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LING 190: MGA ISTRUKTURANG PANGWIKA
PAKSA 5: GRAMATIKAL NA RELASYON I. [Hango sa mga babasahin ni Thompson sa Ling 109/209]
A. What are Grammatical Relations (GRs)?
- languages systematically group certain types of arguments together and treat them grammatically the same
- we call these Grammatical Relations
- they are part of the grammar of the language, they don’t necessarily correlate with meanings in a direct way
- one famous kind of grouping is what we know as ‘subject’ vs. ‘object’
- GRs are not universal; if we translate a sentence into another language, the GRs may change
B. Two major types of GR Systems
Recall: S = the single Argument that goes with a 1-Argument predicate
A = the AGENT (the one who carries the action)
O = the PATIENT (the one that gets acted upon)
-GR systems are based on Arguments, then, but not on how Obliques behave
- functional motivation for this:
a. obliques are peripheral/optional
b. arguments carry the meaning of the predicate
- The two major types of GR systems group or organize these three kinds of Arguments (S, A, O) differently:
- Both of them show a functional efficiency in marking GRs by marking S (in the intransitive clause type) like one of the NPs in the transitive clause type
- one system marks S the same as A
S PRED (1-Arg)
[nom]
A O PRED (2-Arg)
[acc]
- we call this a nominative-accusative system
- the other system marks S the same as O
[abs] S PRED (1-Arg)
[erg] A O PRED (2-Arg)
- we call this an ergative-absolutive system
1. Nominative-Accusative GR System
S PRED (1-Arg)
[nom]
A O PRED (2-Arg)
[acc]
- if a language has a Nominative-Accusative GR System, there will be morphological or syntactic evidence
- that S and A behave alike
- and that O behaves differently
S
Turkish: kiz iyi
girl good
‘The girl is good.’
A O
kiz adam – lar – i gor - du
girl man - PL – ACC see – PST
‘The girl saw the men.’
- so why do we say that Turkish has a nominative-accusative GR system?
- in Turkish S and A behave alike:
- Evidence: both are unsuffixed forms of the noun
- and O behaves differently:
- Evidence: O takes an ______ suffix
Hualapai (Yuman, Arizona)
_________
Cindy - ch mi: - ki
Cindy – NOM cry – 3:PRES
‘Cindy is crying.’
______ _______
Cindy – ch wa - h sa’an - kwi[1]
Cindy – NOM door – DEF close - 3:PST
‘Cindy closed the door.’
- why do we say that Hualapai has a nominative-accusative GR system?
- in Hualapai S and ___ behave alike:
- Evidence: both occur with a ____________
- and ___ behaves differently:
- Evidence: ____ occurs with no ______ suffix[2]
- does English have a nominative-accusative GR system? How would we find out?
_____ ___ ____ ______
English: a. Ramon run-s everyday
__ ___ _____ ______
b. I eat dinner at 6:30
_____ __ ( __) ___________ __________
c. Ramon eat – s three pancakes for breakfast
______ ___
d. the boys run
__ __ (___)
e. she run – s
__ ___
f. I run
______ ___ ( ___ ) ___
g. Ramon see- s me
- In English, S and ___ behave alike
- Evidence:
- ___ and ___ are both _______ on the verb
- the 1SG pronoun has the form ____ for ___ and ___
- and ____ behaves differently.
- Evidence:
- ____ isn’t marked on the verb (i.e. the verb doesn’t change no
matter whether O is _________ or _________.)
- the 1SG pronoun has the form____ for ____
labels:
For a nominative-accusative GR system
- A and S = __________/__________________.
- O = _____________/ __________________.
2. Ergative-Absolutive GR System
[abs] S PRED (1-Arg)
[erg] A O PRED (2-Arg)
- if a language has an Ergative-Absolutive GR System, there will be morphological or syntactic evidence that S and ___ behave alike
- and that _______ behaves differently
Basque: _____________________, ____________________
_____
Martin ethori
Martin came
Martin came
__________ ______
Martin – ek haurra igorri du
Martin-ERG letter send AUX
‘Martin sent a letter’
- why do we say that Basque has an ergative-absolutive GR system?
- in Basque S and ___ behave alike
- Evidence: both occur with __________________
- and ___ behaves differently:
- Evidence: it occurs with the ______ ________ _______
Tongan, ___________, _______________, _________________
na’e lea ‘a etalavou
PST speak ABS young:man
_________________________
________ ______
na’e tamate’i ‘a kolaite ‘e tevita
PST kill ABS Goliath ERG David
David killed Goliath
- in Tongan S and ___ behave alike:
- Evidence: both occur with the _________________
- labels:
For an ergative-absolutive GR system
- A = _____________________
- S and O = _______________
- so there’s only one set of names for the ergative-absolutive GR system, and the terms ‘subject’ and ‘object’ are not applicable, which means that an ergative-absolutive GR system has no ‘subject.
