MODULE TWO



| |MODULE 1.2 |

Secondary Teachers Diploma

Theory and Practice of Education

Makeni College of Education

Education Studies

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Makeni College of Education

Education Studies

P.O.BOX32531

LUSAKA

ZAMBIA

Fax:+2602114004

E-mail:

Website: makeni

(If you do not see your institute’s name (and school/department, if applicable) below, go back to the first page and follow the help instructions “Before going to the next page!” at the bottom of this page.

Acknowledgements

The Makeni College of Education, Department of Education studies wishes to thank those below for their contribution to this Module 1.2 of Theory and Practice of Education.

|Mr. Tembo W, D. S., (B.E.D, Spec. Educ; B. Tech Educ. Magt, Diploma | |

|Spec. Education, Certificate in Special Education, Certificate in | |

|Primary Teaching) – Lecturer. | |

| | |

| | |

|Principal – R.W. Mbewe | |

| | |

|DE Coordinator – Ms Mazunda R | |

| | |

CONTENT

Table of content -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2

How this module is structured---------------------------------------------------------------------------3

Getting around this MODULE TWO-------------------------------------------------------------------2

Course overview-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5

Welcome to Secondary School Teachers Diploma----------------------------------------------------5

Secondary School Diploma- is this course for you? -------------------------------------------------5

Course outcomes-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5

Timeframe--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6

Study skills-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7

Need help? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8

Assignments------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9

Assessment-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9

Getting around this module-----------------------------------------------------------------------------10

UNIT ONE MISSIONARY EDUCATION

1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11

1. Beginnings of missionary education----------------------------------------------------------12

2. Aims of missionary education-----------------------------------------------------------------13

3. Setbacks and challenges of missionary education------------------------------------------14

2. British South Africa Company Policy on Education--------------------------------------------15

3. Colonial education Policy--------------------------------------------------------------------------15

1.3.2 The Phelps Stocks Commission-----------------------------------------------------------------15

1.3.3 The advisory Committee-------------------------------------------------------------------------16

1.3.4 Organisation of the school system--------------------------------------------------------------16

1.3.5 Weaknesses of the colonial education----------------------------------------------------------17

Summary--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17

Assessment-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18

UNIT TWO

2.0 Comparative review of educational thought and reforms in selected countries in Africa including Zambia----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19

2.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19

2.1.2 The reform movement of the 70’s--------------------------------------------------------------20

2.1.3 Factors contributing to 1970’s reforms--------------------------------------------------------20

2.2.1 Education Reforms in Tanzania----------------------------------------------------------------20

2.2.2 Aims of colonial education----------------------------------------------------------------------20

2.2.3 Education reforms at independence------------------------------------------------------------21

2.2.4 Success and failure of the reforms-------------------------------------------------------------22

2.3.1 Pre-independence in Kenya---------------------------------------------------------------------23

2.4.1 Need for educational change in Zambia at independence-----------------------------------24

2.4.2 Reasons for failure of the reforms--------------------------------------------------------------25

2.2.3 1976/1977 reforms--------------------------------------------------------------------------------25

Unit summary--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26

Assessment----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26

UNIT THREE

3.0 Chagrining aims of education in Zambia---------------------------------------------------------27

3.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27

3.2 Focus on Learning Education Policy--------------------------------------------------------------28

3.3 Educating our Future Policy Document----------------------------------------------------------29

3.3.1 Principles of developing education-------------------------------------------------------------29

3.3.2 Challenges of implementing Educating our Future Policies---------------------------------30

3.3.3 Achievements of Educating our Future policy implementation-----------------------------30

3.4.1 Policies and key reforms in the fifth National Development Plan (FNDP) ---------------31

3.5.1 Current vision and Goals-------------------------------------------------------------------------32

Unit summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32

Assessment------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33

Assignment------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34

References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35

About this MODULE TWO

Secondary Teachers Diploma has been produced by Makeni College of Education. MODULE 1.2 is produced by Makeni College of Education and is structured in the same way, as outlined below.

How this MODULE TWO is structured

The course overview

The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

Study skills.

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

Activity icons.

Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

An introduction to the unit content.

Unit outcomes.

New terminology.

Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

A unit summary.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE 1.2; these may be books, articles or web sites.

Your comments

After completing Secondary Teachers Diploma we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course assignments.

Course assessments.

Course duration.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course.

Course overview

Welcome to Secondary Teachers Diploma

This course is to introduce you to theories and practical skills which are relevant to effective teaching and learning.

Secondary Teachers Diploma —is this course for you?

This course is intended for people who want to upgrade their academic and professional qualifications in the field of education. The course is also intended for those who want to enter into the field of education.

.

