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Newington High School

Public Speaking Resource Guide

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Gina L. DiBernardo, Chair

Melissa Anderson

Resource Guide Table of Contents Page

Part One: Public Speaking Resource Guide Introduction (3)

Part Two: Writing a Public Speech (6)

Part Three: Avoiding Plagiarism (11)

Part Four: Delivering a Public Speech (17)

Part Five: Rehearsal Suggestions (20)

Part Six: Public Speaking Anxiety (21)

Part Seven: Presentation Aids (22)

Part Eight: Creating Effective Visual Aids (25)

Part Nine: PowerPoint Pointers (29)

Part Ten: The Informative Speech (30)

Part Eleven: The Demonstration Speech (33)

Part Twelve: The Persuasive Speech (36)

Part Thirteen: The Impromptu Speech (40)

Part Fourteen: The Special Occasion Speech (43)

Part Fifteen: Public Speaking Glossary (46)

With contributions by: Melissa Anderson

Gina DiBernardo

Angela Naimoli

Deb St. Jean

Public Speaking Resource Guide Introduction

To The Student:

[pic] Public speaking explores the art of oral communication through a set of concepts and basic skills, which include: techniques of organization, elements of style, methods of delivery, and attention to ethos, pathos, and logos.

According to the Connecticut Common Core of Learning, by the end of grade 12, students will develop proficiency, confidence, and fluency in speaking and listening to meet the literacy demands of the 21st century. As a student at Newington High School, you will be required to acquire and demonstrate effective communication skills in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing. Therefore, the student must meet Goal or Advanced Goal on the NHS Evaluation Rubric in public speaking as a graduation requirement. In addition, good public speaking skills will enhance your ability to communicate effectively in a business, academic, or global community.

This booklet will assist the student speaker in acquiring the essential skills and knowledge necessary to learn and develop aptitude in public speaking. Each section of the guide is written to provide familiarity with public speaking terminology focusing on specific criteria including: the introduction, speech content, organization, diction, vocal qualities, delivery, and effective visual aids.

Remember this guide is a reference source to help each student speaker successfully meet Goal. The evaluation and assessment of a student’s speech is at the discretion of the individual classroom teacher. Therefore, any specific questions about any of the material presented in this booklet should be directed to the classroom teacher.

Elements of Good Speaking

Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, described three essential factors for a speaker to remember when preparing a public speech. By their Greek titles they are ethos, pathos, and logos.

Ethos

Pathos Logos

Ethos refers to the character, quality, or integrity of a speaking. If members of an audience do not believe that a speaker deserves respect, they do not listen. An audience gives its respect to a speaker who it believes has high moral character or special knowledge about the topic addressed.

Positive ethos is called credibility. Speakers seek credibility by being well prepared, by showing respect and understanding for their audience, and by demonstrating interest in their subject.

The finest speakers not only wish to appear credible to their audience but also try to avoid the appearance of deception. They seek to understand all sides of an issue before speaking about it in public, and they are willing to learn something new from other speakers. They speak honestly and with respect to their listeners.

Sensitivity and awareness of the time and place (speech context) is another factor that contributes to ethos. Careful speakers talk in a way that is appropriate to the occasion. Speakers also win audience approval by speaking with enough volume, clarity, and expression to hold its attention.

Pathos refers to the emotions and deeply felt values of listeners - their psychological makeup. Unless a speaker analyzes their audience before speaking, few speakers can be successful. Knowing what motivates, inspires, and persuades people is part of what Aristotle meant by pathos. An effective speaker studies and considers the people who might hear a speech in order to determine what may excite their anger, arouse their pity, or provoke them to take action.

Logos is the third element of public speaking. From the Greek logos is derived the English word logic. Logos refers to the content or argument of a speech. A speech has a definable logic. If the purpose is to inform an audience of a new body of knowledge, the logos of the speech includes the completeness and clarity of the knowledge presented.

If the purpose is to persuade an audience to accept a new opinion on a matter of significance, logos refers to the logical order of the reasons a speaker marshals to support the appeal to that audience to change its opinions. If the purpose is to entertain, encourage, or inspire, logos entails beautiful, descriptive language, images, or humor to achieve the desired purpose.

Concern for ethos alerts speakers and listeners to how a speech reveals the character and credibility of the person who presents it. Sensitivity to pathos shows how a speaker identifies with the values and emotions of an audience. Awareness of logos helps a speaker to present an argument in a fair and logical way and helps a listener to understand better a speaker's purpose.

Speaker / Ethos

Audience / Pathos Message / Logos

Writing a Public Speech

Step 1: The Introduction

The introduction is perhaps, the most important part of a speech. A good introduction will engage and connect to the audience. It is in the introduction that the speaker must establish his/her credibility and connection to the speech topic.

A good introduction should:

• Get the attention of the audience in an interesting way

• Relate or connect the topic to the audience

• Offer a clear purpose or thesis

• Have a clear transition to the body of the speech

Gaining Audience Attention

There are various ways to gain your audience’s attention during the introduction. The following list illustrates a few methods.

