Year 11 English: Function and Power of Language



Year 10 English: Critical Reading

Involve the reader

Use of pronouns

Pronouns are words that stand in the place of nouns, including: I, me, my, we, us, our, you, your, he, she, him, her, his, it, its, they, them, their.

Careful selection of pronouns can be a convenient way for speakers to include or exclude themselves and/or others, according to the requirements of the argument.

The plural form of the first person pronoun – we, us, our – can be considered inclusive when the writer uses it to establish a link with the reader. Inclusive pronouns involve readers in the content of the text or make them feel more accountable for the issues that the author raises.

Questions

Questions, sometimes called interrogatives, function to provoke a response in the reader. When asked a question, it is polite to answer.

There are 4 main types of questions:

1. straightforward questions simply require that you supply an answer (‘What time is it now?’) or submit to a request (‘Can you please turn to the next page?’).

2. reflective questions are designed to stimulate the reader’s thinking on the topic without necessarily expecting the reader to know the answer (‘Why and how and when did human beings start using those sounds which we call human language?’).

3. investigative questions are designed to lead the reader to a conclusion or a solution (‘What happens, then, when we add some magnesium?’).

4. rhetorical questions do not require an answer at all because it is self-evident. When your parents say to you, ‘How many times do I have to tell you to clean up your room?’ they are not anticipating that you will answer them with a number. Writers use rhetorical questions for effect, as a means of summing up or emphasising their point. They are used:

- to make a point which is so obvious it does not require an answer (these are often sarcastic); or

- to raise an issue which the write will answer themselves; or

- to encourage the reader to reflect on the question in their own mind.

Gain Credibility

Statistics

Any fact, statistic, example or quotation from a credible source can be used as evidence to support a writer’s argument. Facts, statistics, examples and quotations seem to ground the writer’s argument in reality.

The inclusion of quotations by well-known or respected people gives the author’s point of view more credibility. It is as if the writer is saying, ‘Don’t just take my word for it, ask so-and-so.’

The association of the content of the text with significant people elevates the importance of what the writer is saying.

Evidence also reassures readers that writers have done their homework. This creates confidence in the readers making them more willing to accept the writer’s point of view.

Facts, statistics, examples and quotations can also be used for dramatic effect.

In the last year in Australia 284,000 new jobs were created. - Peter Costello 13.7.07

The Treasurer’s presentation of the number 284,000 in this case has greater impact than a percentage (‘2.5% increase in jobs’) or a vague term like ‘many’.

Expert Opinion

We accept that certain categories of people are entitled to make specific knowledge claims, so we give special authority to their accounts.

In the claim ‘the psychologist told me my child is gifted’ a parent presents this information as coming from a reliable source. The psychologist belongs to the category of ‘expert’, and is thus is entitled to decide that the child is gifted. Citing the psychologist builds the credibility of this parent’s claim.

Balance

Writers often try to appear unbiased or even minded by incorporating the opposing argument or alternative points of view into their discussion. This gives the impression that the author is reasonable and worth listening to.

It also gives them an opportunity to neutralise or discredit opposing arguments and points of view, or shoot them down in flames, while appearing impartial. As the opposition argument is reduced to ashes, the writer’s argument stands firm.

I see the importance of providing funding for children with learning disabilities – we do need to give those kids a fair chance. But, at the end of the day, spending money on the gifted kids is simply more practical because they’re the ones who will move our society forward.

Often other voices are included (quotations or dialogue) to give the impression of balance. Presenting other people’s words in a direct quote makes the reporting of their words seem more reliable, which in turn builds the ‘believability’ of the argument.

He said to me, ‘I can’t get over how much you’ve improved.’

Figurative language

Language that creates a picture in the mind of the listener can assist in the interest level of a speech. The listener visualises or imagines figures, images and comparisons.

a) Metaphor

Describing two unrelated things using direct comparison. Sometimes the metaphor can be drawn out and becomes an Extended Metaphor.