Course outcomes

Upon completion of Secondary Teachers Diploma you will be able to:

|[pic] |Define ‘Theory’ and’ Practice’ of Education. |

|Outcomes |Plan and prepare schemes of work, lesson plans, and records of work and analyze various Approaches |

| |to teaching and different methods and techniques. |

| |Discuss classroom organisation, class management and school discipline. |

| |Explain the roles of a teacher, head of department and school manager/ head teacher in school |

| |administration as well as the administrative structure of the Ministry of Education, including |

| |functions of the PTAs and Education Boards |

| |Discuss national educational planning and implementation and curriculum planning and development |

| |Explain how cross-cutting issues affect educational planning and provision in Zambia |

| |. |

Timeframe

|[pic] |You are expected to run through this course for three years |

|How long? |You are expected to spend at least a minimum of three hours per week to study the module |

| |You are advised to spend not less than three hours per week for self study. |

Study skills

|[pic] |As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days: you |

| |will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing |

| |so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic |

| |responsibilities. |

| |Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you will need|

| |to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. |

| |Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams|

| |and using the web as a learning resource. |

| |Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your |

| |learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning. |

| |We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to familiarize yourself with |

| |these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are: |

| | |

| |The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to study |

| |preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading|

| |text books, using reference sources, test anxiety. |

| | |

| |This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to time |

| |scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration |

| |techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory |

| |skills (“remembering”). |

| | |

| |Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading, |

| |questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory |

| |building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan. |

| |The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web links|

| |were active. If you want to look for more go to and type “self-study basics”, |

| |“self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar. |

Need help?

|[pic] |Mr Tembo W.D.S is the course instructor. You can find him at Makeni College of Education from 08 00|

|Help |to 16 00 hours from Monday to Friday. Contact him on 0977376786 email, wd tembo@ or you |

| |contact the college principal who will connect you to the lecturer. |

| | |

| |District Teachers’ Resource Centres and Makeni College Library are important for your study |

| |research. You can also visit your nearest library to your location. |

| | |

Assignments

|[pic] |You are expected to do three assignments per year. |

|Assignments |You must send the assignments by registered mail to Makeni College of Education. |

| |The assignments must be sent to the Coordinator for Distance Education programme. |

| |Each assignment will have its deadline assigned to it to reach the lecturer. |

Assessments

|[pic] |The course will have three assignments, two tests and the promotion examination at the end of each |

|Assessments |academic year. |

| |The assessments will be marked by the lecturer |

| |You will be assessed from time to time during the course of the programme. |

| | |

| |You will receive results of your assessments within three weeks of your submission date. |

Getting around this MODULE 1.2

Margin icons

While working through this MODULE 1.2 you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around this MODULE TWO

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

|[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |

|Activity |Assessment |Assignment |Case study |

|[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |

|Discussion |Group activity |Help |Note it! |

|[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |

|Outcomes |Reading |Reflection |Study skills |

|[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |

|Summary |Terminology |Time |Tip |

UNIT ONE

MISSIONARY EDUCATION

1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit you are going to learn about the origins of missionary education in Africa and in Northern Rhodesia in particular. You will look at the missionary contributions to education, the successes and failures of missionary education as well as its development. Therefore at the end of this unit you are expected to have the following outcomes;

| |Discuss the early missionaries that brought education to Africa |

|[pic] |Discuss the challenges the early missionaries faced when establishing schools in Africa |

|Outcomes |Describe the content of missionary education |

| |Discuss the successes and failures of missionary education |

| |Explain developments in missionary education |

| |Discuss. British South Africa Company (BSA) policy on education in Africa. |

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|Blacksmith |

|someone who deals in metal fabrications |

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|Civilizing |

|Bring from a savage or ignorant condition to a higher one/ improve and educate; refine manners of |

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|paganism |

|Beliefs and practices of a person who does not believe in any of the chief religions of the world |

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|policy |

|Plan of action, statement of aims and ideals, especially made by a government, political part. Business company etc |

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|Precarious |

|Uncertain, unsafe; depending on chance |

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|Rational |

|Sensible; that can be tested by reasoning |

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|Terminology |

1.1.1 Beginnings of missionary education

Before coming of the missionaries, Africa had its own form of traditional education. According to Snelson (1974:1), ‘ Education is a condition of human survival, It is the means whereby one generation transmits the wisdom, knowledge, and experience which prepares the next generation for life’s duties and pleasures. If this be the definition of education, it means Africa already had a form of education from time it came into existence.

The key figure in opening up missionary education in Africa was Dr David Livingstone. After his death in 1883, a number of Christian churches responded to his challenge to bring Christianity and civilization to the people of central Africa. Between 1885 and the end of the century, seven different mission societies entered was later to become known as Northern Rhodesia. By 1914, the number rose to 14.

1.1.2 Aims of missionary education

The writings of the early missionaries that came to Africa such as Livingstone and H.M. Stanly dwelt on accounts of physical needs and poor living conditions of the African people which had been made worse by slave trade. These accounts stirred the hearts of other missionaries to come to Africa.

1. The main aim of the missionaries to Africa was to spread the gospel but this proved difficult to do as the Africans could not read and write. Because of this, schools were seen as an integral part in mission work. The missionaries were motivated to teach reading and writing skills so that the people could read the bible and spread the gospel to others, Snelson (1974:5) states ‘but if a commitment to introducing western modes of life and skills and a desire to bring about social and economic were the motives of a number of the missionaries, the objective of the societies that sent them was often strictly one of salvation.’ However, there were different opinions concerning education of Africans by the missionaries and these were as follows;

a. Some missionaries regarded the school as chiefly an agent of evangelism. They said

‘Education from the Christian stand-point, is an essential way of witnessing the truth; it is the process by which children may be led into that fullness of life which is part of the Gospel’s meaning for mankind. From this standpoint, missionaries are under the obligation to educate, just as they are under the obligation to evangelize. The two processes are inseparable.’

b. Another group believed that after they had made converts the objective of the school was to instruct the existing Christian community to strengthen its leadership.

c. A further group felt that schools must be maintained as a Christian obligation to the community as a whole, Christian and non-Christian alike.