SUMMARY: There are two major types of GR systems.
- some languages have a nominative-accusative GR system with the GRs
_______________ and ____________________.
- some languages have an ergative-absolutive GR system with the GR’s ________________ and _______________.
- neither system marks all the three GRs differently
- instead, each system efficiently marks S like either A or O
C. How areGRs marked? 2 major ways
- what are the ways that S can “behave like” either A or O?
- i.e., how can you tell if a language is using the Nominative-Accusative
system or the Ergative-Absolutive system?
1. Case-marking (marking on NP Argument)
2. Agreement (marking of an _________ on the Verb or Auxiliary)
1. Case-marking
- a language employs case-marking for its GRs if GRs are marked on one or more Argument NPs
- a case-marking adposition or affix on the argument NP
- a determiner (i.e., a _____ or an _______ ) in the Argument NP
- special forms for pronouns in a pronoun NP
1a. nominative-accusative marking
- if the language marks GRs by case-marking, then in a nominative-accusative system, ____ should be marked like ____.
____
Turkish: kiz iyi
girl good
The girl is good
____ _________
kiz adam – lar – i gor – du
girl man – PL –ACC see – PST
_________________________________
- How does Turkish mark GRs?
- S and A are marked alike in case they both have ____ case
marking
- O is marked differently; it has the case marking _____
German: _________________ ____
der Gartner ist hier
ART:NOM gardener COP:3:SG here
__________________________________
___________________ __
der Gartner hat es gekauft
ART:NOM gardener AUX:3SG it bought
___ ____________________
ich liebe den Gartner
1SG:NOM love:1SG ART:ACC gardener
_______________________________________
________________ ____
der Gartner liebt mich
ART:NOM gardener love:3SG 1SG:ACC
_____________________________________
___
ich werde warten
1SG:NOM FUT wait:INF
_________________________
- How does German mark GRs with lexical NPs?
- the nominative ______ _____ goes with ___ and ___
- the accusative _______ _____ goes with ____
- so with the lexical NPs, German marks case with what word class?
________________ (see p. 6)
- S and A are marked alike in case: they both have the same marking ___
- O is marked differently, it has the case marking ___
- How does German mark case on pronoun?
- 1SG has the form ich when it’s ____ or ____
- 1SG has the form mich when it’s ___
- both the lexical NP data and the pronoun NP data provide evidence for Turkish and German being _____________________ languages[3]
1b. ergative-absolutive case marking
- if the language marks GRs by case-marking, then in an ergative-absolutive system, S should be marked like ____
______
Basque: Martin ethori
Martin came
Martin came
_______ _____
Martin- ek haurra igorri du
Martin – ERG letter send AUX
- in Basque, S and O are marked alike in case: they both have ___ case
marking
- A is marked differently, it has the case marking _____
__________________
Tongan: na’e lea ‘a etalavou
PST speak ABS young:man
_______ ________
na’e tarnate’i ‘a kolaite ‘e tevita
PST kill ABS Goliath ERF David
‘David killed Goliath’
- in Tongan, S and O are marked alike in case they both have the case marking ______
- A is marked differently; it has the case marking ____
- in Tongan, what word class do these case markers belong to?
_______________________________
- SO: The Ergative-Absolutive languages Basque and Tongan mark their GRs by case-marking:
– S and ___ take the same case marking
– and ___ takes a ____________ case marking
(2. Agreement – we’ll look at this next week)
D. How do we find out whether and how a language marks its grammatical relations?
Step 1: label the predicate and the arguments
- identify the S in the intransitive clauses
- identify the ___ and the ___ in the transitive clauses
Step 2: determine whether the language uses case (on arguments), and/or agreement (on verbs/auxiliaries) to mark the S, the A, and the O.
Step 3: figure out whether the case marking and/or agreement groups S together with ___ or with ____
REMEMBER:
Grammatical Relations = the ways languages systematically group certain types of arguments together and treat them grammatically the same
GR system refers to whether GRs are marked according to a _________________________ system or a _______________________ system
GR marking refers to how the language _____________ its GRs, whether by:
a. _____________________, marked on the _________
b. _____________________, marked on the _____ or the _______________
-----------------------
[1]Is there a definite article in this clause? ____. The morphome glossed DEF is a suffix.
[2]The O does occur with a DEF suffix – is this relevant to Grs? _____, because _______________________________________________________.
[3]German also has agreement, but right now we're only looking at case-marking (that is, marking on the ____________ ______).
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