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Exploring Drug Use Amongst Police Officers and Its Implications for The Use of Excessive Force
By
Anthony Bryant
Jessica Stewart
Nicole Williams
A Paper Submitted to
Dr. Waldner
In Fulfillment of the Requirements for
Research Methods PA6601
Term 3
Troy University
Atlanta Campus
03/04/2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
1 Introduction
2 Statement of the Problem
2.1 Purpose
2.2 Research Problem
2.3 Research Question
3 Literature Review
4 Hypothesis
4.1 Alternative Hypothesis
4.2 Null Hypothesis
CHAPTER 2
5 Design
6 Population/ Sample
7 Variables
8 Data Collection
9 Materials
10 Data Analysis
CHAPTER 3
11 Anticipated Findings
12 Implications
13 Recommendations
Appendices
Table 1.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
References
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1 Background Information
The excessive use of force by police officers has become a big phenomenon across the United States in recent years following the brutality displayed on our television sets, on our blog sites, and our social media sites i.e. Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Even with the wealth of cases provided that are deemed excessive force, the term does not have a solidified definition; however, for the sake of this paper, we will define excessive use force as “acts that threaten or inflict physical harm on suspects” (Terrill, 2003). In this paper we will define excessive force as the dependent variable, and the factors that contribute to the use of excessive force, which are our independent variables. In finding some critical elements that can contribute to excessive force, there was no information found on drug abuse as it relates to potential uses of excessive force.
While there have been many indicators and reasons deemed appropriate for the use of excessive force, we often times think of an officer’s force in relation to external controls as opposed to an officer’s internal influences. Though police officers go through mental evaluations prior to coming on the force, these illnesses can be diagnosed or indicated later on in their careers. It will be important to find research on drug use in order to prevent excessive force.
2 Statement of the problem
2.1 Purpose
The purpose of this research is to examine how drug abuse by police officers affects the decision to use necessary force or excessive force in a given situation. Though officers have been found to abuse drugs, it is important to note how it affects not only their personal lives, but their capability to do their jobs appropriately. This problem affects not only the police officers abusing the drugs; it affects the presumed suspects or victims in a given situation, and also the witnesses and all citizens in the United States, as we could all potentially have a run in with the law.
There have been numerous studies suggesting that officers have been abusing drugs and participating in illegal activities since the beginning of time, such as Dr. Philip Stinson’s article on police crime (Stinson, 2015). Typically, officers are observed participating in illegal drug trades and distributions, white collared crimes and obstruction of justice. There have been no studies finding the significance of drug abuse and the effect it has on an officer’s probability of using excessive force, making it such a phenomenon. After an email correspondence between Dr. Stinson and I, he presented information that showed that of a total of 6724 crime-related charges, only 608 crimes are drug related (Stinson, personal communication, 2015). In the Michael Brown case, after the autopsy was conducted, there was evidence stating that he had marijuana in his system, however there is no investigation on Darren Wilson and what was present in his system at the time.
To understand the intent in the research, we first define drug abuse, the independent variable. Drug abuse at it relates to this study, is the ingesting of both legal (prescribed medication and alcohol) and illegal (marijuana, crack cocaine, heroin, etc.) beyond a manageable degree. We also want the reader to understand that on duty police officers are the subjects of this research, as studying off duty police officers allows for confounding variables to be more significant and likely, which will create unwanted biases.
2.3 Research Problem
Drug abuse of an officer is a problem to all who encounter an officer or who may encounter an officer. Citizens are arrested, given citations, and institutionalized daily for illegal drug use and legal drug use in public places, which they consider disorderly conduct or disrupting the peace; however they commit the same crime just as often, or even more. It is a problem that needs to be addressed to help not only the citizens feel safer and treated equally to the police, but to help those officers suffering from addiction and to keep the excessive use of force due to the lack of inhibitions to a minimum or eradicate the epidemic altogether.
2.4 Research Question
How does police officers’ drug abuse affect excessive force?
3 Literature Review
Excessive force is tragically considered an officers’ only means to an end. During recent events in the last few years in America, the use of excessive force has been reexamined. In order to properly dissect the complex issue of excessive force, we have to clearly define it. There are numerous independent variables the correlate to excessive force. Variables studied in this literature review include but are not limited to: (1) excessive force and its definition (2) the officer’s relationship with a given community across urban, suburban, and rural areas, (3) “high-rate” or “low–rate” officers, (4) citizen and officer characteristics that influence an officer’s decision to use or not use excessive force, (5) the race and perception of the suspects, (6) the mental health status of the community.
