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Supporting Information Sustainability: A New Imperative in Contaminated Land RemediationDeyi Hou 1*, Abir Al-Tabbaa 1 1 Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK* Correspondence to: Email: deyi.hou@; +44(0)7774-955-082Additional Information on Sustainable Remediation PracticesThe sustainable remediation initiatives taken by governments and the industry in Europe have led to observable changes in the field. Among others, the sustainable land management movement in the Europe have encouraged technological innovation. In the Netherland, remediation practitioners have for the first time combined groundwater energy (i.e. heat cold storage) with contaminated groundwater cleanup ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slenders", "given" : "H L A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dols", "given" : "P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Verburg", "given" : "R", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vries", "given" : "A J", "non-dropping-particle" : "de", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Remediation Journal", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "143-153", "publisher" : "Wiley Online Library", "title" : "Sustainable remediation panel: Sustainable synergies for the subsurface: Combining groundwater energy with remediation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>1</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(1). In the UK, practitioners employed innovative power system to allow for the simultaneous recovery and usage of site contaminants - coal tar. It was demonstrated that such a system could save project cost by 20~30% and leads to substantial GHG reduction ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McLaren", "given" : "Stuart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Worboys", "given" : "Mathew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Speake", "given" : "Owen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mantell", "given" : "Paul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Green Remediation Conference", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Copenhagen, Denmark", "title" : "Ex-situ Thermally Enhanced Coal Tar Recovery - A Low Carbon Option", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>2</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(2). In some other cases it was proposed to use brownfields to produce biomass, which can be used as feedstock for biofuels ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "SNOWMAN", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Sustainable Management of Soil and Groundwater (SNOWMAN)", "title" : "The Rejuvenate Decision-Making Approach-A Worked Example-Crop Based Systems for Sustainable Risk Based Land Management for Economically Marginal Degraded Land", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>3</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(3), and it was suggested that traditional agricultural practice such as annual liming and application of animal manure may have mitigated soil-plant transfer of heavy metals, raising a potential for sustainable management of such contaminated site ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Madej\u00f3n", "given" : "P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barba-Brioso", "given" : "C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lepp", "given" : "N W", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fern\u00e1ndez-Caliani", "given" : "J C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of environmental management", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Elsevier", "title" : "Traditional agricultural practices enable sustainable remediation of highly polluted soils in Southern Spain for cultivation of food crops", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>4</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(4). Moreover, many new initiatives are implemented to promote sustainable remediation, e.g. a new European project, Holistic Management of Brownfield Regeneration (HOMBRE), examine life cycle land use and promote intermediary land use; and another new project, Advancing Sustainable In Situ Remediation for Contaminated Land and Groundwater (ADVOCATE), is promoting in-situ remediation technologies. The green remediation movement in the US has largely focuses on reducing remediation actions’ environmental footprint ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ITRC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "ITRC", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Green and Sustainable Remediation: State of the Science and Practice", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>5</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(5). The USEPA’s definition of green remediation solely refers to environmental effects and benefits, without referring to social and economic aspects ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "USEPA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "USEPA.", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "4" ] ] }, "publisher" : "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Green Remediation: Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites. EPA 542-R-08-002.", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>6</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(6). This is likely due to the concern that specific inclusion of certain economic and social considerations may exceed the authority of current USEPA regulatory programs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ITRC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "ITRC", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Green and Sustainable Remediation: State of the Science and Practice", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>5</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(5). USEPA’s