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Accent and variationsPeter Trudgillresearch into language and social class showed some interesting differences between men and women. Peter TrudgillTrudgill made a detailed study in which subjects were grouped by social class and sex. Peter Trudgill (1974): Norwich studyBritish linguist Peter Trudgill investigated the speech of residents of Norwich, England. HPeter Trudgill (1974): Norwich studylooking at “walking”& “talking” as the standard form and “walkin’,” “talkin’” as the non-standard form peculiar to the local accent. Also considering at the presence or absence of the third person –s ending, as in “he go to the shop” or “he goes to the shop”.Peter Trudgill, Norwich study:? One of the variables Trudgill studied was the final consonant in words like running, walking. In standard British English, the sound spelled –ng is a velar nasal. In Norwich, the pronunciation walkin’ and talkin’ is frequently heard. Vowel fronting | Glottaling | L-vocalisationWilliam Labov (1963): Martha’s Vineyard studyWilliam Labov –Martha’s Vineyard Study – individual speech patterns are “part of a highly systematic structure of social and stylistic stratification”William Labov (1966): New York Department Store studyWhat Labov found was that a small part of a population begins to pronounce certain words that have, for example, the same vowel, differently from the rest of the population. ChangeBailey (1973) – Wave model Bailey suggested that geographical distance could have an effect on language change.Bex (1996)? Generic Labels = used to describe groups of texts which seem to have similar language features and perform similar social functions.Chen – 1968 and 1972 – the S Curve model? The S Curve model is based on the idea that language change can occur at a slow pace creating the initial curve of the ‘S’ and then increases speed as it becomes more common and accepted into the language. David Crystal (1995)? Contemporary English uses words borrowed from over 120 languagesDavid Crystal (2001) e-mails are part of an exchange of communications in the way traditional letters are not. Donald Mackinnon (1996)? Categorises the attitudes people may have to language use:Functional theory:? This theory suggests that language always changes and adapts to the needs of its users. George Pettie (1581):? Writers such as Thomas Elyot and George Pettie were enthusiastic borrowers of new words whereas Thomas Wilson and John Cheke argued against them. Guy Deutscher – The Unfolding of Language (2005)? Economy – the tendency to save effort, and is behind the short cuts speakers often take in pronunciation.? Expressiveness – refers to speakers’ attempts to achieve greater effect for their utterances and extend their range of meaning…. ? Analogy – the minds craving for order, the instinctive need of speakers to find regularity in language.Harvey and Shalom (1997)? A problem area in language is often identified by the fact that there are lots of variations of a concept, which lacks a single form.J Aitchison? Potential – there is an internal weakness or an external pressure for a particular change.? Diffusion – the change starts to spread through the population.? Implementation – people start using the variant – it is incorporated into people’s idiolect – group/local languages.? Codification Model – written down and subsequently put into the dictionary and accepted officially.Jean AitchisonJean Aitchison came up with stages of lexical development1- Labelling – Linking words to objects to which they refer, understanding labels2- Packaging – Exploring labels and where they can apply, over/underextension occurs in order to gain meanings.3- Network-building – Making connections between words, understanding similarities and opposites in meaning. Jean Aitchison – BBC Reith LectureAitchison argues against a prescriptive view of languageJean Aitchison’s parodies of prescriptivism:? Damp Spoon parody – The idea of laziness – you don’t do things properly, it’s distasteful. ? Crumbling Castle parody – At some point in the past, the language was ‘perfect.’ ? Infectious Disease Parody – We catch bad usage of language from other people and it spreads. ? John HoneyHe believes that the standards of the English language are falling. John Honeybelieves that the standards of the English language are falling. Jonathan Swift (1712)wrote a ‘proposal for correcting, improving and ascertaining the English tongue.’Lynne Truss ‘Eats Shoots and Leaves’ 2003, Robert Lowth 18th Century, John Skelton (poet 1545):? They all believed that the English language was ‘rustye’ and ‘cankered’ it was not ‘ornate’ enough.Naomi WolfUnlike uptalk, which is a rising intonation pattern, or valleyspeakNathaniel Bailey: Compiled a more complete universal etymological English dictionary than any extant supposed to have been published in 1721. Philip Hensher (2002) complexity of the situation that people in a group can call each other names, e.g. nigger, queer etc. but that when called these names from someone outside the group it becomes offensive.Plain English Campaign? are not concerned with ‘good’ or ‘correct’ English but with an avoidance of ‘gobbledygook’ which makes communication of any kind unnecessarily difficult. Random fluctuation theory – Charles Hockett 1958:devised a theory that put significance on random errors and events as having an influence on language change. Suggesting that language change occurs due to the unstable nature of language itself. Robert Lowth: ? Published: A Short Introduction to English Grammar in 1762. Lowth’s grammar is the source of many of the prescriptive origins that are studied in schoolsSamuel Johnson? Between 1747 and 1755, Johnson wrote perhaps his best-known work A Dictionary of the English Language.Sapir-Whorf theory – Reflectionism and Determinism:? Reflectionism in language is based on the theory that a person’s language reflects their way of thinking, so someone who uses derogatory slurs such as ‘Paki’, could be said to be using language that reflects their prejudice towards immigrants.Sharon Goodman (1996)? She notes that we are living in a time of increased Informalisation = the process whereby language forms that were traditionally reserved for close personal relationships are now used in wider social contexts. Sharon Goodman (1996)? Notes that the letter X which appears infrequently in written words is a ‘supercharged typographic icon’The signifier X is a grapheric symbol and is used to create a range of meanings.Substratum theory? Influence of different forms of languages that come into contact with English affects how it changes. Suzanne Romaine (1998)? Refers to the Internal and External history of Language:Internal = formation of new words and the influence of dictionaries etc. Looks at what happens inside the language with no external factors.External = the changing social contexts – language as an ongoing process.The Queen’s English Society? Advocates PrescriptivismTheory of lexical gaps:? This theory suggests that there is a logical reason to create words to ‘fill a gap.’? Words can be borrowed, converted or invented in order to fill a gap in usage as well as a phonological gap in our language. CLAB.F. SkinnerSkinner states that all behaviour is conditioned - babies imitate their parents/carers and are either reprimanded or praised according to their accuracy. Skinner believes that biology plays almost no part in the way children learn languagageBard and Sachs a person or group close to the epicentre of a language change will pick it up whereas a person or group further away from the centre of change is less likely to adopt it. BrunerBruner created and argued for the Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). Bruner states through LASS that parents often use books and images to develop their child’s naming abilities and their ability to get involved in conversation. 1- Gaining attention- drawing the babies attention to a picture2- Query- asking the baby to identify the picture3- Label- telling the baby what the object is4- Feedback- responding to the babies utterancesThis is also called SCAFFOLDING, where the child is supported in their learning of language by carers and once they have learnt it, the support is taken away.Catherine Garvey? Catherine Garvey found that in play, children adopt roles and identities, acting out storylines and inventing objects and settings.CruttendenChildren found it more difficult to predict football results from the intonation used by the announcersJean Berko (1958)Berko found that children gradually developed pluralisations through the “wug” testJeanne Chall (1983) Chall (1983) proposed six developmental stages that describe how children typically learn to read. Chall commented that many adults may never reach the most mature stage of reading, even after 4 years of college.John DoreJohn Dore also describes language functions that focuses more on individual utteranceso Labelling –o Repeating –o Answering –o Requesting Action – o Calling – o Greeting – o Protesting – o Practising – John Macnamarasaid that rather than having an in-built language device, children have an innate capacity to read meaning into social situations. Katherine Nelsonfound that 60% of children's early word phrases contained nouns, then verbs, pre-modifiers and