Theories
People:Wundt“Father of Psychology”; introspectionWertheimerGestalt psychologyTitchnerStructuralismJamesFunctionalismWatsonBehaviorism; “Little Albert Study”; aversion therapyFreudPsychoanalytic; dream analysis; free association; structure of personality; stages of development; defense mechanismsMilgramObedience; Ethics; 65%BrocaLeft frontal lobe; if Broca’s is broken, no words are spokenWernikeLeft temporal lobe; receptive languagePavlovClassical conditioning; dogs (bells)ThorndikeInstrumental learning; cats; law of effectSkinnerOperant conditioning; rats and pigeons; behavioristTolmanLatent learning; cognitive mapsBanduraObservational learning; Bobo dolls; social-cognitive theoryEbbinghausForgetting; decay modelChomskyNative theorist; inherent existence of sets of cognitive structuresWhorfLinguistic relativity hypothesisWashoe, Sara, KokoApe language studiesJungCollective unconscious; archetypes; psychoanalyticHorneyBasic childhood anxiety; psychoanalyticErickson1-bun, 2-shoe, etc. psycho-social developmentAdlerInferiority complex, psychoanalyticPiagetStages of cognitive development; cognitive theoristRogersClient-centered; unconditional positive regard; transactional analysisAlbert EllisRational emotive therapy; cognitive theoristAbraham MaslowHierarchy of needs; humanisticSheldonSomatotyping; endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorphBinetI.Q.EysenckBiological model of personality; trait-type hierarchyHarlowMonkey studies; attachment; contact comfortLorenz“survival of the fittest” and imprintingPhineus GageRailroad spike; damaged limbic sys, emotions/motivational control centerAaron BeckCognitive therapy treating depressionMurrayNeed to achieve; TATAllportTrait approach; cardinal, central, secondary CattellCrystallized fluid intelligenceKelleyPersonal construct theoryMishelSocial-learning theory; people are not consistent (look at past performance)GilliganExamined moral differences between boys and girls based on social rules and on ethic of caring and responsibility AinsworthInfant attachment stylesKohlbergMoral development (preconventional, conventional, postconventional)AschConformity; people give obviously wrong answerKubler-RossStages of death (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance)ZimbardoPrison study; roles and role conflictEkmanChanges in facial expression brings about emotion like changes in the bodyHubel & WieselDiscovered feature detectorsRosenhan“fake” psychiatric patient studyVygotskyCognitive dev. based on zone of proximal development LoftusEyewitness testimony & constructive memoryApproaches: General:Behaviorism: environmental; learning; nurtureBiological: physiology; genetics; natureCognitive: mental processesPsychoanalytical: unconscious; childhoodHumanistic: freewill; basic goodnessMulticultural: sociocultural; role of structureGestalt: emphasizes the organization process in behavior; focuses on problem of perceptionPersonality:Psychoanalytic: people are driven by instincts, largely sexualBehaviorist: behavior is personality; determined by history of reinforcementHumanistic: people are inherently good, society ruins them, people strive to satisfy a hierarchy of motives toward self-actualizationCognitive: people are rational and want to predict and control their world, personal constructs help in this processBiological: biological factors such as body type or geneticsAbnormal:Psychoanalytic: emerge from initial psychological conflicts that are unconscious, often arising from childhood traumaBiomedical: traceable to physical abnormalities, biochemistry, structural defectsCognitive: results from unusual ways of thinking, inappropriate belief systemBehavioral: results from faulty contingencies of reinforcement contexts contribute to the development of psychological disordersCultural: variables such as social class, gender, and rural-urban contexts contribute to the development of psychological disordersHumanistic/Existential Model: results from failure to fulfill ones potentialTreatment:Biomedicala) ECTb) Psychosurgery; ablationc) Chemotherapyd) Intensive light therapy (S.A.D.)Psychoanalytic Therapy – alleviate unconscious conflictsFree associationDream analysisTransferenceSymptom substitutionBehavior Therapy – application of learning principlessystematic desensitizationin vivo desensitizationcounter conditioningflooding (real event)implosive therapy (imagine the event)aversion therapyCognitive-Behavior Therapy – thoughts and behaviormodeling and role playrational emotive therapy: forces a more realistic look in the evaluation circumstancesstress inoculation therapy: retractors inappropriate thinkingcognitive therapy: used for depression; requires the restructuring of persons invalid perceptions of self, future, and the world or experienceHumanistic – focuses on getting the person to accept the responsibility for their improvementRoger’ client centered therapy (unconditioned positive regard)Frankl’s existential analysis treatment: help client gain sense of purpose and meaningGestalt therapy: client comes into contact with the whole selfBiomedical Treatment – includes medical procedures and medication that can help alleviate symptoms of psychological disorderspsycho-surgery (ablation)surgical destruction of involved brain tissuesobsessive-compulsive disorderelectroconvulsive therapy (ECT)major depressionpsychopharmacological treatmentneuroleptics (antipsychotics) i.e. thorozine, haldol, clozerilantidepressants i.e. tricyclic compounds, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, prozaclithium carbonate (bipolar disorder)anxiolytics (anti anxiety) i.e. valium, benzodiazeopinesThe Experiment:1. Two variables are studied for cause and effectIndependent variable – manipulatedDependent variable – the response; measuredConfounding variable – other variables that may influence resultsExperiment group – exposed to manipulation of independent variableControl group – an unaffected comparison groupSubject bias – a subject’s behavior changes due to believed expectations of experiment (Demand characteristics)Researcher bias – expectations influence what is recordedDouble-blind technique – control for bias by keeping placement of subject secretPlacebo – inactive substance unknowingly given in place of drugNull hypothesis – negatively expressed hypothesis; X will not change YTheoriesPiaget’s Cognitive-Development