UNIT 2:



GRAMMAR

1. DEDUCTION OVER PRESENT AND PAST ACTIONS.

|Deductions. |

| |Present |Past |

|Modal |Can’t |Can’t have + PP |

| |Couldn’t |Couldn’t have + PP |

|Use |It’s not probable, I don’t think so. |It’s imposible that something took place in the past. I |

| | |don’t think so. |

|Examples |She can’t/couldn’t be the escaped prisoner. |She can’t have been the murderess. |

| | |They couldn’t have missed the meeting. |

| | | |

|Modal |Must |Must have + PP |

|Use |It’s probable, I think so. |It’s more than likely, I think so. |

|Examples |She must be tired after such work. |She must have paid for the dinner. |

2. MODALS + INFINITIVE: MUST.

|Must. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Moral obligation | |

|I think it’s my duty to do it. |I must do my homework. [I want to pass] |

|Advice, necessity | |

|I think it’s the right thing to do. |You must cook it before eating it. |

|Stating formal rules and regulations | |

|It’s something official. |Visitors must leave bags in the lockers. |

|Deduction | |

|I think it’s like this because I’ve watched it. |She must be very happy. [She’s smiling] |

|Mustn’t. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Prohibition | |

|It’s something you can’t do. It’s forbidden. |You mustn’t park your car in front of the police building. |

3. MODALS + INFINITIVE: CAN.

|Can. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Ability | |

|It’s my physical capacity. |I can run 10 miles in an hour. |

|Know how to | |

|It’s learning or knowledge. |You can swim very well. |

|Possibility | |

|It’s general possibility, the speaker decides. |Visitors can take the train or the coach. |

|Permission | |

|It’s asking for, denying or giving it. |Can I use your phone? –Yes, you can. |

|Also, it’s talking about it. |Can I borrow your car? –No, you can’t. |

| |She says I can be here until I finish. |

|Criticism | |

|It’s showing something we don’t like. |They can be really nasty. |

|Deduction ---NEGATIVE--- | |

|It’s not probable. I think it isn’t like that. |She can’t be the killer. She was with me. |

|Request | |

|It’s asking someone to do something for you. |Can you open the window, please? It’s very hot in here. |

|Offers | |

|It’s telling someone you can do something for them. |Can I help you with the shopping? |

4. MODALS + INFINITIVE: MAY.

|May. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Possibility | |

|It’s very possibly true, but I’m not sure. |I may travel to Nepal. |

|Permission | |

|In formal contexts. |May I come in? –Yes, you may. |

| |Rulers may not be used during the exam. |

|Admitting facts | |

|It’s true that it can be like that. |You may know the lesson, but you’ve failed. |

|Suggesting if there are no options | |

|It’s better for you to do it. |You may as well confess, since I know it. |

5. MODALS + INFINITIVE: MIGHT.

|Might. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Possibility | |

|It’s less possibly true in the future. |She might marry him next summer. |

|Probability ---with WELL--- | |

|It’s quite probable. |Pack everything now. He might well be here earlier than expected. |

|Suggesting if there are no options | |

|It’s better for you to do it. |He might as well stay, since It’s raining. |

6. MODALS + INFINITIVE: COULD.

|Could. |

|In the present, past or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Ability | |

|It was my physical capacity. |He stood on a chair but he could see it. |

|Know how to | |

|It’s learning or knowledge in the past. |I could read when I was three. |

|Possibility | |

|It’s possible, but I’m not sure. |She could work until late this evening. |

|Probability ---with WELL--- | |

|It’s quite probable. |Take your coat. It could well be quite cold. |

|Permission | |

|It’s asking for, denying or giving it. |Could I sit next to you? –Yes, you could. |

|Also, it’s talking about it in the past. |Could I open the door? –No, you couldn’t. |

| |Last year you couldn’t park here. |

7. MODALS + INFINITIVE: SHOULD.

|Should. |

|In the present or future |

|Uses |Examples |

|Advice | |

|It’s the best thing to do in my opinion. |You should brush your teeth after meals. |

|Probability | |

|It’s probable. You expect something to be true or to happen. |It should be there before the end of the month. |

8. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: MUST.

|Must have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Deduction | |

|It’s used to speculate about past situations. |It must have been love. It’s incredible. |

9. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: CAN.

|Can have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Deduction ---NEGATIVE--- | |

|It’s imposible that something took place in the past. I don’t |It can’t have been her. She was too young. |

|think so. | |

10. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: MAY.

|May have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Possibility | |

|Perhaps something happened. More likely. |She may have been on time for the casting. |

11. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: MIGHT.

|Might have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Possibility | |

|Perhaps something happened. Less likely. |They might have sold the car since it was the only luxurious one |

| |in the offer. |

12. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: COULD.

|Could have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Possibility | |

|Perhaps something happened. |I could have taken the train to London, but I changed my mind in |

|It was possible, but didn’t happen. |the last minute. |

13. MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: SHOULD.

|Should have + Past Participle. |

|In the past |

|Uses |Examples |

|Probability | |

|We expected something to happen, but don’t know if it happened or|He should have arrived by ten, but we don’t know anything about |

|not. |him yet. |

|Advice | |

|We are critical. We say what we should/shouldn’t have done. |We should have bought the tickets for the concert last week. Now |

| |we are going to miss it. |

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