CONCEPTUALIZING EXCESSIVE FORCE
Over the past twenty years, there has been an increase in discussion regarding police excessive force; however, due to more recent events, discussions have reshaped into action and more people are taking to the streets speaking out against the use of excessive force. There is no working, universal definition of excessive force to date (Alpert & Smith, 1994). It is understood that reasonable force is interwoven in the fabric of police culture. Combative, lucid, and dangerous suspects allows police officers the flexibility to use force to subdue a person for public safety (Alpert & Smith, 1994). There is a blurred line between reasonable use of force and
in the court of law (Alpert & Smith, 1994) It is within this gray area that problems ensure because actions are not clearly defined which in turns makes it is difficult for officers, juries, and citizens to understand whether or acts are justifiable.
Another aspect to explore while conceptualizing excessive force is the public’s response and observation of police officers. The perception of excessive force may be more damaging than the actual facts. Media coverage, including social media, gives a stage to events that may have once been considered isolated. Understanding community views of police is imperative while discussing excessive use of force. According to (cite) research, most individuals have a positive interaction with police. Nevertheless, nearly 10% of citizens are dissatisfied with the policing in their neighborhoods. The two highest discrepancies found in their results were the community citizens lived in (safe or unsafe) and participants who witnessed excessive force within 12 months prior to the study (cite). In conclusion, the location and witnessing of excessive force gravely impacts the impression of police agencies within the community.
CONCEPTUALIZING RELATIONSHIP TO COMMUNITY
Allan Jiao (2001) begins by suggesting that smaller size cities create the perception that police are more readily available to come by a community or frequent popular areas than a larger city, which allows these smaller jurisdictions to gain more public trust and support from citizens of the area. With the community behind a jurisdiction’s back in decision making, an officer may be less likely to use excessive force on these particular supporters. Suburban residents have more frequent patrolling of the neighborhoods than most urban areas, allowing them to feel safer and offers a more favorable impression, again, lessening the potential for excessive force (Jiao, 2001). In this study, it was also determined that urban minority groups have such disdain for police officers because of how they work the beats in these communities. In these poorer, black neighborhoods the police tend to be more authoritarian and excessive than is white suburban and rural areas (Smith, 1986). Typically, because of these interactions, smaller, more rural and suburban communities are more conservative and supportive of the law and its officers than police in urban communities (Jiao, 2001). As suspected, a police jurisdiction relies heavily on a community’s endorsement to be less likely to inflict excessive force on its residents, as seen in these rural and suburban areas.
Conceptualizing Police Officers and Drug Use:
Drug use in America is a seemingly growing epidemic in recent years. Although there is a plethora of data regarding drug use, very few studies report police officers use of drugs and alcohol (Cross, 2004). In Cross and Larry’s article, they discuss implications of police traumas and addictions (2004). It almost goes without saying that a police officer has one of the toughest jobs, experiencing a range of events in the course of a single day. Many officers may even witness or experience multiple traumatic events. It is not necessary the event that leads to an addiction, but the coping skills officers use to work through the trauma (Cross, 2004). Some studies report that as many as 25% of officers are indeed alcohol dependent (Cross,2004). These numbers may be slightly off because there little research has been conducted examining an officer’s drug intake. Due to the nature of the job, policing and drinking seemingly go hand and hand thus making 25% a somewhat reasonable number (Cross,2004). Nevertheless, it is imperative to note that drug and alcohol abuse is a possibility within police departments.
CONCEPTUALIZING “HIGH RATE” AND “LOW RATE” OFFICERS
We are presented with the terms high-rate and low-rate officers that will help gauge citizen’s perspective of excessive force. “High-rate” officers are defined as officers who were involved in three or more incidents, and “low-rate” officers are those who were involved in less than three force incidents (Brandl and Stroshine 2012). In this large municipal police department, there were over 2,000 officers employed, 50% white, 40% African American, and 10% Hispanic. It was discovered that high-rate officers are far more likely to be young and male, and patrolling high crime areas with more high crime shifts (3:00 pm to 11:00pm, and 7:00pm to 3:00 am). There was, however, little differences in these young males races or time on the force. These same high-rate officers tend to more often use tasers and lethal methods of subduing suspects than low-rate officers who tend to stick to OC spray or bodily force (Brandl et al. 2012). High-rate officers make over twice as many arrests as low-rate officers, which puts them in greater probability to use excessive force. The last finding in this study states that when more officers are present or called for backup, the more likely it is that excessive force will be used, by these same high-rate officers (Brandl et al. 2012). Regardless, some of the instances of the usage of force are deemed necessary within a given situation, however, there are just enough times where the officer’s use of force can be excessive and unnecessary, in these cases, the situations needs to be looked at on a micro level, case by case.