core elements in green remediation includes: air, water, energy, land & ecosystems, and materials and waste. Among others, green remediation practices in the US have focused on energy efficient equipment and sustainable energy systems such as solar panel, landfill gas converted power system, windmill, and geothermal system; low energy intensive bioremediation systems, such as enhanced in-situ bioremediation, phytoremediation, and engineered wetlands; and sustainable construction techniques, such as recycling of demolition waste, capture and reuse of rainwater, and low maintenance landscape. A Meta-Analysis of Studies on Secondary Impact of RemediationIn traditional remediation decision making processes, many of these impacts are externalized. To account for the secondary adverse effects of remediation operation, a life cycle approach has to be used ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Favara", "given" : "P J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Krieger", "given" : "T M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boughton", "given" : "B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fisher", "given" : "A S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bhargava", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Remediation Journal", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "39-79", "publisher" : "Wiley Online Library", "title" : "Guidance for performing footprint analyses and life-cycle assessments for the remediation industry", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "21" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>7</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(7). Many studies have attempted to compare the life cycle impact of various remediation technologies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lemming", "given" : "G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hauschild", "given" : "M Z", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bjerg", "given" : "P L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "115-127", "publisher" : "Springer", "title" : "Life cycle assessment of soil and groundwater remediation technologies: literature review", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "15" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.041", "abstract" : "The remediation of contaminated sites supports the goal of sustainable development but may also have environmental impacts at a local, regional and global scale. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has increasingly been used in order to support site remediation decision-making. This review article discusses existing LCA methods and proposed models focusing on critical decisions and assumptions of the LCA application to site remediation activities. It is concluded that LCA has limitations as an adequate holistic decision-making tool since spatial and temporal differentiation of non-global impacts assessment is a major hurdle in site remediation LCA. Moreover, a consequential LCA perspective should be adopted when the different remediation services to be compared generate different site's physical states, displacing alternative post-remediation scenarios. The environmental effects of the post-remediation stage of the site is generally disregarded in the past site remediation LCA studies and such exclusion may produce misleading conclusions and misdirected decision-making. In addition, clear guidance accepted by all stakeholders on remediation capital equipment exclusion and on dealing with multifunctional processes should be developed for site remediation LCA applications.", "author" : [ { "family" : "Morais", "given" : "S\u00e9rgio Alberto" }, { "family" : "Delerue-Matos", "given" : "Cristina" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of hazardous materials", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010", "3", "15" ] ] }, "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.041", "abstract" : "The remediation of contaminated sites supports the goal of sustainable development but may also have environmental impacts at a local, regional and global scale. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has increasingly been used in order to support site remediation decision-making. This review article discusses existing LCA methods and proposed models focusing on critical decisions and assumptions of the LCA application to site remediation activities. It is concluded that LCA has limitations as an adequate holistic decision-making tool since spatial and temporal differentiation of non-global impacts assessment is a major hurdle in site remediation LCA. Moreover, a consequential LCA perspective should be adopted when the different remediation services to be compared generate different site's physical states, displacing alternative post-remediation scenarios. The environmental effects of the post-remediation stage of the site is generally disregarded in the past site remediation LCA studies and such exclusion may produce misleading conclusions and misdirected decision-making. In addition, clear guidance accepted by all stakeholders on remediation capital equipment exclusion and on dealing with multifunctional processes should be developed for site remediation LCA applications.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morais", "given" : "S\u00e9rgio Alberto", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Delerue-Matos", "given" : "Cristina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of hazardous materials", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010", "3", "15" ] ] }, "page" : "12-22", "title" : "A perspective on LCA application in site remediation services: critical review of challenges.