phatic. Noam Chomsky?Noam Chomsky stated that children are born with an innate knowledge of language when they are born and learning of their native language is at high speed when hearing it from others (Plato believed it too). Chomsky created the LAD - Language Acquisition DevicePenelope Eckert: She suggests that we need to accept and explore these other factors including class, the topic of conversation and the participants in the conversation, rather than just looking to gender as the cause of all variation. PiagetPut simply, until the child thinks of a concept, they cannot vocalise it and the higher their thinking the more they vocaliseRoger Brown (1973)Brown found that morphemes were acquired in an order: -ing, in/on, -s, past tense irregular, possessive ‘s, is/was, the/a, past tense regular, 3rd person regular, 3rd person irregular, uncontractible auxiliary verb (were), contractibles (she’s), contractible auxiliary (she’s running).Development of pronoun acquisitionUrsula Bellugi (1971)Bellugi explored negatives and negation and identified three stages:Discourse of SpeechHopper (1992)? Identified a pattern to telephone opening routines which alter according to context:EthnicityDevyani Sharma & Lavanya Sankaran (2011): Punjabi Indian English in West London language change between different generations is more gradual than might be expected, and it’s also more complex.Mark Sebba (1993): London Jamaican were able to conclude that ‘authenticity’ was indexed by involvement in particular practices involving specific speech styles, some of which were Caribbean or partly Caribbean in origin; at the same time, there was little or no use of the local Creole which had been prevalent in the 1990s and earlier, as multi-ethnic vernaculars have come to predominate among the youthPhilip Howard (1977)States that lady has become a euphemism for woman.Sue Fox:Fox and her colleagues have studied the speech patterns of a sample of teenagers across the capital. Viv Edwards (1986): Jamaican English in West MidlandsEnglish is the official language of the former British West Indies, therefore African-Caribbean immigrants had few communication difficulties upon arrival in Britain compared to immigrants from other regions.GenderDale SpenderDale Spender advocates a radical view of language as embodying structures that sustain male power.Dale Spender:makes the argument that language is a system that embodies sexual inequality. Deborah CameronDeborah Cameron says that wherever and whenever the matter has been investigated, men and women face normative expectations about the appropriate mode of speech for their gender. Deborah Cameron – the myth of Mars and Venus said that women are keener on communication than men and more skillful at it. Deborah Cameron:Deborah Tannen and difference? Status vs. support? Independence vs. intimacy? Advice vs. understanding? Information vs. feelings? Orders vs. proposals? Conflict vs. compromiseDifference:Dominance:Dominance:Zimmerman & West: ? This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt than women. Dubois and Crouch:George Keith and John Shuttleworthwomen - talk more than men, talk too much, are more polite, are indecisive/hesitant, complain and nag, ask more questions, support each other, are more co-operative, whereasmen - swear more, don't talk about emotions, talk about sport more, talk about women and machines in the same way, insult each other frequently, are competitive in conversation, dominate conversation, speak with more authority, give more commands, interrupt more.Janet Holmes (2006): Relational Practice chapter (after Fletcher 1999)Workplaces constitute one of the more interesting sites where individuals ‘do gender’, while at the same time constructing their professional identities and meeting their organisation’s expectations.Jennifer Coates and Deborah JonesJennifer Coates looks at all-female conversation and builds on Deborah Tannen's ideas. she (Jones) calls Gossip and categorizes in terms of House Talk, Scandal, Bitching and Chatting.Jenny Cheshire (1982): Reading studyJenny Cheshire used long-term participant observation to gain data about the relationship between use of grammatical variables and adherence to peer group culture by boys and girls in Reading. Jenny Cheshire, Paul Kerswill, Sue Fox and Eivind Togersen (2000 - 2011): Multicultural London EnglishJenny Cheshire – 1982 Reading Study – relationship between use of non-standard variables and adherence to peer group normsJenny Cheshire:? (Reading Study) used long-term participant observation to gain data about the relationship between use of grammatical variables and adherence to peer group culture by boys and girls in Reading. John Gray – ‘men are from Mars, women are from Venus.’Gray suggests that men and women count (or score) the giving and receiving of love differently. Pamela FishmanPamela Fishman argues in Interaction: the Work Women Do (1983) that conversation between the sexes sometimes fails, not because of anything inherent in the way women talk, but because of how men respond, or don't respond. Robin Lakoff? Lakoff’s most famous work- ‘language and woman’s place.’ She proposed that women’s speech could be distinguished from that of men in a number of ways.Robin Lakoff 1975she published a set of basic assumptions about what marks out the language of women. Victoria DefranciscoHow men silence women (1991) Topic acceptance – ‘conversational shitwork.’William O'Barr and Bowman AtkinsChristine Christie has shown gender differences in the pragmatics of public discourse - looking, for example, at how men and women manage politeness in the public context of UK parliamentary speaking. Zimmerman & West: LANGUAGE VARIATIONLesley Milroy (1987): social networks and Belfast speechMilroy’s Belfast Study -Members of a speech community are connected to each other in social networks which may be relatively ‘closed’ or ‘open’.OccupationDrew and Heritage (1992): Institutional Talk. The study of institutional interaction is essentially comparative, whereby institutional practices are compared with their counterparts in everyday interactions. Drew and Heritage 1992Summarised differences between everyday conversation and workplace talkHerbert & StraightCompliments tend to flow from those of higher rank to those of lower rank.HornyakThe shift from work talk to personal talk is always initiated by the highest-ranking person in the room.Janet Holmes:Janet Holmes thinks that when all the necessary reservations and?qualifications have been taken into account, the answer is?‘yes, women are more polite than men’John Swales (2011): Discourse CommunitiesOnce you start work, you become a member of a professional community, Wenger? Wenger - Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.Politeness functions of languageBrown and LevinsonBrown and Levinson suggested that politeness in children centred around two aspects of ‘face’o Positive – where the individual desires social approval and being included.o Negative – where the individual asserts their need to be independent and make their own decisions REGIONDavid Rosewarne (1984): Estuary EnglishEstuary English-David Rosewarne describes a newly observed variety of English pronunciation.David Rosewarne/Joanna Przedlacka – Estuary English? Estuary English is a variety of modified regional speech. It is a mixture of non-regional and local South eastern English pronunciation and intonation.Emma Moore (2003): “Eden Village Girls” studyGiles & Coupland 1991? Accommodation involves selecting linguistic alternatives to establish solidarity or distance from the interlocutor.Howard Giles – 1970swe adjust our speech to ‘accommodate’ the person we are addressing Howard Giles et al (1970s): Matched Guise experimentsDescribes how speakers change their language to resemble that of their listenerJane-Stuart SmithGlasgow Media Project Aims to understand why Glaswegian appears to have ‘English’ features Kevin Watson (2008 & 2010): Liverpool studyA preliminary analysis of change points in these data suggests that there are significant shifts in evaluative reaction towards all 5 regional varieties on both dimensions (status and solidarity). Labov’s Department Store Study: ? Labov’s research in the Lower East Side of New York City showed that individual speech patterns were part of a highly systematic structure of social and stylistic stratification.Labov’s vineyard studyIndividual speech patterns are ‘part of a highly systematic structure of social and stylistic stratification.’ Martha’s vineyard is an island lying on the East Coast of America. Labov focused on the diphthongs [aw] and [ay]. Paul Kerswill – Milton Keynes Study:? Kerswill investigated ten speech sounds that had different pronunciations in the Milton Keynes area. Two of the variables were:(ou) the diphthong vowel in coat, moan etc. The second part of this diphthong can be ‘fronted’ to give the impression of Received Pronunciation ‘kite’ or ‘mine.’ (u:) the long vowel in move, shoe etc. which can be fronted to a vowel close to that of French tu or German grun. ? The study included 48 childrenPaul Kerswill and Ann Williams: Milton Keynes (1999)The people living there have come, fairly recently, from a variety of regions, making this location a 'melting pot' of dialects.Penny Eckert & Sally McConnell-Ginet (1992)& Penny Eckert (2000): communities of practice/”Jocks and Burnouts” study Her research shows that the parents’ socioeconomic class does not affect teens’ speech patterns as much as the groups they hang out with. Eckert classifies these two groups as “Jocks” (school-authority-centered) and “Burnouts” (blue collar job seekers seeking autonomy). Importantly, these social affiliations can lead to explanations for patterns of sound change going on in Detroit.socialBernstein: Central to Bernstein’s writings is the distinction between the restricted code and the elaborated code. SpeechPaul Kerswill (2003): th-fronting studyThis study examines the lexical and grammatical diffusion of TH-fronting amongst adolescents in London, where TH-fronting is well established, and Edinburgh, where it is a relatively new phenomenon. standard prestigeRobert Burchfield (1981)? Advised BBC announcers on pronunciation.variationsGrice 1. The maxim of quantity, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as much information as is needed, and no more.2. The maxim of quality, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence.3. The maxim of relation, where on tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion.4. The maxim of manner, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity. variationsMilroy: She investigated the correlation between the integration of individuals in the community and the way those individuals speak. What she found was that a high Network Strength Score was correlated with the use of vernacular or non-standard forms. variationsPidgins and Creoles? Sarah Harris refers to English as a ‘mongrel language’ and also describes a ‘hybrid language.’ She is referring here to how English can borrow from other languages. The term ‘hybrid language’ expresses the phenomena noted in the creation of pidgins and creoles. Workplace and Gendercy and Eisenberg - 1990/1991When rdelivering criticism t, men showed more concern for the feelings of the person they were criticizing when in the subordinate role, while women showed more concern when in the superior role.Eakins & Eakins – 1976In seven university faculty meetings, the men spoke for longer. Edelsky – 1981men took more and longer turns and did more joking, arguing, directing, and soliciting of responses during the more structured segments of meetings. During the ‘free-for-all’ parts of the meetings, women and men talked equally, and women joked, argued, directed, and solicited responses more than men.Herring 1992Men’s messages were twice as long, on average, as women’s. Holmes 1998Women managers seem to be more likely to negotiate consensus than male managers.Holmes 2005 &women use just as much humour as menWorld EnglishesBraj Kachru (1992): Circle modelThe Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: The Outer Circle of English was produced by the second diaspora of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion byGreat Britain in Asia and Africa. Finally, the Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. Jennifer Jenkins (2002): Lingua Franca CoreThe concept of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) is simple: many learners of English today do not want/need to use English with people whose first language (L1) is English. Joanna Przedlacka's study of "Estuary"studied the sociophonetics of what she calls "a putative variety of Southern British English, popularly known as Estuary English."Pamela Fishman (1992)English is less well loved but more used because it has econo-technical superiority.Pamela Fishman:? Status vs. support? Independence vs. intimacy? Advice vs. understanding? Information vs. feelings? Orders vs. proposals? Conflict vs. compromise? In each case, the male characteristic (that is, the one that is judged to be more typically male) comes first. What are these distinctions?Schneider (2007): Dynamic modelshows how language evolves as a process of 'competition-and-selection', and how certain linguistic features emerge. The Dynamic Model illustrates how the histories and ecologies will determine language structures in the different varieties of English, and how linguistic and social identities are maintained Various The way co-workers use small talk is defined by The power relationship between them. Superiors tend to initiate and delimit small talk, as well as defining what subject matters are acceptable subjects for conversation. VariousWhen giving a directive to an equal, workers tend to use more indirect devices (such as we instead of you, hedged structures and modals). When giving directions to a subordinate, workers are often more direct. ................
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