2. The other aim of missionary education was the belief that education was a powerful tool to destroy the pagan beliefs and sorcery which bedeviled the traditional culture. This was emphasized at the General Missionary Conference of 1914 were it was concluded that

‘As a civilizing force, education has no equal. It will make rational, thinking men who perceive cause and effect instead of believing the silly notions arising from generations of paganism. It is valuable adjunct in christianising. Indeed, the spread of Christianity is largely dependent on education.’ Snelson 1974: 12).

Because of the above assertion you should note that some of the early missionaries made efforts to raise the standard of living of the Africans by teaching Western skills which could help to make life a bit more comfortable and little less precarious. They provided craft training in carpentry, building, and blacksmithing. Girl’s education was spearheaded by teaching them various aspects of homecraft and motherhood. Some missionaries taught better methods of farming. Teaching reading and writing for the sake of the gospel remained cardinal to all societies.

However, very few missionaries clearly specified their educational objectives and where a policy existed; implementation depended on individual missionary society.

1.1.3 Setbacks and challenges of missionary education

a. It took time for the missionaries to be accepted by Africans.

b. It took time for Africans and Europeans to learn and understand each others language.

c. Formal education was alien to Africans who saw no value in reading and writing

d. Diseases such as malaria were rife among the missionaries.

e. Loon distances of travel between villages and mission stations.

f. Scarcity of food for the missionaries.

g. Living conditions were primitive.

h. The people missionaries had come to serve were far from being anxious for deliverance, they were attached to their pagan beliefs and practices.

i. Irregular school attendance; children were often sent to school when they were not needed for manual labor.

j. Untrained or poorly trained teachers.

k. Poorly paid teachers.

l. Schools were often weapons of rivalry between missions for areas of influence, which reduced education effectiveness. This caused the following major problems;

I. Missionaries could not have a common syllabus.

II. They could not have common examinations.

III. They could not have a one voice to fight for funding from the administration.

IV. They could not put resources together to improve the education system e.g. build a teacher’s college.

V. Unnecessary expenditure and duplication of effort.

However; this rivalry at times had scored some benefits such as the greatest number of schools were opened in areas were inter-church rivalries were keenest; schools were opened to win more people to their faith. Societies competed with each other to provide more advanced forms of primary education and simple forms of further education for selected pupils.

1.2. British South Africa Company (BSA) policy on education in Africa.

The British South Africa Company was founded by a British entrepreneur, Cecil Rhodes who had become rich through the diamond and gold mining in South Africa. In 1890 the company gained control of Northern Rhodesia through the Lonchvar Commission. Even though the company collected large sums of money in form of taxes from the local people, it did not take any financial responsibility of missionary education despite encouraging the missionaries to provide education. However, despite refusing to assume financial support, it wanted to control he education system. In its Native Schools Proclamation of 1918, it gave the company sweeping powers over schools and teachers which was strongly resisted by the missionaries and this led to its repeal. The BSA Company later established one school, the Barotse National school in 1906.After suffering a lot of financial loses, the company relinquished its power over the territory to the London colonial office. This gave the missionaries a new hope that their educational work would receive financial support.

1.3 Colonial Education policy

Before you look at the colonial education policy you should understand the different groups of people who were interested in African education during the colonial era and these were;

I. Colonial office in London

II. Colonial administration in Northern Rhodesia- these took little account of the type of education the Africans wanted.

III. Settlers- felt mission education was disruptive, a political potential and an economic threat and hence opposed the education of Africans

IV. Missionaries-wanted literacy and some skills training but ended up producing an elite class that could neither match the values of tribal leaders nor the colonial office

V. Local people- They increasingly wanted more education and of higher standard.

1.3.2. The Phelps Stocks Commission

The colonial education policy drew its ideas from the Phelps Stocks Commission

Report and the Advisory Committee on Native Education in British Tropical Africa. The Phelps Stocks Commission made the following recommendations on African Education

1) It proposed an education system that would include character building. Health and hygiene, agriculture and recreation

• They agreed that the first objective of education was for character building as this was very vital

• Secondly health and hygiene as the physical wellbeing of the people was essential to the efforts of government, settlers and missionaries.

• Because of abject poverty of the natives, emphasis was placed on agriculture and industrial skills

• The fourth objective was emphasis on the importance of family life through the knowledge of home activities such as care of children, food, sleeping facilities and sanitation.

• Lastly, they emphasized recreation through dances, physical exercise, African music and other amusements

2) The committee stressed the need for ‘adaptation’

This meant that education must be adapted to the conditions and needs of the society, it must prepare youths for life and life for an African meant life in the village.

3) The appointment of a director of native education, the establishment of an advisory committee and the availability of government aid to missionaries.

4) It gave priority to teacher training to improve the overall educational standards.

