if they modify the noun equally (hint: put the word “and “ between the 2 adjectives: if the sentence makes sense, then use the comma)Example: It was a hot, bright day. (Use a comma because “hot and bright day” makes sense.)Example: It was a cold December morning. (no comma because “cold and December morning” doesn’t make sense)c) When addressing someone directlyExample: Bob, give me that cookie.Example: Give me that cookie, Bob.Example: Just try, Bob, to give me that cookie.d) used with coordinating conjunction to separate two independent clauses- see #1 abovee) to set off interjections-an interjection is a weak exclamation at the start of a sentenceExample: Yes, I’m going to buy you a new battery.f) to separate a adverb clause from the rest of the sentenceExample- After you finish your chores, you can take a nap.g) to separate a long modifying phrase from the rest of the sentence—short phrases do not need commasExample: In the building of the immediate future, electricity will still be used.Example: In the future you will pay the price.h) used between words, phrases, or clauses in a seriesExample: Some stadiums are large, attractive, and built-to-last.Example: I like to swim in the pool, to fall in the dirt, and to fall from treetops.Example: The moon was bright, the sky was dark, and the birds were silent.i) place comas around nonessential clauses; do not place commas around essential clausesExample: The principal, who listened patiently to my excuses, decided to fire me. (The clause “who listened to my excuses” is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and thus requires commas to set it apart from the rest of the sentence.)j) Use a comma to separate a subordinate clause from the rest of the sentence if the subordinate conjunction starts the sentence –see #9.Example: Since you failed this test, you will fail the semesterExample- You will fail the semester since you failed this test. (No comma needed because the subordinate conjunction is in the misled, not the beginning, of the sentence)k) to set off an interrupter—see #3 below#3 The use of the conjunction adverb of the interrupterConjunctive adverbUse with 2 complete thoughts; transition,InterrupterUse with 1 complete thought, transition,Example: Jim decided, however, to join us on the journey.Example: Phil in on the way; nevertheless, he will fall behind again. Example: I’m not happy. Furthermore, I’m going to be complaining to the boss about it. Example: You will suffer the consequences of your choice, however. #4 Use of the semicolon To separate two independent clausesTo organize a list which already contains commasExample: We went to Seattle, Washington; Denver, Colorado; and Madison, Wisconsin.#5 Punctuating TitlesUnderline titles of complete works: books, plays, book length poems, magazines, the names of ships and aircraft, CD’s, televisions programs, moviesPut quotations marks around titles of short works or parts of larger work: songs, poems, short stories, episodes of television programs, chapters of books, article titles in a newspaper or magazine.#6 Use of the colon A complete thought must precede the use of the colon in a sentence.For emphasis or as formal introductionExample: The author of this article made an alarming claim: you can’t think your way to right acting.To introduce a listExample: The men came to get three things: the furniture, the plants, and the books.Example: The three things to remember are to run, to jump, and to sing. (NO COLON because a complete thought does not precede the list.)#7 Use of parentheses- place around information which is an afterthoughtExample: We didn’t want to stay at our Uncle Phil’s house (it’s crawling with fleas), so we went to the fair instead.#8 Use of dashes- Place around information which needs to be highlighted.To indicate a sudden break in a sentenceExample: Here’s something—and you’d better listen up—that I want to tell you.To emphasize a part of the sentenceExample: There are two things—this test is difficult, and it will be graded—that you need to know.Use a dash if a list begins a sentenceExample: Black, white, and red—these are our school colors. #9 The three types of conjunctionsCoordinating conjunctions - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, soSubordinate conjunctions- a word which connects a dependent clause to an independent clause- after, although, because, before, since, though, unless, until, when, whileCorrelative Conjunctions—conjunctions used in pairs- either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, both…and. NO COMMA IS EVER NEEDED TO SEPARATE CORRELEATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. #10 Use of ellipsis To eliminate unneeded information from a direct quote—the result must be a complete thought.Example: “The Sooners crushed the Longhorns as Quentin Griffin rushed for six touchdowns. The final score was an astounding 63-14.