Example: her gaze was icy; the salesman was a shark; the whole sorry incident left a sour taste for every one concerned.

b) Simile

Describing two unrelated things or ideas using the linkers "like" or "as".

Example: My love is like a red, red rose that's newly sprung in June, My love is like a melody that's sweetly played in tune; As fast as a leopard; As good as gold; as thick as a brick;

c) Personification

Giving human qualities to non human or inanimate things

Example: The Australian Dollar had a quiet week; Life dealt him a heavy blow; Clouds passed sorrowfully over the graveyard

Humour

Humour is entertaining and evokes a positive response in the reader (often applause at the cleverness of the author).

It also produces consensus or general agreement. If everyone laughs together, they are all thinking the same thing.

Humour usually relies on the following, on their own, or in combination with one another:

1) Exaggeration (sometimes known as hyperbole)

Anything in excess is likely to provoke laughter. We laugh at Homer Simpson when he swallows a molten candle in readiness to eat the world’s hottest chilly so that he can win the ‘cook-off competition.’

Caricature, satire (sending up someone) and parody (sending up something) rely heavily on exaggeration. For example, Prince Charles is often portrayed as having enormous ears like an elephant.

2) The unexpected.

Surprise can often produce humorous results. We do not expect someone to fart as they bow to the queen. The punch line of a joke is usually unexpected. In fact anything that suddenly disrupts decorum – burping, swearing, tripping, shouting – is likely to cause laughter.

3) The incongruous

Anything that appears ridiculous or out of the ordinary is also liable to produce amusement or laughter.

4) Wit.

A writer who can make some clever connections between words and ideas is often described as witty. Wit commonly relies on wordplay, suggestion or innuendo, and irony or sarcasm. Amusement or applause, rather than outright laughter, are typical responses to wit.

Other notable features

contrast, mood, irony, allusion to other texts, dialogue etc)

Repetition

Repetition is a rhetorical device (like questions) used for:

• emphasis or highlighting

• summary or recapping

• recall or reminder

The insistence of repetition, returning time and time again to the same phrase, point or image, suggests permanence, as in an absolute truth.

This can be used effectively to emphasise and to evoke emotion.

Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!

Martin Luther King 23.8.1963

We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.

Winston Churchill 4.6.1940

Saddam Hussein was dangerous with weapons.  Saddam Hussein was dangerous with the ability to make weapons.  He was a dangerous man in the dangerous part of the world.

George W. Bush 8.2.2004 - defending the invasion of Iraq

Contrast

Contrast is fundamental to the way we think. We must differentiate to make sense of our experiences. We do not know what small is until we have observed big, what soft is until we have heard loud, what sadness is until we have felt happiness, what slow is until we have gone fast, and so forth.

In contrasting pairs, like the ones above, one of the two serves to highlight, accentuate or emphasise the other. Usually, the one that is chosen, against which the other is set, is privileged in the text, the one the author wants you to identify with.

Irony

Irony results from a coincidence of opposite or contrasting meanings, either intentionally or by accident. Its power is derived from the tension between what is stated or expected and what is intended or happens.

During a battle scene in a war film, soldiers might pass a sign on the outskirts of a town which reads, ‘Welcome to our friendly town’. The irony of the message would be hard to overlook. Visitors to the town would normally anticipate a friendly greeting but this is the opposite of what the soldiers can expect. The reminder of friendliness (what the sign states) amidst hostility (what is actually happening) highlights the grim reality that the soldiers are facing.

Three part lists

Lists of three sound particularly complete, satisfying and convincing.

Ein volk, ein reich, ein fuhrer! (One people, one empire, one leader!) Adolf Hitler

Liberté, égalité, fraternité! (Freedom, equality, brotherhood!)

rallying cry of the French Revolution

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears

Antony in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar

Pun

A pun is a clever and amusing coincidence of words that generates more than one meaning.

The title, ‘The Strolling Bones’ by Earl Scott conjures up a literal image of bones (skeletons) moving at a slow pace. The coincidence in the form and sound (rhyme) of these words with the name of the famous group links the two and generates an additional meaning. The once wild boys of rock, in the eyes of the author, because of their advancing age (signified by the word ‘bones) have slowed their pace down to a stroll.