CONCEPTUALIZING SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
The next study follows citizens’ characteristics, which include race, age, and sex. The results of a survey given to the citizens of different communities indicate that Black respondents were twice more likely than White respondents to report disrespectful treatment by police, and nine times more likely to report physical abuse by police officers than White respondents (Son and Rome, 2004). Of the survey’s findings, race of the suspect proved to be the strongest factor in excessive force, with the neighborhood of the suspect, the second strongest factor, and the suspect’s gender and age being the smallest factors in an officer’s use of force. In the study, the probability of a White woman, age 35 and older who lived in a “safe” neighborhood had a chance of .025 of receiving or observing harassment, while a Black man, younger than 35, and living in an “unsafe” neighborhood, has a high of .809 in being harassed and discriminated against. Seven out of ten Black respondents said they had witnessed or been a victim of excessive force in just the last 12 months (Son et al. 2004). In the second half of this study, we determine police officer’s characteristics that influence the use of excessive force. An assigned beat played a significant role, those officers who were in areas of high criminal activity were more likely to use excessive force or witness excessive force by their peers. Supervisors are also less likely to engage in excessive force than non-supervisory officers, as they have more political ties to the jurisdiction (Son et al. 2004). These findings are not all inclusive, but they allow the readers to get an idea of some of the common factors associated with the excessive use of force.
CONCEPTUALIZING STEREOTYPES AND PERCEPTIONS
In cases with claims of illegal use of excessive force the first thing that pops in the minds of spectators is: this must be the result of a false stereotype. Under the umbrella of the false stereotype is racial profiling which has been a big concern in today’s latest tragedies. Social scientist have made a huge attempt to understand how stereotypes transform into negative actions and judgments (Bodenhausen, 1988; Farrell and Holmes,1991). All research from these scholars have led to a similar conclusion: stereotypes are turned on by situations and are usually preexisting, but can affect reasoning in many different ways.
Bodenhausen (1988) introduces two models that can help us understand stereotypes, the Interpretation and Information Processing models. One states (Interpretation Model) that stereotypes collects information by its perception rather that what it may actually be, whereas the Information Processing Model shows that stereotypes affects the perception of situations so which in turn affects the reasoning process of certain situations (Bodenhausen, 1988).
Branscombe and Smith (1990), introduce a combination of these models. They say that the convincing proof of any situation will vary from situation to situation and that this proof is affected by stereotypes and that the actual outcome of any situation depends totally on the social make-up of the evaluator and what their make-up considers acceptable in that certain situation (Branscombe and Smith, 1990). But this is not the end-all be-all. There are other factors that can cause stereotype influence. For instance, we can see the reduction of the effectiveness of stereotypes by multiple situations where inconsistencies ring about more than the stereotype actually being true.
The perception of excessive force is very important when grappling with terms such as excessive force by police. It often varies by race, gender, class, and personal experiences. Police officers are not the only ones who receive stereotypes or prejudice. African Americans, particularly males, are often labeled negatively in society, which possibly explains perceived higher rates of police brutality against them. Kleider, Cavrak, and Knuycky studied “whether there is a bias toward remembering and re-categorizing stereotypical faces as criminals” (Kleider, Cavrak, & Knuycky, 2012, p. 1200). The results of their study concluded that facial recognition correctly identified and misidentified criminals, and further proved stereotypes by racial recognition (Kleider, et al). The subjects of this study where everyday people and not police officers which may cause one to question if officers have similar bias as citizens. In light of perceived bias towards ethnic groups and their increased “likelihood” to be criminals, more studies have been completed to better understand its relations.