1.3.3 The Advisory Committee

Th duties of the Advisory Committee were to

a. Produce a native code, this was to upgrade and recognize all the school’s that were in existence, monitor attendance at these schools and provide books, equipment and teachers

b. Ensure that schools in future would open for 150 days.

c. Improving school standards and quality of teaching; they also encouraged missions to set up teacher Training Colleges, hence government grants were to be given.

d. Establishment of a government department on the site of the Jeans School in Mazabuka

The advisory Committee took up the ideas of the Phelps Stocks Commission and formulated basic principals which were to encourage voluntary educational effort and these were to promote cooperation between government and other education agencies

1.3.4 Organization of the school system.

The school system was structured according to local conditions but generally, the following was the recommended structure

a. Elementary education both for boys and girls, beginning with the education of very young children.

b. Secondary or intermediate education, including more than one type of school and several types of curricular

c. Technical and vocational school.

d. Institutions some of which would reach University level rank and many of which would include some branches of professional or vocational training. Training of teachers.

e. Adult education which would vary according to local needs.

1.3.5 Weaknesses of the colonial education

1) Slow start of secondary education

2) Schools were racially segregated with schools for Europeans having better facilities and teachers.

3) Despite several attempts to improve it’ girls education lagged behind that of boys.

4) The education system produced elites.

5) Education was more theoretical than practical.

6) Education produced a pyramid leaving a lot of children along the way.

7) It alienated its participants from the traditional way of life.

8) It produced unemployment as its graduates were seeking only white collar jobs.

|[pic] |After reading this unit you should bear in mind that education |

|Summary |work of missions laid a foundation for political, cultural, |

| |economic and intellectual colonization of Africans. During the |

| |first period, education was the responsibility of missionaries. |

| |Missions were most important agencies doing educational work |

| |during the colonial era. Almost all missions considered the |

| |schools as important means of Christianization. You should also |

| |remember that colonial authorities were against too much |

| |modernization of Africans and that’s the education they offered |

| |was meant for subordination, exploitation, development of |

| |underdevelopment, economic exploitation and an instrument of |

| |intellectual, and cultural servitude. Colonial rule sawn the |

| |introduction of more formal and professional control over |

| |schooling. Owing to limited resources and the unwillingness of |

| |white settlers to promote secondary schooling education was |

| |limited to lower levels of education |

|Assessment |1. List the common weaknesses of missionary and colonial education. |

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| |2.Discuss the relationship between the Phelps Stock Commission and the Advisory Committee on Native Education.|

| |And state their contribution to the development of education in Africa. |

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UNIT TWO

2. O COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT AND REFORMS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES INCLUDING ZAMBIA

2.1 Introduction

In this unit you are going to discuss the educational reforms in selected African countries after independence including Zambia. By the end of the unit you will be expected to know the following;

|[pic] |Explain the state of education in Zambia at Independence |

|Outcomes |Discuss the factors that contributed to the 1970 reforms |

| |Explain the pattern of the reform movement |

| |Define the general characteristics 0f the reforms |

| |Explain the reasons for failure of the reforms |

| |Discuss the educational reforms of Tanzania |

|[pic] |[pic] | |

|Terminology |Terminology | |

| |Egalitarian |Favoring the doctrine of equal rights |

| |Harambee |Pulling together |

| |Humanism |Devotion to human interest; system that is concerned with ethical |

| | |standards |

| |Innovation |Make changes, introduce new things |

| |Reforms |Make or become better by removing or putting right what is bad or |

| | |wrong |

| |Socialism |Philosophical, political and economic theory that land, transport, the|

| | |chief industries, natural resources should be owned and managed by |

| | |state or by public bodies, and wealth equally distributed |

| |Ujamaa |Working together (brotherhood) |

2.1.2 The reform movement of the 70,s

In the 1970’s in most African countries efforts were made to reform and reorganize educational structures and to modernize teaching methods and content. This is because most states had inherited an education system that was patterned after their colonial masters and was not suitable for the Africa’s.

2.1.3 Factors contributing to 1970 reforms in newly independent countries

In the 1960’s there was stress on expansion on provision of education without due consideration on its effect on quality and this caused deterioration of education standards.

Nations desired to create different programmes and institutions different from the ones they inherited from their colonial masters.

For these countries to attain economic self sufficiency there was need to change the school curriculum and the training programs.

Since the 1960s innovations to education did not produce desired results, there was need for something better.

There were misgivings about the education system that

a. It was highly selective

b. It Promoted individualism and elitism.

c. Paper qualification appeared to be more important than knowledge and skills.

d. It was too academic and irrelevant to the needs of many,

e. It alienated people from society

f. It undermined self reliance

.2.2 1 Education Reforms in Tanzania.

Prior to independence the country operated a three tier school system, four years primary school was followed by a further four years middle school, those successful at this level were then for secondary education. A further two years of study led to ‘o’ level (Standard X) examination and for a smaller number, the opportunity to ‘A’ level studies and on to higher education.