“(source)MODIFIED: “The Sooners crushed the Longhorns…63-14.” (adapted)#11 The use of quotation marksAnything—dialogue or otherwise—quoted word-for-word from the text qualifies as a “quote” and needs to be surrounded by quotation marks. Historical facts should not be surrounded by quotation marks.Use single quotation marks inside double quotation marks if dialogue itself is being quoted from a sourceExample: Kate said, “I heard him say ‘You can’t play.’ ”Place a comma before a direct quote from the text—the word “that” can replace the commaExample: Brokaw notes, “There is no epic quality about his work.”Example: Brokaw notes that “there is no epic quality about his work.”d) Periods and commas are always put inside the closing quotation marks.Example: She said, “The riddle of the universe is within man,” and he said, “No, it’s outdoors.”e) Colons and semicolons are always put outside the closing quotation marksExample: These two contemporaries compete for the title of “Greatest Novelist”: Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. f) Questions marks and exclamations points are placed inside the quotations marks when they punctuate the quotation; they are placed outside the quotations marks when they punctuate the sentenceExample: Did you read that short story “The Dream of a Ridiculous Man”?Example: Billy asked me, “Are you ready to get fired, dude?”g) When using MLA parenthetical citation in a research paper, put parentheses around the author’s last name and page number, and put the period after closing parenthesis.Example: When it comes to Dostoevsky, “everything is heat and motion” (Berdyaev 12).h) Put quotation marks around words that are being highlighted or set apartExample: He considered himself “Mr. Cool”, but we knew he was a fool.Sentence Structure#12 AgreementSubject-verb agreement—singular subjects take singular verbsExample: Joe likes cars. (Both subject and verb are singular)Example: We like cars. (Both subject and verb are plural)Subject-verb agreement—the subject is never in the prepositional phrase; in fact, you usually ignore the prepositional phrase altogether when choosing the subject and its verb.Example: CORRECT- Each of us is going to the store. (“Each” is the subject)Example: INCORRECT- Each of us are going to the store. (“Us” is NOT the subject.)Subject-verb agreement—do not be fooled by inverted sentence orderExample: There are a few unanswered questions. (Subject=questions; verb=are)Example: How much did the surfboard cost? (Subject= surfboard; verb= did cost)Pronoun-antecedent agreement—a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in numberExample: CORRECT- Everyone lost his book. (“Everyone” is singular, and the pronoun “his or her” is also singular.)Example: INCORRECT- Everyone lost their book. (The antecedent “Everyone” is singular, and the pronoun “their” is plural.)e) Pronoun-antecedent agreement—a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender.Example: As people grow up, they must assume responsibilities. (Both antecedent, people, and pronoun, their, are plural.)#13 Avoid using dangling modifiersAvoid dangling modifiers—rearrange the words in the sentence so that the modifier is close to the word it modifiers.Example: CORRECT- Not able to swim far, I was saved by the lifeguard.Example: INCORRECT- Not able to swim far, the lifeguard saved me.Example: CORRECT- The evening passed slowly by as we played five-card draw.Example: INCORRECT- The evening passed slowly by, playing five-card draw.#14 Active voice vs. passive voiceUse active voice instead of passive voice because it presents your ideas strongly and directly.Example: John read the book. (ACTIVE-STRONG)Example: The book was read by John. (PASSIVE-WEAK)Example: Students always need an adequate number of parking spaces. (ACTIVE-STRONG)Example: An adequate number of parking spaces are always needed by students. (PASSIVE-WEAK)If the receiver of the action is more important than the doer, the passive voice is more effective.Example: There in the dust, underneath the earth, lies my favorite dog. (Passive voice creates a strong, periodic effect)Example: My dog lies there in the dust, underneath the earth. (Active voice is less Dramatic.)Use action verbs instead of the verb form “have” or “be” (am, are, is, was, were, be, been, being)Example: STRONG- We always win the tournament.Example: WEAK- We are always the winner of the tournament.Example: STRONG- That dead rat smells rotten.Example: WEAK- That dead rat has a rotten smell.Example: STRONG- You can solve problems more effectively.Example: WEAK- You can be more effective at solving the problem.