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "175" }, "note" : "<m:note/>", "page" : "12-22", "title" : "A perspective on LCA application in site remediation services: critical review of challenges.", "type" : "article-journal", "uris" : [ "" ], "volume" : "175" } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>8</i>, <i>9</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(8, 9). However, such studies have rendered a wide variety of results. As shown on Figure S1, the remediation impact factor varies significantly among different remediation technologies. For instance, incineration impact factor was nearly four orders of magnitude higher than that of capping. Even with the same remediation technology, the impact factor can vary significantly from site to site. For instance, the impact factor of ex-situ bioremediation varies by three orders of magnitude and the impact factor of pump and treat varies by two orders of magnitude in different studies. The variety may be due to variation in contaminants type, level, and distribution, as well as many other site-specific hydrogeological conditions. This lack of consistency demands site-specific sustainability evaluation, including remediation life cycle assessment, to select the most sustainable remediation alternative. But more generic remediation life cycle assessment studies can shed light on this issue and potentially provide a more economic tool for remediation practitioners.Figure S1 Global warming potential of soil and groundwater remediation technologies (CAP=capping; D&H=dig & haul; ESB= Ex-situ Bioremediation; INC=Incineration; ISB= In-situ Bioremediation; ISCO=in-situ chemical oxidation; ISS=in-situ solidification/stabilisation; ISTD=in-situ thermal desorption; MNA=monitored natural attenuation; PRB=permeable reactive barrier; P&T=pump & treat; SW=Soil Washing)Study Site LocationContaminantsSoil Remediation TechnologiesGroundwater Remediation Technologies(1)Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria and NotesBusset, 2012 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Busset", "given" : "G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sangely", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montrejaud-Vignoles", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thannberger", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sablayrolles", "given" : "C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "325-336", "publisher" : "Springer", "title" : "Life cycle assessment of polychlorinated biphenyl contaminated soil remediation processes", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "17" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>10</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(10)FrancePCBESB; INCN/AUsed in Figure 1.c and 1.dMak, 2011 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es202016d", "abstract" : " The effects of the construction methods, materials of reactive media and groundwater constituents on the environmental impacts of a permeable reactive barrier (PRB) were evaluated using life cycle assessment (LCA). The PRB is assumed to be installed at a simulated site contaminated by either Cr(VI) alone or Cr(VI) and As(V). Results show that the trench-based construction method can reduce the environmental impacts of the remediation remarkably compared to the caisson-based method due to less construction material consumption by the funnel. Compared to using the zerovalent iron (Fe0) and quartz sand mixture, the use of the Fe0 and iron oxide-coated sand (IOCS) mixture can reduce the environmental impacts. In the presence of natural organic matter (NOM) in groundwater, the environmental impacts generated by the reactive media were significantly increased because of the higher usage of Fe0. The environmental impacts are lower by using the Fe0 and IOCS mixture in the groundwater with NOM, compared with using the Fe0 and quartz sand mixture. Since IOCS can enhance the removal efficiency of Cr(VI) and As(V), the usage of the Fe0 can be reduced, which in turn reduces the impacts induced by the reactive media. ", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mak", "given" : "Mark S H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lo", "given" : "Irene M C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "23", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "10148-10154", "title" : "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Permeable Reactive Barriers: Effects of Construction Methods, Reactive Materials and Groundwater Constituents", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>11</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(11)USCr and AsN/APRBUsed in Figure 1.c and 1.dLemming, 2010 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es102007s", "abstract" : "The environmental impacts of remediation of a chloroethene-contaminated site were evaluated using life cycle assessment (LCA). The compared remediation options are (i) in situ bioremediation by enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD), (ii) in situ thermal desorption (ISTD), and (iii) excavation of the contaminated soil followed by off-site treatment and disposal. The results showed that choosing the ERD option will reduce the life-cycle impacts of remediation remarkably compared to choosing either ISTD or excavation, which are more energy-demanding. In addition to the secondary impacts of remediation, this study includes assessment of local toxic impacts (the primary impact) related to the on-site contaminant leaching to groundwater and subsequent human exposure via drinking water. The primary human toxic impacts were high for ERD due to the formation and leaching of chlorinated degradation products, especially vinyl chloride during remediation. However, the secondary human toxic impacts of ISTD and excavation are likely to be even higher, particularly due to upstream impacts from steel production. The newly launched model, USEtox, was applied for characterization of primary and secondary toxic impacts and combined with a site-dependent fate model of the leaching of chlorinated ethenes from the fractured clay till site. \u00a9 2010 American Chemical Society.