2.2.2 Aim of colonial education.

The aim of colonial education I was to ensure that there was sufficient numbers of suitably educated Tanganyikans to assist in the administration of the country. The education provided by colonial government was not designed to prepare young people for service in their own country; instead it was motivated by the desire to inculcate the values of colonial society aimed to train them for the service of colonial state. During colonial rule, many schools were racially or religiously segregated, emphasized British values, and there was little emphasis of educating local children. Very little children were in school;

2.2.3 Education reforms at independence

By the mid 1960’s it was clear that the economic and the education programs of the last five years had not produced the expected outcomes, Kassim (1995:251) sums up his critique of the Tanzanian education system as

a. Formal education is basically elitist in nature, catering to the needs and interests of those who manage to enter the hierarchical pyramid of formal schooling.

b. The education system divorces its participants from the society for which it is supposed to be trained.

c. The system breeds the notion that education is synonymous with formal schooling, and people are judged and employed on their ability to pass examinations and acquire paper qualifications.

d. The system does not involve its students in productive work. Such a situation deprive society of their much needed contribution to the increase in national economic output and also breeds among students a contempt for manual work.

In 1967 Nyerere announced two important new policies: The Arusha Declaration, including Education for Self Reliance (ESR). ESR, the component of Ujamaa was designed to reduce regional, ethnic. And class inequalities through restructuring of the education system. Nyerere argued that primary education should become ‘a complete education in itself’ by teaching children skills they would need for participation in a cooperative agricultural society. As a result of ESR, there was a shift in emphasis from secondary and tertiary education to primary and adult basic education.

Julius Nyerere saw education as a closely tied to social commitment. He believed that it should encourage both self reliance and cooperation with others. The system he proposed broke sharply with colonial programs of education and in several aspects. Unlike many African nations, Tanzania placed great emphasis on practical aspects of education. Agriculture, commerce, home economics, and technical scientific subjects had an important role in secondary curricula. Schooling at each level was to be complete in itself rather than a preparation for the next level. During the first years after independence a majority of teachers were expatriates and were rapidly replaced by Tanzanians.

According to Nyerere’s system, the students were to be prepared not primarily for examinations, but for the agricultural life to which they would return after school.. Farming workshops, where modern methods were taught in spite the simplicity available tools was to become an important part of the education process. Students were expected to participate in housekeeping and administrative tasks as a means of learning responsibilities and cooperation. Primary and secondary school students in town were expected to work in nearby villages to solidify the links between urban and rural people. During vacations, students in higher education were expected to participate in practical projects related to their field of study’ failure to participate was to bring low grades.

The reforms could be summarized as;

a. It should be oriented to rural life.

b. Teachers and students should together engage in productive activities and students should participate in the planning and decision making process of organizing these activities.

c. Productive work should become an integral part of the school curriculum and provide experience through the integration of theory and practice.

d. The importance of education should not be downgraded.

e. Children should begin school at age 7 so that they would be old enough and sufficiently mature to engage in self- reliant and productive work when they leave school.

f. Primary education should be complete in itself rather than preparing children for higher education.

g. Students should become self- confident and co-operative, and develop critical and inquiring minds. (adapted from Nyerere 1968)

Nyerere also proposed Adult education, lifelong learning and learning for liberation. For him adult education had two functions

a) Inspire both a desire for change, and an understanding that change is possible.

b) Help people to make their own decisions, and implement those decisions for themselves.

2.2.4 Success and failure of the reforms

The educational reforms met with successes and failures The policies were never fully implemented and had to operate against a background of severe resource shortage and work orientation to more individualistic and capitalist understanding of the relation of education to production. Education reforms faced opposition from administrators, teachers, parents and pupils alike. Officials from the Ministry of Education strongly opposed the teaching of agriculture in curriculum time, or argued that self-reliant activities would stifle the development of innovative and creative imagination, something that Tanzania’s long-term development would depend on. But such ideas as innovation entrepreneurship, initiative and self-motivation were ignored as they were contrary to the socialist ideology of the government Some parents and teachers considered it to be a return to colonial values by the suppression of aspiration, while others aid it was ‘ a little more than returning to farming.’ The outcome of this was hostility and defiance; many teachers were not prepared to either learn the theoretical or practical skills necessary to teach effective farm practice. And they turned out to be very poor models to their pupils.

However, primary education became virtually universal; curriculum materials gained distinctively Tanzanian flavor: and schooling used local languages.

2.3.1 Pre-independence education in Kenya.

Missionaries introduced western education in Kenya. Their schools were easily accepted by accepted due to the fact that they were used as a means of rehabilitating slaves who were returned after having been captured by Arabs, though the original purpose of schools was to convert the Africans to Christianity. In 1923 the British secretary to the state established a committee to advise on educational affairs of the Africans. This marked the beginning of the first educational policy by British colonial government. This period marked the beginning of the three tier education system in Kenya. There were racially segregated schools for Europeans, Asians and Africans

After independence the education reforms in Kenya took the form of ‘Harambee’ Harambee is a Swahili term that means ‘let us pull together’. This concept was evident during colonial times especially in the area of education provision. At this time, Kenyas started opposing missionary education. This was due to the feeling that missions were determined to control education and undermine the African culture while on the other hand the colonialists did not provide adequate educational facilities. They therefore started the independent schools, schools not controlled by missionaries These schools were established and managed by local people and their leaders