CONCEPTUALIZING RACE OF DECISON MAKERS
(Judge, Jury, Prosecution, Defense)
With these attempts to conceptualize the stereotyping process there seems to be a few testable areas that may be relevant to decision making. One in particular as noted by Bernard (1979), Ugwuebu (1979), and Gordon (1990) is that the decision can be affected by the race of the person who is actually making the decision. Data from The Office of Professional Standards (OPS) was used to test this theory. OPS was established in 1974 made up of all civilians (to reduce the chance of the possible peer pressure to protect a guilty officer) with orders to investigate complaints about inappropriate use of force as well as excessive force used by Chicago officers in the late 60s and early 70s. Although OPS itself was plagued with controversy in the beginning concerning the whitewashing of police misconduct, it was not abolished thanks to Chicago’s first black Mayor Harold Washington. Instead he decided to overhaul the staff by adding minorities in key positions such as the administrator of OPS. David Fogel, who was a renowned criminal justice reformer college professor, was appointed to the administrator of OPS position
Headed by Fogel, OPS continued its research with new categories that were to be used before and after the study to show if the claims of illegal excessive use of force were valid or fraudulent. The categories used were: sustained, exonerated, not sustained, and unfounded. For the purpose of this research the categories were defined as respectfully: sustained - justified evidence that shows the conclusion was correct and the behavior was unlawful; exonerated – the officer’s actions were lawful; not sustained – insufficient evidence to prove or disapprove allegations, and unfounded – false allegations to begin with.
After the research study concluded, results showed that in 1985, 81 percent, which equated to 1,551 of the 1,914 cases were not sustained. 3.5 percent, which equates to 68 of the 1,914 cases were sustained. 1.8 percent, which equates to 36 cases were exonerated, and 13.5 percent (259 cases) resulted in unfounded because the results showed that the incidents did not happen at all.
After the data of the research from OPS in 1985 was analyzed it showed that the outcomes of these investigations were heavily dependent on independent testimony and evidence that didn’t come from testimonies (Kerstetter and Van Winkle, 1989). The analysis of the data also showed that evidence was not always available to researchers due to the fact that they were only able to retrieve 7.1 percent of the cases in which there were independent testimonies and evidence, when in fact thee were a total of 16.8 percent of cases that had independent witnesses present (Kerstetter, 1995).
But in addition to these findings there was an overwhelming conclusion. The race of the investigator was shown to be a significant factor in whether or not the case was found valid or fraudulent. Out of the percentages listed, the results indicated that black investigators were more likely to rule as not sustained and white investigators were more likely to rule as an unfounded disposition, and these dispositions were more likely to occur when the complainant and the investigator were the same race (Kerstetter, Rasinski, and Heiert, 1996).
CONCEPTUALIZING PUBLIC HEALTH AND POLICY
Another aspect of excessive force that others have investigated includes its relation to public health. The article “Characterizing Perceived Police Violence: Implications for Public Health” written by Cooper, Moore, and Krieger, has increased the understanding of police brutality in conjunction with public health commissioned by the World Health Organization (WHO) (Cooper, Moore, and Krieger, 2004). Their research study focused on one local precedent in New York City that focused on the surrounding community, and looked to identify police perceptions between drug users and non-drug users of citizens- to see if there is any variation in perceptions (Cooper, Moore, and Krieger, 2004). The perception of police officers and brutality is often a hot topic for discussion during recent events regarding race-related police shootings. However, dissecting the lens of excessive force has not been thoroughly researched in the lens of public health. In conclusion, the scholars discussed that the perception of policing varied little between drug users and non-drug users, but the extent of force used by officers was found in more cases involving drug users (Cooper, Moore, and Krieger, 2004). Although this research cannot be generalized to the United States because it focused one precedent in one city, it does provide an in depth view of police perceptions.
Thompson and Dowling (2001) research the stakes of excessive force used by officers in relations to drug suspects. They extensively reviewed court cases involving officers and their use of force. It seems that the ambiguous policy has led to cracks within the system. Thompson and Dowling argue that more transparent policies regarding excessive force are needed because it ends up being costly on the back end when accounting for trials, financial responsibilities of agencies, and careers (Thompson and Dowling, 2001). Drug suspects are likely to experience excessive force by police. While there are studies regarding police brutality against race and drug suspects, little has been researched about a police officer’s drug use or the department’s possible culture of drug use and its correlation to excessive force.
4 Hypotheses
4.1 Alternative Hypothesis
Police officers who abuse drugs are more likely to use excessive force on potential suspects while on duty.
4.2 Null Hypothesis
Drug abuse by police officers does not affect their likelihood to use excessive force while on duty.