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lemming", "given" : "G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hauschild", "given" : "M Z", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chambon", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Binning", "given" : "P J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bulle", "given" : "C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Margni", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bjerg", "given" : "P L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science and Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "23", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "note" : "cited By (since 1996) 4", "page" : "9163-9169", "title" : "Environmental impacts of remediation of a trichloroethene-contaminated site: Life cycle assessment of remediation alternatives", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "44" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>12</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(12)Copenhagen, DenmarkTCEN/AISB; ISTD; D&HUsed in Figure 1.c and 1.dFiorenza, 2009 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fiorenza", "given" : "Stephanie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Global Perspectives in Green Remediation California EPA, Sacramento, California", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "title" : "Applications of Sustainability Principles and Metrics at Industrial Sites Undergoing Remediation", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>13</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(13)New Jersey, USPetroleum HydrocarbonN/AP&T, MNA, ISCOContaminated aquifer volume unknown; only used in Figure 1.dHarbottle, 2008 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Harbottle", "given" : "M J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Al-Tabbaa", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Evans", "given" : "C W", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Geotechnical Engineering", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "75-92", "publisher" : "Telford", "title" : "Sustainability of land remediation: Part I: overall analysis", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "161" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>14</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(14)Four sites in England, UKPetroleum Hydrocarbon, Heavy Metals, CyanideISS; SW; ESB; CAP; D&HN/AUsed in Figure 1.a and 1.bPayet, 2008 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Payet", "given" : "Jerome", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gambazzi", "given" : "Francesca", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "10" ] ] }, "title" : "Assessing LCA and ERA for Sustainable Site Management in a Single Framework", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>15</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(15)Ronde Venen, NetherlandsHeavy MetalsD&H; PhytoremediationN/AContaminant mass quantity not available; only used in Figure 1.a; phytoremediation has negative CO2 emission, not shown on figure due to log scale plot. Garon, 2008 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Garon", "given" : "Kevin P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "2008 State Superfund Managers Symposium", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Association of State and Territorial Solid Waste Management Offices", "publisher-place" : "Scottsdale, AZ", "title" : "Sustainability Analysis for Improving Remedial Action Decisions.", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>16</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(16)New Jersey, USMiscD&H; ISS; ISBN/AContaminant mass quantity not available; only used in Figure 1.aHarbottle, 2007 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Harbottle", "given" : "M J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Al-Tabbaa", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Evans", "given" : "C W", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of hazardous materials", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "430-440", "publisher" : "Elsevier", "title" : "A comparison of the technical sustainability of in situ stabilisation/solidification with disposal to landfill", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "141" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>17</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(17)England, UKPetroleum Hycrocarbon and BTEXD&H; ISSN/AUsed in Figure 1.a and 1.b; for 1.b, it is assumed that average contaminant concentration was 20% of maximum concentration. Cadotte, 2007 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cadotte", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Desch\u00eanes", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samson", "given" : "R", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "239-251", "publisher" : "Springer", "title" : "Selection of a remediation scenario for a diesel-contaminated site using LCA", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>18</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(18)Quebec, CanadaPetroleum HydrocarbonMNA; ISB; ESBN/AUsed in Figure 1.a and 1.bBayer, 2006 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bayer", "given" : "P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Finkel", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of contaminant hydrology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "171-199", "publisher" : "Elsevier", "title" : "Life cycle assessment of active and passive groundwater remediation