This concept of Harambee is associated mainly with the late president Jomo Kenyatta because it gained momentum when he popularized it as a mobilizing slogan at independence. He said

‘as we participate in the pomp and circumstances, and as we make merry at this time, remember this; we are relaxing before the tall that is to come. We must work harder to fight our enemies of ignorance, sickness and poverty. Therefore I give you the call HARAMBEE. Let us work together.’(Harambee 1963)

This was also re-echoed on the state opening of parliament. The most striking feature of harambee has been the growth of harambee schools. These played a very major role in the provision of secondary education to pupils who could not be admitted to government schools. To date there are about 600 harambee schools. In fact, many of the government aided schools were started on harambee basis. In a study carried by Mbithi and Raasmusson (1977) subjects interviewed about the perceived benefits of harambee learning institutions stated that:

‘The educational projects freed parents for other more productive work. It also saved money that was previously going towards the employment of house- helps. Literacy rates went up due to accessibility of institutions in terms of their availability and distance. Few people talked about immediate benefits from these educational institutions but many said that there would be long term benefits in terms of employment and thus better income. These educated people would in turn participate in future harambees leading to further development. Some of these institutions are nursery centers, primary schools, harambee secondary schools, Institutes of science and technology, village polytechnics, etc.

Ideally much of the education expansion that Kenya achieved in the first two decades of independence can be attributed to the investments made by community organizations and churches. These associations mobilized funds for buildings, teaching materials, equipment and furniture. In terms of secondary education, the harambee secondary schools, the harambee movement, with private and local funding was instrumental in building harambee secondary schools, furnishing them and employing teachers.

2.4.1 Need for education change in Zambia in at Independence.

The need for major educational reforms emerged from both a technical and functional view point and from one concerned with more egalitarian social, economic and educational institutions. It was clear that piecemeal change in the syllabus, expansion and improved teacher training, even if funds were available, could not rid the education system of its effects of producing large numbers of primary and secondary school leavers with aspirations for jobs in the modern sector which were not available. Other concerns were that rural- urban inequalities were becoming more marked; the system was biased towards urban and better off groups, this was producing benefits for a few and failure and rejection for a vast majority. There were also misgivings about the education system that;

a. It was too bookish.

b. It was oriented towards white collar jobs.

c. There was no community involvement.

d. It was responding to reward system of society and thereby encouraging individualism and social stratification.

e. It was dominated by examinations.

f. It was not sufficiently oriented towards real education (i.e. solid learning achievement: worthwhile personal knowledge, understanding; acquisition of life-skills, desirable attitudes and habits, sound values. Appreciation of ones culture).

g. It was alienating from local culture and rural areas.

h. Performance of children in basic language, number and science area was poor.

i. Selection to the next level was based on paper qualification without regard for character or community contribution..

j. It was promoting selfish elitism

h. There were few training facilities.

2, 4.2 Reasons for failure of the reforms

a. There was inadequate public and professional participation especially by teachers who are the key stakeholders in implementation.

b. The reforms were too ambitious without the consideration of available material and human resources

c. Insufficient attention was paid to economic, demographic and logistic factors

d. The Ministry of Education did not have capacity to carry out such massive reforms

e. Too heavy reliance on political slogans. Personal commitment and voluntary service.

f. Unfavorable or unstable political or economic environment.

g. It was resisted by the elite group.

h. During implementation. concentration was on individual elements of the reforms instead of the total package

i. Tendency to stress quantity rather than quality.

j. Inadequate was paid to important issues of the day such as, population growth, health and girls’ education.

2.4.3 1976/77 Educational reforms.

The reform group in 1974 was aware of both the technical and ideological aspects of the need of the reform and worked on the assumption that Zambia was moving in the direction of a socialist transformation. The president Dr. Kenneth Kaunda, had give encouragement and his endorsement to the purposes of reformers. The 1976 statement on education Reform was based on the assumption that the party, United National Independence Party (UNIP) would be committed to the transforming of economic structures and systems of production and rewards. The statement was based on the five principles of education action;

a. to extend educational opportunity to all children and adults specifically to eliminate illiteracy and to enable all citizens acquire basic education.

b. To create flexible education structures which would enable much easier access from full-time to part-time and back again, or from formal vocational education and back again at all levels.

c. To combine study and education work at all stages and in all programmes of the system.

d. To corporate political education in humanist socialism in all programmes.

e. To achieve participatory democracy in the management of education institution.(leeds.ac.uk/..00002618. htm.)

UNIT SUMMARY

|[pic] |After the completion of this unit you should be able to discuss the education reforms at independence in |

|Summary |Tanzania, Kenya and Zambia and note that in all these countries the reforms were based on socialist principals. |

| |In Tanzania they were known as Ujamaa, in Kenya Harambee and in Zambia Humanism. Remember also that the first |

| |significant period of policy reform in Zambia (1974-1977), occurred in the context of economic decline as a |

| |result of falling copper prices on the world market. As a result, expenditure on education fell at the san\me |

| |time as enrolments increased. Zambia began to rely on foreign aid in form of loans, grants, technical assistance|

| |and commodity support. |

|[pic] |1.What are the similarities of the education reforms at the time of independence in Kenya, Tanzania and |

|Assessment |Zambia?. |

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| |.2. What were the common problems in education which Kenya\, Tanzania and Zambia inherited at independence? |