Rhyme

Any words that rhyme and make sense at the same time usually attract the reader’s attention.

For example, the rhyme in the title, ‘Rights for the mites,’ is not only eye catching but also links the two words ‘rights’ and ‘mites’ in a substantial way. Once again, this is the point of the article, which is reinforced by the coincidence of rhyme.

Rhyme traditionally came about as an aid to memory when the earliest performers recited long stories (sagas) to their audiences. However, in this instance we could say that the rhyming of the two words helps the reader remember the important point that the author is trying to make about the lack of rights for children.

Visual Elements

In addition to the actual words, sentences or paragraphs themselves, it is sometimes necessary to consider the layout and design of the text.

Layout and design refers to titles, subheadings, formatting, pictures, graphics, and colour. Individually and collectively they all contribute to shaping a response in the reader.

Furthermore, you must consider how visual elements combine with written elements in directing this response.

• Catchy title (encourage people to keep reading)

• Graphics and headline signalling type of column (bite size chunks of information)

• Picture of writer sometimes appears (relate to, adds credibility)

• Brief paragraphs to suit casual reading

General Tips

• Read the questions first.

• Read the text. Highlight or underline relevant sections.

• Answer the questions in full sentences, making sure that you repeat the question in your answer.

• Stick to the question. There is no point in writing about what the question does not ask you to consider.

• Follow the recommended length of answers. They are a clear indicator of the marks allocated for that question.

• Refer to authors by their full name or surname, not their first name. Avoid unidentified pronouns. For example ‘he’ or ‘her’.

• Avoid using slang. For example, write ‘convinced’ instead of ‘conned’.

• Check your spelling, especially of words actually in the text where you can copy directly, but also words you know you might use, such as ‘article’, ‘simile’, ‘alliteration’, etc.

Author’s Purpose

If asked to speculate on the author’s purposes in writing the text then think about whether it is to convince, persuade, entertain, shock, reflect, mourn, celebrate or whatever. Do not retell the actual points or conclusions of the piece, because these are part of the means of achieving the purposes.

‘How’ Question

In a ‘how’ question your task is to identify and discuss as many stylistic features as you can in the time available.

Support each of the techniques you identify with a specific example or quotation.

Having identified the techniques you also have to explain how it works on you as a reader. What makes it effective and why? Don’t just repeat the writer’s point because this shows you understand what is written but you need to show you understand how it is communicated.

‘What’ Question

In a ‘what’ question use your own words to indicate your comprehension of the text. Then use quotations to demonstrate your points about the text.

Critical Reading Analysis Sheet

Use this sheet to practise your Critical Reading skills on any text you encounter. For example a poster, speech, advertisement, newspaper article, short story, website, instruction manual, letter, email etc.

|Stylistic Techniques |Example(s) |Effect on the reader |

|Form: (eg letter, article, narrative) | | |

|Narrative point of view | | |

|Implied audience | | |

|Structure & sequence of | | |

|Whole | | |

| | | |

|Paragraphs | | |

| | | |

|Sentences | | |

| | | |

|When/where is the central idea of the text | | |

|presented? Effect? | | |

|Layout &/or Visual Images | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|Titles effectiveness | | |

|Vocabulary | | |

|Tone | | |

| | | |

|Involves reader by (eg use of pronouns such as | | |

|inclusive/exclusive 1st or 3rd person, singular or| | |

|plural; rhetorical questions etc) | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|Use of evidence (eg statistics, authority, | | |

|personal experience, balance etc) | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|Appeals to (eg justice, emotion) | | |

|Use of Figurative language (eg metaphors, similes,| | |

|personification) | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|Use of humour | | |

| | | |

|Other notable features (eg use of repetition, | | |

|contrast, mood, irony, allusion to other texts, | | |

|dialogue etc) | | |

| | | |

| | | |

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