#15 Parallel structure provides clarity and rhythmBalance gerunds with gerunds—a gerund is a verb form, used as a noun, and ending in “-ing”.Example: We tried pleading, threatening, and shouting.Example: INCORRECT- We tried pleading, threats, and shouting.Balance phrases with phrases—a phrase is a group of words lacking a subject and/or predicate.Example: To look the other was is easy, but to notice a wrongdoing takes guts.Example: INCORRECT- To look the other is easy, but noticing a wrongdoing takes guts.Balance clauses with clauses—a clause is a group of words with both subject and predicateExample: Jill knew that I liked to go running but she knew that I could not go with her.Example; INCORRECT- Jill knew that I liked to go running but I could not go with her.Use parallels structure with correlative conjunctions—see #9 aboveExample: Either you do what the boss says or you will get fired.Example: INCORRECT- Either you do what the boss says or get fired.Avoid needless shifts in verb tense or personExample: Bob argued against the use of violence as his brother discussed the destruction of the Brazilian rain forest. Example: INCORRECT- Bob argued against the use of violence as his brother discusses the destruction of the Brazilian rain forest. Avoid needless shifts from direct to indirect discourseExample: She said she would be gone, and she asked me if I could wait.Example: INCORRECT- She said she would be gone and would I please wait for her. (incorrect shift from indirect to direct discourse)Essay Basics#16 Formal written argument is the foundation for all collegiate liberal arts work#17 The 5 Basic Essay Writing RulesAnswer the essay question in the form of an argument and stick to it.Use direct quotes from the test and put quotations marks around them.Explain how these quotes defend your argument (about 2-3 explanations per quote).Use transitions to promote clarity and flow.Avoid these words: I, me, my, you, your.#18 3 Paragraph Essay StructureParagraph 1: Argument plus one more sentence.Paragraph 2: Focus on Rules 2-5 aboveParagraph 3: Re-state argument using different words plus on more sentence(Note: The three-paragraph structure is only an introductory tool for learning the structure of a written argument.)#19 Common Transitionsto give an exampleto give another examplefor examplefurthermoreinitiallyin additionfor instancenextto emphasizealsothat islikewisein factmoreovernamelyagainto draw a conclusionsimilarityin other wordssecondlyhenceto contrastergoin contrastas a resultconverselythereforehoweveraccordinglyon the other handconsequentlyotherwiseagainstillthuseven soneverthelessinsteadnonetheless#20 Use partial quotes from the text, no whole-sentence quotes—a key components of quality written argumentsPlace each direct quote from the source inside your own sentenceExample: The author believes that this barber “did not overcharge for his haircuts.”Example: INCORRECT- “I believe that Joe Gage did not overcharge for his haircuts.” (The original source quote takes up the whole sentence on the student’s paper.)#21 Labels for incorrect sentence structureRun-on—two complete thoughts put together with no punctuation between themComma splice—two complete thoughts incorrectly divided only with a commaFragment—an incomplete thought#22 Avoid useless commentarya)”…in the reader’s mind…”b) “The author is trying to say…”c) “It goes to say…”d) “Basically…”e) “This quote proves that…” (avoid exaggeration)#23 Analyze the quote, but don’t repeat the quoteCorrect Examples:The singer mentions that “the kid is into losin’ sleep.” (source quote)It appears that the boy is restless and not content. (correct—the analysis is a valid interpretation of the quote). Incorrect Examples: “Well, the kid is into losin’ sleep.” (source quote)“The singer says that the kids in not getting enough sleep. (incorrect—the analysis simply repeat the quote.#24 Understatements vs. exaggerationUnderstatement is more powerful than hyperbole—lawyers make very careful statements…and people listen to them.Correct:“It gets a little warm when the temperature reaches 105.”Ineffective observation (hyperbole):It must be a million degrees outside because I’m boiling to death.Avoid exclamation points and slang in formal writing because it undercuts the authority of your voiceAvoid extreme words: everything, everyone, all, never, always, anyone, everybody#25 Draw only valid conclusion from plentiful evidence—don’t jump to conclusion too quicklyExample: “Well, the kid is into losin’ sleep.” (source quote)Invalid analysis: Obviously, the kid has a low IQ.#26 Word confusionHint: if you can split the word apart and it still makes sense in the sentence, then use the apostrophe wordcontraction they’reyou’reit’swho’spossessivetheiryouritswhoselocationthere_______________Remember, though, to avoid using “your” or “you’re” in written arguments—see #17 above.#27 Other tipsAlways put a noun after the word “this”.Avoid ‘storytelling’ in your essay.A lot is two words—avoid it, though, because it’s too vague.Avoid back-to-back quoting—always put analysis between quotes.Respected periodicals (Time, Scientific American, Newsweek) follow The 5 Basic Essay Writing Rules.Use present tense for literature; use past tense for history.For the in-class, timed essay, don’t start or end paragraph 2 with a quote.Avoid using the same words over and over in your essay—a variety of word choice makes your case stronger. ................
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