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| |3. On a separate answer sheet , discuss the rise and fall of the reform movement of the 1970’s in Zambia. |

UNIT THREE

3.0 Changing aims of education in Zambia.

3.1 Introduction

The first major educational policy pronouncements are contained in the Educational Reform Document of 1977. This policy emphasized education as an instrument for personal and national development. In this unit you are expected to learn the other two policy reforms on education in the 90’s . At the end of this unit you should

|[pic] |Discuss the contents and emphasis of Focus on Learning Policy document | |

|Outcomes |Explain what led to Education our Future Policy Document | |

| |Outline the major principles developing education in Educating Our Future | |

| |Discuss the aims of basic and high education in Educating Our Future | |

| |Explain the changing aims of education in the Fifth National Development plan | |

|[pic] |AIDS: |Acquire Immune Deficiency Syndrome |

|Termi | | |

| |Equity |Fair distribution of resources |

| |FBO: |Faith Based Organisations |

| |HIV: |Human Immune Virus |

| |NGO: |Non Governmental Organisations |

| |OVC: |Orphans and vulnerable Children |

| |SHN: |School Health Nutrition |

| |SCEN: |Children with Special Education Needs |

3.2 Focus on Learning Policy Document

In the 1990’s Zambia saw resounding educational reforms. The reforms were designed to improve the delivery of the education system that that had been substantially declining since 1970, as earlier noted. Specifically the education system suffered from gross enrollments which failed to match the demand arising from rising population growth. In addition, the ministry was not able to sustain and improve the quality of education..

The second major educational policy document was the 1992 Focus on Learning. It emanated from the world Declaration on Education for all, held in 1990 in Jomtien, Thailand. The conference stressed the importance of acess to educational opportunity. In 1991, after the National Conference on Education, the government appointed a team to review th investment strategies in education and the implications of implementing such ideas. In November 1991, the new government examined the proposals and strategies in Focus on Learning and immediately decided to acknowledge them as official policy in Zambia. Focus on Learning stressed the mobilization of resources for the development of school education for all including children with special needs.

3.3 Educating Our Future Policy Document

One of the factors that determine the aim of education is the society the education system is serving as Kelly (19:210) puts it.

‘Education is a social institution which reflects the characteristics of society, while at the same time it affects society. At the start of the 21st century Zambia is a liberal democracy in a modern world. This means that its schools must aim at promoting the cooperation, understanding and tolerance needed by a democracy, the independent and competitive spirit needed in a market economy and skills needed in a technological age, and the attitudes and values needed intrinsically for inner satisfaction and self-fulfillment and extrinsically for harmony with others, the environment and the supernatural.’

3.3.1 Principles of developing education

The aims of education in Zambia had to change to suit the changing ideology of governance. By late 1993, the Ministry of Education started evaluating the entire formal education system, with a view to determining the most appropriate framework for its future development. This resulted into Educating Our Future Policy Document which was a product of a lengthy and broad-based consultation process involving various stakeholders. Educating our Future was founded on the following principles;

1. Liberalisation; Liberalisation of education provision, entails fundamental changes in power relations within the education sector. Under a liberalized education system the right of private organizations, individuals, religious bodies, and local communities to establish and control their own schools and other education institutions.

2. Decentralisation; Decentralisation involved devolution of power from the center to the local level, in districts and schools.

3. Equality and equity; Every individual in Zambia has the right to education. Hence it is a matter of fairness and justice that access to, and participation and benefit in, the education system be available to all.

4. Quality; All learners should be facilitated in the attainment of the highest standards of learning, Quality is brought about by maximizing the efforts of all those responsible for the education of learners and by coordinating all the structures of the system so that centers of education, from pre-school to university are places were effective teaching, learning and research take place and were the highest standards of achievement, in accordance with ability, are obtained by every student.

5. Partnerships; Building on the principle of liberalization and on the creation of an enabling environment the government would follow an education policy that encourages and strengthens partnerships in educational development.

6. Accountability; to ensure the best use of available resources the government will ensure that effective systems are in place at national. Provincial. District, and institutional levels for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency with which resources are used.

3.3.2 Challenges implementing policies of Educating our Future

• Loss of human capital, teachers in particular, due to HIV and AIDS pandemic. This has resulted in inadequate teaching and support staff f in schools.

• Loss of teachers also on account of resignations resulting from poor conditions of service especially in rural areas.

• Inadequate bursaries to enable vulnerable children to attend school.

• Limited construction of schools in places where long distances adversely affect school attendance.

• Low quality of education marked by poor achievement levels, poor learning environment, lack of learning and teaching materials, and high pupil teacher ratio (the average national ratio for grades 1-9 is 57:1).

• High poverty levels leading to some children failing to enroll in schools.

3.3.3 Achievements of Educating our Future policy implementation

The National Educational Policy of 1996, Educating Our Future has provided for a supportive environment in which sub-sector policies have been articulated.

• The MoE continues to implement the free education policy enunciated in 2002 and the global Education for All Goals adopted in 2000 to ensure that all boys and girls are able to attend school.

• Since gender has been mainstreamed in the educational curriculum m gender responsive approach to education has been adopted.