technologies", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "83" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>19</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(19)Karlscruhe, GermanyAcenaphtheneP&T; PRBUsed in Figure 1.c and 1.dToffoletto, 2005 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Toffoletto", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Desch\u00eanes", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Samson", "given" : "R", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "406-416", "publisher" : "Springer", "title" : "LCA of Ex-Situ Bioremediation of Diesel-Contaminated Soil (11 pp)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "10" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>20</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(20)Quebec, CanadaPetroleum HydrocarbonESBN/AOnly one treatment technology; used in Figure 1.a and 1.bNote: For the purpose of this study, the treatment of saturated soil is considered a groundwater remediation technology. CAP=capping; D&H=dig & haul; ESB= Ex-situ Bioremediation; INC=Incineration; ISB= In-situ Bioremediation; ISCO=in-situ chemical oxidation; ISS=in-situ solidification/stabilisation; ISTD=in-situ thermal desorption; MNA=monitored natural attenuation; PRB=permeable reactive barrier; P&T=pump & treat; SW=Soil Washing. Table S1Reviewed Studies and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria for Secondary Adverse Effect Shown on Figure 1Pressures from Other Major Working Parties The other major working parties at a site may include the primary contractor and key technology vendors. Remediation contractor is a key actor in remediation practices. While they have little influence in decision making regarding remediation design, they are a determining force in remediation operations. There are great opportunities for contractors to adopt sustainability practices in their operation; and the can also exert influence in decision making associated with these operation practices. Specialized technology vendors are not easy to replace; therefore they are capable of directly influencing decision making in remediation processes. In addition, in remediation technology selection decision-making process, stakeholders still tend not to trust innovative technologies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EURODEMO.", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "publisher" : "European Co-ordination Action for Demonstration of Effiient Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "title" : "Status Report on Decision Making Processes and Criteria", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>21</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(21). This places a barrier in technology diffusion. The incorporation of sustainable remediation principles can encourage innovative technology development and deployment. There is a growing trend of tagging “sustainability” with innovative remediation technologies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1021/es203765q", "abstract" : " Sustainability has become an important factor in the selection of remedies to clean up contaminated sites. Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) is a relatively new drilling technology that has been successfully adapted to site remediation. In addition to the benefits that HDD provides for the logistics of site cleanup, it also delivers sustainability advantages, compared to alternative construction methods. ", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lubrecht", "given" : "Michael D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Science & Technology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "2484-2489", "title" : "Horizontal Directional Drilling: A Green and Sustainable Technology for Site Remediation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>22</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(22). Some examples discussed in the previous section demonstrated how the “sustainable remediation” movement has helped in conquest regulatory barrier and creating innovative solutions. This new institutional context provides challenges as well as opportunities to technology developers. Pressures from Secondary Stakeholders The secondary stakeholders are those who don’t directly make decisions in the remediation processes or are minor working parties that can be easily replaced. For the stakeholders without resource interdependence with focal firms (e.g. site neighbours, local communities, and environmental interest groups), according to stakeholder theories, they tend to use indirect strategies to influence focal firms through those stakeholders who holds critical resources (e.g. regulators) and those who have resource interdependence with focal firms (e.g. major working parties). Studies have found that community and environmental interest groups can exert pressures on focal firms and effectively change organizational behaviour ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Baron", "given" : "D P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Economics & Management Strategy", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "31-66", "publisher" : "Wiley Online Library", "title" : "Private politics", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>23</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(23). In remediation, such pressures have forced contaminated land owners to initiate clean-up actions especially in many high-profile cases. Community acceptance is also one of nine balance factors under CERLCA for selecting appropriate remedies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "USEPA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "USEPA.", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1988" ] ] }, "publisher" : "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and Feasibility Studies Under CERCLA (Interim Final), EPA/540/G-89/004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(<i>24</i>)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(24). Nevertheless, there