Chapter 10
Chapter 10 Pregnancy, Childbirth and Motherhood
Prenatal care
Pregnancy—9-month sickness
What do you know about pregnancy? How is this information known? Research?
Pregnancy normal and healthy, although occasionally uncomfortable and inconvenient
Physical Reactions During Pregnancy
Weight gain; Protrusion of abdomen
Breast tenderness
Frequent urination
Fatigue & nausea
Individual differences
Interest in Sexual activities
Emotional Reactions During Pregnancy---great variation exists between women
Positive Emotions
wonder and awe—new growing person
married women—doing what they are “supposed to”
transition into adulthood—sense of accomplishment and purpose
sense of attachment
anticipation—find pleasure in looking forward to tasks of motherhood and child rearing—and a source of satisfaction
Negative Emotions
change—emotions fragile and changing
depression, fears and anxieties
self-image and unattractive—culture that values slimness—woman’s self-image may deteriorate
loss of identity—now a “pregnant woman
health issues
Factors influencing a woman's response to pregnancy
physical reaction
planned pregnancy
relationship with baby's father
economic status
miscarriage-unintended termination of pregancy
Stressful events
Attitudes Toward Pregnant Women—pregnancy a public event
Situational factors—context shopper or apply for job
Hostile and benevolent sexism—pregnant women seen as fragile and dependent, less threatening
Attitudes a function of where maternity clothes are located-- Maternity clothes and social status—high status stores: femininity, privacy; low status stores: image of being fat with job to do
Research by Shelley Taylor and Ellen Langer 1977: pregnant or not in elevator
People tend to avoid standing close to pregnant women, men especially. Both looked furtively looked at stomach
People likely to help a pregnant woman
Employment during pregnancy
Ethnic, class, and cultural differences—black women not expected to stay home full time; developing countries often expected to work
Combining career and children—especially if college graduate
Typical Work Patterns
Employment during pregnancy does not endanger the health of the pregnant woman or the baby
Factors Related to Premature Delivery:
physically demanding job
night shift
prolonged standing without a break
Emotional Reactions to Childbirth--Wide variation
Intense joy
Reactions to pain
Fathers' reactions—when participate in birth of child, experience intense joy
Motherhood
Images of mothers and motherhood----Is there a motherhood mystique?
Motherhood mandate
Stereotypes About Motherhood
Contradictory messages of happy fulfillment, perfect mothering, and evil force
Stereotype emphasizes that woman’s ultimate fulfillment achieved by becoming a mother
Short adjustment, then competent mother, devoted to family.
The Reality of Motherhood
Negative Factors
Child care is physically exhausting; sleep deprivation is also common.
Roughly 35% of infants in U.S. are born to unmarried women; mothers may not have adequate income.
Fathers help much less with child rearing than mothers had expected.
For several weeks after childbirth, women report that they feel leaky and dirty, coping with after-birth discharges. They are also likely to feel pain in the vaginal area, the uterus, and the breasts.
New mothers seldom have training for the tasks of motherhood.
they often report feeling incompetent.
Babies cry much more than parents expect, and they do not smile until they are about 2 months old.
In reality, babies do not smile until they are about 2 months old; also, many babies are fussy, and they resist cuddling.
Mothers of newborns may have little contact with other adults.
The woman’s romantic partner may feel neglected.
Women feel disappointed in themselves because they do not match the standards of the ideal mother, the completely unselfish and perfect woman.
People frequently blame mothers—more than fathers—for most of the problems that infants and children develop.
Infant Mortality
Positive factors:
Discovering a sense of strength—empowered, confident
Interactions with their children—intense loving interaction
Children can be fun and interesting
Look at world from new viewpoint
Develop new aspects of personality----Help parent develop an important part of own personality---ability to nurture
When fathers participate and express admiration for their partners, marital satisfaction increases
Many mom’s state difficult to describe positive side, more abstract, more intense.
Motherhood and Women of Color-- Wide variation of customs across cultures
Stereotypes of Black mothers—Black welfare mother & Black superwoman
Extended families provide stabilizing influence in Black and Latina/o cultures
Continuity of generations emphasized in many North American Indian cultures
Lesbian Mothers
Diversity of situations
Diversity of situations
Lesbian mothers and heterosexual mothers have similar parenting styles.
Lesbian mom: children raised by lesbians are well adjusted, and do not differ substantially from children raised by heterosexuals.
Differences found in gender stereotypes in children—because raised in less traditional setting. Partners likely to equally share financial and family responsibilities.
Lesbian mothers and heterosexual mothers have similar parenting styles
Lesbian mothers are more likely to engage in imaginative play with their children and less likely to spank them.
Most children raised by lesbians are positive about their mothers' relationships
Custody and adoption
Breast Feeding
Education
Age
Ethnicity
Social support
Health benefits of breast feeding
Postpartum Disturbances Postpartum period
Postpartum blues (maternity blues)
short-lasting change in mood
usually occurs during first 10 days after childbirth
experienced by about half of new mothers
symptoms include crying, sadness, insomnia, irritability, anxiety, and feeling overwhelmed
Postpartum depression (postnatal depression)
more serious disorder
symptoms include extreme sadness, fatigue, despair, low of interest in enjoyable activities, and loss of interest in the baby
affects about 10% to 15% of women who have given birth
begins to develop within 6 months after childbirth
may last for many months
similar to other kinds of depression
Social factors
stress
economic status
social support
No consistent relationship found between hormonal levels and postpartum disorders
Returning to the Workplace After Childbirth
Individual differences
Length of maternity leave not correlated with mental health measures except for women who consider their employment an important part of their identity
Homemakers, women employed part time, and women employed full time have similar mental health measures one year after childbirth.
Maternity/Family Leave Policies
Deciding Whether To Have Children
Attitudes Toward Women Choosing Not to Have Children
compulsory motherhood
child-free women rated as lower than women with children on fulfillment, happiness and having a rewarding life
advice from friends and relatives
the number of children
Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Child-Free
Advantages of Being Child-Free:
1. Parenthood is an irrevocable decision., you can’t take children back to the store for a refund.
2. Some couples are afraid that they will not be good parents.
3. Parenthood is extremely stressful.
4. Some couples realize that they don't have the energy required to raise children.
5. Some couples realize that they genuinely do not enjoy children.
6. Some couples are reluctant to give up a satisfying and flexible lifestyle for a more child-centered orientation.
7. Children can interfere with educational and vocational plans
8. Raising children can be extremely expensive.
9. People can spend time with other people's children, even if they don’t have children of their own.
10.Some couples do not want to bring children into a world threatened by overpopulation, nuclear war, terrorism, and other serious global problems.
Reasons for having children
1 Parenthood offers a lifelong relationship of love, connection, nurturance, and social interactions with other human beings, children can enrich people’s lives.
2. Parents have a unique chance to be responsible for someone’s education and training. in raising a child, they can clarify their own values and instill them in their child.
3. Parents can watch their children grow into socially responsible adults and helpe the world become a better place.
4. Parenthood is challenging, it offers people the opportunity to be creative and learn about own potential
5. Through parenting, people can fulfill their relationship with their spouse, and they can become a “family.”
6. Children can be a source of fun, pleasure, and pride.
Infertility
10-15% of couples
Health and age factors
Fertile and infertile women do not differ in their marital satisfaction or self-esteem
Many different reactions
Infertile women report higher levels of distress and anxiety
Caught between hopefulness and mourning
Women of color, stereotypes, and racist health care providers
Medical treatments and reproductive technologies
Many women manage to refocus their lives when infertility seems likely
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