• Improved capacity in planning, reporting evaluation and monitoring in the MOE enables it to access finances through the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF 2006-2008).

• The 2006 Work Plan and Budget adopted the multi-sectoral approach. The education sector Strategic Plan (2003-2007) and its National Implementation Framework (NIF 2003-2007) have been key in providing a strategic approach to education.

1. Policies and Key Reforms in the Fifth National Development Plan(FNDP)

After the implementation of Educating our Future policies had started, the FNDP placed emphasis on improvement of quality, while still regarding increase in access as a priority for early childhood care, development and education, upper basic, high school, Vocational training and tertiary education. In this regard, reforms in curriculum development; syllabus design; professional teacher enhancement; making the learner environment more productive and conducive to the learning and welfare of the learner; and attainment of educational standards were among the key reform areas.

In the area of access to education, the major reforms in the FNDP involved provision of education through low cost/high impact interventions for different categories of learners who previously were not sufficiently catered for as children, youth or adults. One reform will be through the expanded use of open and distance learning and provision of literacy and basic skills education. Other reforms were to continue to ensure that pro-poor policies are instituted to offer equitable education to vulnerable members of society, notably under gender, HIV and AIDS, SHN, OVC, CSEN and out of school children. Reform of existing policies and/or development of new ones focused on the following areas

a) Curriculum diversification and assessment;

b) Development, production, procurement and supply of educational materials;

c) Teacher education, deployment and retention;

d) Governance, community participation and cost sharing;

e) Early Childhood Care, Development and Education;

f) Literacy Education;

g) Distance and Open Learning;

h) Community schools – ownership, management and financing;

i) Equity; and

j) Decentralisation.In order for these policy reforms and priorities to be translated into viable programmes, partnerships shall be built and/or strengthened, especially between the Government, on the one hand, and donors,NGOs, FBOs, and private providers of education and training, on the other. Additionally, appropriate legislation will be instituted for the proposed policy reforms.

Finally, the Government will significantly increase the levels of funding to the education and education and training sector and additional funding will be sourced from external funding agencies. This entails an increase by 2010 to Southern African funding levels of a minimum of 5 percent of GDP devoted to education and training. The external partners will also need to both increase the present levels and move towards unrestricted sector support (pool funding) and general budget support to address the challenges the sector is facing in other key sub-sectors(.MDG Progress Report; 2008)

3.5.1 Current Vision and Goals

The vision is: Innovative and productive life long education and training accessible to all by 2030. The goals are as follows:

a) To ensure universal basic education provision to children;

b) To ensure that opportunities exist for all citizens to have equitable access to ECCDE, basic and high school, tertiary education and/or technical and vocational training;

c) To improve the quality and relevance of education and skills training;

d) To promote efficiency and cost-effectiveness;

e) To enhance institutional coordination in both public and private education and training

Institutions; and

f) To ensure that library services are improved to contribute to high standards and quality of education in Zambia

|[pic] |You should by now have read through this unit thoroughly well and you have been able to take note of the key |

|Summary |developments of education in Zambia from the 1990’s to date. Remember that the reforms in the 90,s started as a |

| |result of Zambia attending the World Conference on Education for all which saw the way education had been viewed|

| |take a different stand. Zambia started reforming its education to meet the world standards. |

|[pic] |You should also note that the Education system in Zambia is still developing and there could be new developments in |

| |the system after the fifth National Development Plan |

|Note it! | |

|[pic] |Discuss the struggles in Education in some African countries at their independence |

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| |Why did the education reforms of the 1970’s fail in Zambia? |

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| |3. Discuss the key principals of Educating our Future and Focus on Learning policy documents. |

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| |4. Explain any additional educational reforms in the Fifth National Development Plan that were not in Educating our Future Policy Document. |

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|[pic] |Discuss the need for education change in Zambia at independence |

|Assignment |INSTRUCTIONS |

| |Use an A4 standard paper |

| |Your work should be types |

| |Your work should not exceed four (4) pages |

| |References should NOT be less than four (4) pages |

| | |

| |Indicate your course combination and your names should be bold starting with your surname first. |

| | |

| |This assignment is due in the next residential school in April, 2014. |

| | |

| |Course Lecturer: Tembo W.D.S. |

References

Carmody, B. (2004).The Evolution of Education in Zambia.Ndola: Mission Press.

Farrant, J.S. (1980). The Principles of Education.UK: Longman.

Kassim, y. (1995) ‘Julius Nyerere in Z Morsey (ed) Thinkers of Education, Paris: UNESCO Publishng.

Kelly M.J (2004) Origins an Development of Education In Zambia; Lusaka University Press.

Ministry of Education (1996). Educating Our Future Policy Document. Lusaka, Zambia Education Publishing House

Ministry of Education (1992). Focus on Learning Policy Document. Lusaka, Zambia Education Publishing House

Mwanakatwe. J. M. (1968). The Growth of Education in Zambia since Independence: Oxford University Press.

Snelson. P. (1974). Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945.Lusaka: Kenneth Kaunda Foundation.

Nyerere J. (1968) ( Freedom and Socialism, A selection from writings and speeches; Dar es salaam; Oxford University Press.

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