is a lack of study on how pressures from communities and environmental interest groups may have affected the adoption of sustainability principles in contaminated land remediation. For the stakeholders that are resource dependent on the focal firms, but hold no critical resources of the focal firms, they would have little influence on decision making according to traditional stakeholder theories. However, we hypothesize that due to the complexity of remediation decision making processes, some secondary stakeholders can influence how remediation is conducted through their own niche institutional fields. For instance, a waste management contractor may seemingly hold no critical resources of the focal firms as they can usually be replaced easily; however, their expertise in waste management and familiarity with regulations put them in a unique position to affect decision making regarding how the waste is contained, transported, and disposed. References:ADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Slenders, H. L. A.; Dols, P.; Verburg, R.; De Vries, A. J. Sustainable remediation panel: Sustainable synergies for the subsurface: Combining groundwater energy with remediation. Remediation Journal 2010, 20, 143–153.(2) McLaren, S.; Worboys, M.; Speake, O.; Mantell, P. Ex-situ Thermally Enhanced Coal Tar Recovery - A Low Carbon Option. In Green Remediation Conference; Copenhagen, Denmark, 2009.(3) SNOWMAN The Rejuvenate Decision-Making Approach-A Worked Example-Crop Based Systems for Sustainable Risk Based Land Management for Economically Marginal Degraded Land; Sustainable Management of Soil and Groundwater (SNOWMAN), 2009.(4) Madejón, P.; Barba-Brioso, C.; Lepp, N. W.; Fernández-Caliani, J. C. Traditional agricultural practices enable sustainable remediation of highly polluted soils in Southern Spain for cultivation of food crops. Journal of environmental management 2011.(5) ITRC Green and Sustainable Remediation: State of the Science and Practice; Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council: Washington, DC, 2011.(6) USEPA Green Remediation: Incorporating Sustainable Environmental Practices into Remediation of Contaminated Sites. EPA 542-R-08-002.; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2008.(7) Favara, P. J.; Krieger, T. M.; Boughton, B.; Fisher, A. S.; Bhargava, M. Guidance for performing footprint analyses and life-cycle assessments for the remediation industry. Remediation Journal 2011, 21, 39–79.(8) Lemming, G.; Hauschild, M. Z.; Bjerg, P. L. Life cycle assessment of soil and groundwater remediation technologies: literature review. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2010, 15, 115–127.(9) Morais, S. A.; Delerue-Matos, C. A perspective on LCA application in site remediation services: critical review of challenges. Journal of hazardous materials 2010, 175, 12–22.(10) Busset, G.; Sangely, M.; Montrejaud-Vignoles, M.; Thannberger, L.; Sablayrolles, C. Life cycle assessment of polychlorinated biphenyl contaminated soil remediation processes. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2012, 17, 325–336.(11) Mak, M. S. H.; Lo, I. M. C. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Permeable Reactive Barriers: Effects of Construction Methods, Reactive Materials and Groundwater Constituents. Environmental Science & Technology 2011, 45, 10148–10154.(12) Lemming, G.; Hauschild, M. Z.; Chambon, J.; Binning, P. J.; Bulle, C.; Margni, M.; Bjerg, P. L. Environmental impacts of remediation of a trichloroethene-contaminated site: Life cycle assessment of remediation alternatives. Environmental Science and Technology 2010, 44, 9163–9169.(13) Fiorenza, S. Applications of Sustainability Principles and Metrics at Industrial Sites Undergoing Remediation. In Global Perspectives in Green Remediation California EPA, Sacramento, California; 2009.(14) Harbottle, M. J.; Al-Tabbaa, A.; Evans, C. W. Sustainability of land remediation: Part I: overall analysis. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Geotechnical Engineering 2008, 161, 75–92.(15) Payet, J.; Gambazzi, F. Assessing LCA and ERA for Sustainable Site Management in a Single Framework; 2008.(16) Garon, K. P. Sustainability Analysis for Improving Remedial Action Decisions. In 2008 State Superfund Managers Symposium; Association of State and Territorial Solid Waste Management Offices: Scottsdale, AZ, 2008.(17) Harbottle, M. J.; Al-Tabbaa, A.; Evans, C. W. A comparison of the technical sustainability of in situ stabilisation/solidification with disposal to landfill. Journal of hazardous materials 2007, 141, 430–440.(18) Cadotte, M.; Deschênes, L.; Samson, R. Selection of a remediation scenario for a diesel-contaminated site using LCA. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2007, 12, 239–251.(19) Bayer, P.; Finkel, M. Life cycle assessment of active and passive groundwater remediation technologies. Journal of contaminant hydrology 2006, 83, 171–199.(20) Toffoletto, L.; Deschênes, L.; Samson, R. LCA of Ex-Situ Bioremediation of Diesel-Contaminated Soil (11 pp). The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2005, 10, 406–416.(21) EURODEMO. Status Report on Decision Making Processes and Criteria; European Co-ordination Action for Demonstration of Effiient Soil and Groundwater Remediation, 2005.(22) Lubrecht, M. D. Horizontal Directional Drilling: A Green and Sustainable Technology for Site Remediation. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46, 2484–2489.(23) Baron, D. P. Private politics. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 2003, 12, 31–66.(24) USEPA Guidance for Conducting Remedial Investigations and Feasibility Studies Under CERCLA (Interim Final), EPA/540/G-89/004; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 1988. ................
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