CHAPTER 2- METHODOLOGY
5 Design
Excessive force cases such as Oscar Grant, Sean Bell, Michael Brown, and Eric Garner have sparked recent news exploring police officer’s use of excessive force. The discussion surrounding these events include but are not limited to the socioeconomics of the community, suspect and victim stereotypes, police force training, and laws that govern the justice system. In an effort to better understand the circumstances leading up to a police officer using excessive force, it is procedure for victims of excessive force to be tested for drugs at the time of their death. However, after research, police officers are not subjected to such policies that force them to be drug tested, even if they are directly involved with an incident. The purpose of this study is to examine if excessive force is caused by an officer’s drug abuse. Research is typically done on characteristics of a given suspect or victim of excessive force, but there is little research on characteristics or behaviors of the police officers committing the act of excessive force. The following research design will allow us to discuss possible correlations of drug use and reports of excessive force
To explain the potential phenomenon, an exploratory research design will be used to investigate the relationship between police officers and drug use, which is our independent variable, as it relates to excessive force, the known dependent variable (Chambliss, 2013, 26). The study will be a longitudinal, cohort study that examines newly sworn in officers in five major cities within the Southeast region of the United States by survey (See Table2.1). The survey will contain questions that address an officer’s typically use of drugs. Although these officers are newly sworn in the survey will ask questions such as: “Do you enjoy your job?” or “Have you ever thought about abusing prescribed drugs while on duty?” These types of questions will be asked in order for us to track and see if the answers to such questions contributed to drug use and correlate with our hypothesis. These questions are important, because if an officer did not come on to the force abusing drugs, the answers may lead to the question of did the stress of the job over the years drive the officer to use illegal drugs.
The reason we are studying newly sworn in officers is to be determined, in several intervals, whether change in the independent variable, drug abuse, causes a change in excessive force. The cities included in this study are Atlanta, Georgia, Charlotte, North Carolina, Jacksonville, Florida, Memphis, Tennessee, and Louisville, Kentucky. These cities were chosen based on their population density of 2013 according to Quick Facts U.S Census Bureau (see Table 2.2). The decision to survey the five major cities chosen is because they have more diverse populations, and service larger communities, which will provide us more conclusive evidence. Because the surveys are self-reported, there is potential bias by the subjects. To ensure validity the researchers will, not only analyze the survey results, there will be a search for complaints on the given officers, as well as any records that will follow them throughout the study. There will naturally be issues with validity in that even if we follow their records and conduct these surveys there may be instances where a victim may not report the incident or bring up the excessive force committed on them out of fear or neglect. Because not all victims are killed, there may be instances where a case is thrown out or may not see any time in a court room because of the victim’s reluctance to come forward. We will use a certificate of confidentiality to protect the subjects of the study from being subpoenaed by the law and will obtain informed consent (See Table 2.3) (Chambliss, 2013, 52).
6 Population/ Sample
The population selected is newly sworn in officers in the Southeastern region of the United States. The study will select 25 new hires per city totaling 125 new hires (newly sworn in officers) to participate in a self-reporting survey. We selected these cities as they are the most densely populated cities and can give us an accurate account of the independent and its relationship to the dependent variable. Because class sizes of the officers sworn in may vary from place to place we will take the same number of new hires from each city, 25 hires as stated above.
It is important to note that there is bias embedded within the study. The bias in the study includes the self-reporting from the officers. There is chance that only officers with no drug use or any problematic issues related to their daily lives will participate. In order to protect the identity of all potential participants and encourage honest answers, additional certifications will be acquired in order to keep them from having their information used against them in the court of law. Additionally, no names will be mentioned in the report. A full analysis report will exclude any identifying information including badge number and random number assignment. Another bias is the reporting fatigue that some subjects experience during longitudinal studies. To prevent any type of burnout, the survey will be submitted annually, every March. It is common for longitudinal studies to run out of funding. Researchers seek to partner with the Department of Justice, local universities, and state grants for additional funding to last the duration of the entire study.
Another bias in this longitudinal, cohort study is the likelihood of selective drop-out, or attrition. There may be loss of subjects for a plethora of reasons, including limited to no internet access, fear and ridicule of fellow officers, death, or a change in department. There is a great chance that the results given from the remaining participants may be erroneous and inconclusive (Wolke, Waylen, Samara, Steer, Goodman, Ford, Lamberts, 2009). Not only can it create inconclusive evidence, it poses a threat to external validity because all of the subjects are no longer represented and therefore, the results cannot be generalizable to the major cities in the Southeastern region of America (Wolke, et al., 2009).