Theory:Sensory Motor: schema assimilation and accommodation; circular reaction; object permanencePreoperational: egocentrism; animism; artificialismConcrete: operational-reversibility; conservative problemsFormal: operational-personal fableKohlberg’s Moral Judgment:Preconventional: good and bad; right and wrongConventional: social rules; follow the lawPostconventional: universal principlesErickson’s Psychosocial Development:INFANCYtrust vs. mistrustAutonomy vs. shame and doubtCHILDHOODinitiative vs. guiltIndustry vs. territoryASOLESCENCEidentity vs. role confusionADULTHOODintimacy vs. isolationGenerality vs. stagnationEgo integrity vs. despairKubler-Ross’ Stages of DeathDenialAngerBargainingDepressionAcceptanceTheories:Weber’s law: just noticeable differenceYoung-Helmholtz Color Theory: (trichromatic theory) color determined by the relative activity in red, blue, or green sensitive conesOpponent-Process Color Theory: color information is organized into 3 antagonistic pairsPlace Theory: relates perceived pitch to regionFrequency Theory: related pitch to the frequency of sound waves and frequency of neuron firingFacial Feedback Hypothesis: sensations from the face provide cues to the brain that help us determine what emotion we are feeling (Ekman)Statistical Significance: .05 chance accounts for results less than 5% of the timeTemplate-Matching Theory: stored copiesPrototype-Matching Theory: recognition involves comparisonFeature-Analysis Theory: patterns are represented and recognized by distinctive featuresRestorative Theory: we sleep in order to replenishAdaptive Non-responding Theory: sleep and inactivity have survival valueActivation-Synthesis hypothesis: dreams are products of spontaneous neural activityThorndike’s Law of Effect: reward and punishment encourages and discourages respondingPremack Principle: states that any high-probability behavior can be used as a reward for any low-probability behaviorContinuity vs. Discontinuity: theories of development, nature vs. nurtureSerial Position Phenomenon: sequence influences recallPrimacy Effect: enhanced memory for items presented earlierRecency Effect: enhanced memory for items presented lastAtkinson-Shiffrins 3 Stage Processing model of memory: sensory-STM-LTMLinguistic Relativity Hypothesis: person’s language determines and limits a persons experiencesHull’s Drive-Reduction Model: motivation arises out of needCognitive Consistency Theory: cognitive inconsistencies create tension and thus motivate the organismFestinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory: reconcile cognitive discrepanciesArousal Theories: we all have optimal levels of stimulation that we try to maintainYerkes-Dodson Law: arousal will increase performances up to a point, then further increases will impair performance; inverted U functionIncentive Theory: behavior is pulled rather then pushedJames-Lange Theory: emotion is caused by bodily changesCannon-Bard’s Thalamic Theory: emotional expression caused by simultaneous changing bodily events, thoughts, and feelingsSchachter’s Cognitive-Physiological Theory: bodily changes, current stimuli, events, and memories combine to determine behavior- Schachter’s 3-factorsAttribution Theory: explains how people make inferences about the causes of behavior; personal or situational; self-serving biasDeindividuation: loss of self-restraint that occurs out of anonymityContact Theory: proposes that equal-status contact between antagonistic groups should lower tension and bring harmonySelye’s General Adaptation Syndrome- (GAS) emergency reaction to stressful situations; alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion (ARE bad)Lazarus’s Cognitive-Psychological Model: emphasizes the process of appraisal (primary and secondary) as the primary determinant of stressTwin Studies: allows a researcher to test influence of heredity vs. environmentPersonal Construct Theory: unique system of realityDeinstitutionalization: occurred because of changes in political policy and development of new drug therapiesAinsworth’s Strange Situation: looked at attachment in young children to their parentsSocial Psychology Studies:Zimbardo’s Standford Prison Study: effect of rolesHawthorne Effect: people change their behavior when they think that they’re being observedLatane & Darley’s Bystander Effect: diffusion of responsibility (Kitty Genovese )Asche’s Conformity Study: lines of different length; 33%Milgram’s Obedience Study: shocking the confederate (65% delivered full range)Sherif: Autokinetic Phenomenon; conformity studiesJane Elliot’s Blue Eyed/Brown Eyed Experiment: development of prejudice, scapegoatingSocial PressureConformity: occurs when individuals adopt the attitudes or behavior of others because of real or imagined pressureSocial Norms: shared standards of behaviorReciprocity Norm: people tend to treat others as they have been treatedCompliance: to get along with a request made of you from a person who does not have authority over you, techniques includeFoot in the door technique: if a small request is made first, a larger request will be easier to fill laterDoor in the face technique: making a larger request first then making a smaller one which will seem more reasonable (high balling)Low balling: getting agreement first, then adding specifics laterNorm of Reciprocity-give something small expect something bigger in returnObedience: compliance with someone who has authoritySocial Traps: behave in an unproductive way because of fear others willAltruism: self concern for othersBystander intervention: will individuals intervene in a harmful situation to anotherBystander effect: people are less likely to help when several people witness an emergency due to diffusion of responsibility, thinking that someone else can be responsibleSocial facilitation: tendency to do better on well-learned tasks when another person is presentSocial loafing: reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups compared to by themselvesRisky shift: groups often arrive at riskier decisions than do individualsDeindividuation: loss of identity as a result of being part of a groupGroupthink: members of a cohesive group emphasize agreement at the expense of critical thinkingSuperordinate goals: task completed only with complete cooperation of both parties ................
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