7 Variables
The variables proposed in the study are excessive force and police officer drug use. The hypothesis holds that police officer drug use influences excessive force. Excessive force is conceptualized as the exaggerated or unreasonable amount an officer uses to subdue its perceived suspect. For the purpose of this study it is the repetitive beating, tasing, or shooting of an individual when a less violent means could have been used, as well as the unlawful abuse of power when an officer continues to strike the suspect either after the suspect has been handcuffed or subdued, or if the given suspect is helpless. Drug abuse will be conceptualized in this paper as any great amounts of drugs consumed that are prescribed, such as medications and legal drugs, such as alcohol, and any use of illegal drugs, including but not limited to marijuana, cocaine, heroin, or ecstasy. The study will make use of a survey that uses nominal and comparison of levels of measurement. This survey will be given to participants once they have been sworn in as officers, during the evolution of, and after the conclusion of the study or if the officer is terminated or moves on from the force.
8 Data Collection
The proposal to collect the data for this research is a survey. This survey will be conducted annually during the duration of the study. Once a list of sworn officers is received by each city, (Atlanta, Charlotte, Jacksonville, Memphis, and Louisville) twenty-five random officers per city will be selected to participate in the study. A computer generated program will be responsible for selecting the non-random sample. Officers will be identified by badge numbers, initially. The officers will be notified of their selection and be offered an opportunity to participate. Once officers agree to terms of the study, the officers will be assigned a number. This number will be on every study in order for researchers to identify any trends. To encourage participation and retention, officers’ responses will be anonymous- only researchers will have access of which officers participate in the study and there will be a payout after each completed survey on the paycheck to follow. The first survey will be distributed during the month of March after the swearing in of the officer, and annually every year after. It will be electronically distributed through a third party consultant. The officer will receive temporary login credentials that are only good for 7 days. After 7 days, the link will be disabled and all results up until that point will be stored. Should an officer leave before five years has passed, then the post survey will be given at the time of departure, rather resigned or terminated.
In the midst of survey results being collected, complaints of officers will also be followed. Researchers will track complaints of excessive force by city and if badge number is available, will use computer software to sort complaints and match them with subject’s number given to them at the beginning of the study. This will be a checks and balance system that allows researchers to cross check the self-reported information in the surveys.
9 Materials
In order for the study to be successful access to materials necessary materials will be needed. Researchers will also use a survey website to conduct and store responses of the officers. The responses will be tabulated and translated into charts. Knowledge and use of Microsoft products including Excel and Word will be required. In addition to objects, in order to complete research, it is estimated that at least to full time persons and 3 part time, possibly graduate students, work on the project over the course of three years. Most of the data is done electronically, limiting the need of collecting and analyzing surveys by hand. The graduate students will primarily be responsible for identifying additional variables and computing the data from surveys into graphs that are easier to understand.
10 Data Analysis
Once all data is received, an SPSS- computer generated system will be used to compute and analyze the data received. The computer generated system will calculate the results of the survey, and cross-tabulate with the complaints of excessive force. From there, a statistical analysis will determine any significance in the data. The first set of data analyzed will be the responses of the surveys. This will note any trends of drug use that the sample officers have reported over the course of five years. The statistically significant data will be used in the report, as well as the insignificant as they are apart of the results and gives a full scope of the research conducted. Researchers will be able to draw conclusions regarding police officers’ drug use with this data.
The second set of data will be an accumulation of the complaints from the sample group of officers. This data will come from two sources. The first is the self-reporting section of the survey and the second from a collection of complaints researchers received by the city over the course of the study. Computer generated systems will compile the reports together.
Lastly, a comparison of the surveys and complaints will be cross-tabulated. This includes using technology to compare the badge numbers of complaints to the surveys. Once the complaints, if any, are linked with the surveys, a detailed analysis can be given. Any correlations will be noted and graphs will be used to show any deviation from the norm.
CHAPTER 3- CONCLUSION
As the nation reflects on recent-possibly racially motivated- acts of excessive force by police officers, researchers attempt to explain the effects of excessive force. Various literature reviews explain possible reasons for the use of excessive force including: racial stereotypes, public health and local policies, relationship to community, drug use as well as conceptualizing high rate and low rate officers. We hypothesized that police officers who abuse drugs are more likely to use excessive force towards potential subjects while on duty. During our initial research findings, little to no studies has been conducted correlating an officer’s drug abuse and their tendency to use excessive force.
11 Anticipated Findings
Our anticipated finding supported our hypothesis, that police officers who abuse drugs are more likely to use excessive force on potential suspects while on duty. We anticipate that there will be a large percentage of police officers that abuse drugs and have that affect their tendency to use excessive force. We expect to find more abuse of prescription medications than illegal substances as the subjects know the implications that participating in illegal activities may bring. We expect that many of the subjects will not understand the nature or severity of drug use and when it becomes the abuse of drugs instead of just taking the medications as necessary and instructed by physicians.
While we do anticipate that there will be results that are statistically significant, we also expect there be resistance to the program in its early stages as the subjects may not feel safe to disclose such information without a loss of their jobs or their relationships with fellow officers and superiors.
12 Implications
The results of this study will foster the development of new programs within the police force, such as aiding police officers who are abusing drugs and are addicts. The aid can come in the form of an in-house therapeutic division which allows officers to discuss the pressures of their everyday lives, but also be candid and open about their drug abuse and potentially eradicate the addiction, without the threat of losing their jobs. With this therapeutic division being implemented, there can potentially be a reduction in officer complaints and perhaps their probability of using excessive force.
Because this study can bring to light the rate and percentage of police officer drug abuse, there can be, in certain instances, a negative image of police officers and the loss of citizen trust is possible. To rebuild community trust, hosting forums will allow local communities to hold police officers accountable for their actions.
13 Recommendations
We recommend that there be a survey conducted throughout the entire United States through a stratified cluster sample to make the results generalizable to the entire nation. We also recommend that the subjects be more diverse than just newly sworn- in officers. We believe that veterans on the force should be surveyed, along with retired officers, resigned officers, and possibly terminated officers as they can all give information that may not put them in a compromising situation.
Further recommendations also include policies that mandate police officers to take a drug test when an event of excessive force occurs. It is important to thoroughly document an officer’s health at the time of altercation in order to have more solid data on potential drug use in relation to excessive force. Also, reshaping the conversation around drug use within the police department is necessary. Educating, providing resources, and being proactive towards police officers should be incorporated at police departments.
Although we cannot definitively state that drug use causes excessive force, we do believe a correlation does exist. For these reasons, it is important that further research is conducted to determine the strength of the relationship as well as providing ongoing educational and resource support to police officers who may experience drug addictions. It is our belief that health officers contribute to a positive, working relationship with their communities.
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Appendix
Table 1.1 – Variables Chart
|Variable |Sources |
| |Jiao, A. (2001). Degrees of Urbanism and Police Orientations: |
|Relationship with community |Testing Preferences for Different Policing Approaches |
| |Across Urban, Suburban, and Rural Areas. Police Quarterly,4(3), |
| |361-387. |
| | |
| |Smith, D. (1986). The Neighborhood Context Of Police Behavior. Crime|
| |and Justice, 8, 313-341. |
| |Brandl, S., & Stroshine, M. (2012). The Role of Officer Attributes, |
|High and low rates of officers |Job Characteristics, and Arrest Activity in Explaining Police Use of|
| |Force. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 24(5), 551-572. |
| |Son, I., & Rome, D. (2004). The Prevalence And Visibility Of Police |
|Citizen and Suspect Characteristics |Misconduct: A Survey Of Citizens And Police Officers. Police |
| |Quarterly, 7(2), 179-204. |
| |Kleider, H. M., Cavrak, S. E., & Knuycky, L. R. (2012). Looking like|
|Racial Profiling/ Stereotyping |a criminal: Stereotypical black facial features promote face source |
| |memory error. Memory & Cognition, 40(8), 1200-1213. |
| |Kerstetter, W. A., Rasinski, K. A., Heiert, C. L. (1996). The impact|
|Race of Decision Makers (Judge, Jury, Prosecution, Defense) |of race on the investigation of excessive force allegations against |
| |police. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24(1), 1-15. |
| |Cooper, H., Moore, L., Gruskin, S., & Krieger, N. (2004). |
|Relationship to Public Health (Suspects’ drug use) |Characterizing Perceived Police Violence: Implications for Public |
| |Health. American Journal of Public Health, 94(7), 1109–1118. |
| | |
| |Thompson, R. A., & Dowling, J. L. (2001). Police use of force |
| |against drug suspects: Understanding the legal need for policy |
| |development. American Journal of Criminal Justice : AJCJ, 25(2), |
| |173-19 |
Table 2.1- Survey
What age group are you in? (Circle one)
20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45+
What is your race?
White Black/African American Asian Hispanic Native American Pacific Islander
Non-Hispanic White Other
3. What is your gender?
Male Female
4. Do you enjoy your job?
Yes No
5. Are you taking any prescribed medications?
Yes No
6. If yes to question 5, what are you taking?
_______________________________________________________________________
7. Have you ever thought about abusing prescribed drugs while on duty?
Yes No
8. Have you ever used prescription drugs while on duty when you were not supposed to take them according to the prescription directions?
Yes No
9. If yes to question 8, what kind(s)
_______________________________________________________________________
10. Do you consume alcohol while off duty?
Yes No
11. Have you ever used alcohol while on duty?
Yes No
12. If yes to question 11, how many times would you say that it happened?
1-3 4-6 7-9 10+
13. Have you ever seen other officers using an illegal drug on duty?
Yes No
14. Have you ever used an illegal drug while on duty?
Yes No
15. Have you ever used an illegal drug?
Yes No
On a scale of 1-5, how often would you say that you have used or abused the below substances within a month’s time. (Circle one)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Never Not Sometimes Often More
Often Than Often
(0 times) (1-4 times) (5-8 times) (9-12 times) (13 or more times)
_______________________________________________________________
Alcohol 1 2 3 4 5
Prescribed 1 2 3 4 5
Drugs
Illegal 1 2 3 4 5
Drugs
On a scale of 1-5, How did the abuse of the below substances affect your ability to perform while on duty. (Circle one)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
N/A The Worse Couldn’t Better
Same Perform
_______________________________________________________________
Alcohol 1 2 3 4 5
Prescribed 1 2 3 4 5
Drugs
Illegal 1 2 3 4 5
Drugs
Table 2.2- Southeastern United States Cities Population
| |Jacksonville |Charlotte |Memphis |Louisville |Atlanta |
|Total Population |842583 |792862 |653450 |609893 |447841 |
|Men |49% |48% |48% |48% |50% |
|Women |52% |52% |53% |52% |50% |
|White |55% |50% |29% |71% |38% |
|Black |31% |35% |63% |23% |54% |
|Persons Below Poverty Level |17% |17% | 27% |18% |25% |
Table 2.3- Informed Consent Form
Self-Reporting- Drug Use and Excessive Force Study Consent Form
You are being asked to take part in a research study about police office drug use and its relationship with excessive use of force. We are asking you to take part because your police department has opted for newly sworn officers to participate in the study. Please read this form carefully and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to take part in the study.
What the study is about:
The purpose of this study is to examine how drug abuse by police officers affects decision to use necessary force or excessive force in a given situation. You are choosing to participate in this study as a newly sworn officer, agreeing to self-disclose personal information.
What we will ask you to do:
If you agree to be in this questionnaire, we will conduct a five year survey which will be distributed at the same time each year in March and results will be collected no later than the last day of April.
Risks and benefits:
There are a few Gender and racial stereotypes in impression
formation and social decision-making processes. that you may find while participating in this research survey. One may be agency retaliation or backlash. Another is potential harm to self depending on information disclosed. Lastly, some of the questions about your job conditions could be considered sensitive.
There are monetary benefits available to you upon completion of each survey over the course of five years. We understand the risks involved in self-disclosing, so compensation for completed surveys will offset the risks involved with participating. The amount may vary per year depending on grants and funding.
Compensation:
There are monetary benefits available to you upon completion of each survey over the course of five years. We understand the risks involved in self-disclosing; therefore, compensation for completed surveys will offset the risks involved with participating. The amount may vary per year depending on grants and funding.
Your answers will be confidential. The records of this study will be kept private. In any sort of report we make public we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you. Research records will be kept in a locked file; only the researchers will have access to the records.
Taking part is voluntary: Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. You may skip any questions that you do not want to answer. If you decide not to take part or to skip some of the questions, it will not affect your current or future relationship with your employer. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw at any time.
If you have questions: The researchers conducting this study are Anthony Bryant, Jessica Stewart and Nicole Williams. Please ask any questions you have now. If you have questions later, you may contact any of the researchers at research@ or at 1-800-555-5555. If you have any questions or concerns regarding your rights as a subject in this study, you may contact the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at 607-255-5138 or access their website at
You will be given a copy of this form to keep for your records.
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions I asked. I consent to take part in the study.
Your Signature ___________________________________ Date ________________________
Your Name (printed) ____________________________________________________________
This consent form will be kept by the researcher for at least three years beyond the end of the study.
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