1. Incorporate a Quote

One way to grab the audience’s attention is to include a famous or recognizable quote from literature, film, television, or historical resource that directly relates to the speech topic or speech content. An interesting or timely quote can make a strong impression or connection to your audience.

2. Ask a Rhetorical Question

Another way to grab the audience’s attention is by asking a rhetorical question. These thought-provoking questions are not meant to generate a verbal response, but to get the audience actively engaged in the speech content by making a direct connection to the speech topic.

3. Tell an Anecdote or Describe a Scenario

A third way to engage and connect to the audience is to tell a story or describe a person, place, or event in such a way that it creates a vivid image in the minds of the audience. In order to effectively draw in the audience, your description must include descriptive words, detailed adjectives, and sensory language that appeal to the five senses. It should be brief but offer a vibrant, clear image that directly relates to the topic of your speech.

4. Startling Fact or Dramatic Statement

State a problem or startling statistic to grab the attention of your audience. Use an unusual analogy or statistic to help you maximize your speech’s effect on your audience.

5. Audience Poll Question

You may ask a specific question and poll the audience for their response. This strategy helps establish a direct connection to the audience and generates curiosity and interest.

Remember to use meaningful, specific information and appropriate attention-getting techniques to interest and engage the audience. Once you have the audience’s attention and have attracted their interest, you can preview your speech’s content and transition into the body of your speech.

Step 2: The Body

Just as the introduction has a specific job or purpose within a speech, the speech body or speech content has a specific function. The job of the body of a speech is to support the main idea, purpose, or thesis of your speech, and to develop thoughts and ideas that were stated in the introduction.

The Speech content should:

• Be well-organized, with appropriate relationships between main points

• Use appropriate reasoning

• Include evidence that supports each point

• Demonstrate how each resource is effective, reliable, and appropriate

• Use appropriate diction

• Continue to connect to the audience

• Make clear arguments

• Demonstrate a depth of knowledge and use of language

• Include appropriate and logical transitions

The first step in writing a speech is to organize the information. The method of organization depends on the topic and type of speech. Common patterns of organization taught in writing apply to speech writing.

1. Supporting Evidence

Supporting evidence is any information that proves your main idea or strengthens your argument. Supporting evidence can appear in the form of statistics, quotes, expert testimony, facts, data or personal experience (your own or someone you know). Including strong and reliable supporting evidence is absolutely necessary to convince your audience that you are a credible speaker (ethos) and to validate your message.

2. Transitions and Language

In order to hold that attention of the audience, your speech must demonstrate a logical order of ideas, effective transitions, appropriate word choice, appropriate tone, and follow the conventions of the English language. The following is a list of some transition words that could be used when starting a new idea within your speech.

First Moreover For example As a result

Next Then For instance Even though

Last In addition Also Regardless

So Therefore Although Still

But However Ultimately Finally

When writing a speech, you must choose your words carefully and make every word count. You must choose language that is clear, concise, and appropriate to the tone and topic of the speech. Although you do want to be thorough, detailed, and descriptive in your writing, you also want to avoid rambling. A disorganized or long-winded speech will only be confusing to your audience.

3. Methods of Organization

In order to effectively communicate your main idea and/or purpose to your audience, your speech must be organized. There are various ways in which to organize a speech, depending on the type of speech and topic. Remember, to make sure that you are consistent, and use one organizational method throughout the entire speech. The following is a list or organizational methods:

• Chronological order

o Describing events or process steps in a numbered order

• Order of importance

o Describing events, actions, or problems by the beginning with the least important aspect and moving to the most important aspect, or vice versa

• Topical

o Describing a concept by grouping into its logical or relevant parts

• Cause / Effect

o Describing events, actions, or problems by beginning with the cause and moving to the effect, or vice versa

• Spatial order

o Describing an object or geographical location in a logical sequence, from top to bottom, left to right, up to down, or near to far

• Problem / Solution

o Describing a concept by explaining the causes or issues and moving to the potential resolutions or results

• Comparison / Contrast

o Describing elements by explaining how they are alike and different

Step 3: The Conclusion

Just like the introduction causes the audience to form either a positive or negative first impression of your speech, the conclusion causes the audience to form a positive or negative last impression of your speech. The conclusion is the last thing that the audience hears, and therefore, should be brief and memorable.

When writing the conclusion, your must remember to never, ever, ever introduce a new topic in your conclusion. Please refrain from saying, “In conclusion”! Your conclusion should naturally wrap up your message without stating the obvious for the audience. Use other cue words like, “finally”, or “lastly” when ending your message. The conclusion should:

• Include a clear summary of the main idea or thesis

• Tie the speech together

• Offer the audience at least one important thought to remember

• Include a memorable closing statement that leaves the audience with a clear message

1. Techniques to Conclude

• Summarize your thesis and main supporting points by telling listeners what you’ve told them

• Remind the audience of the importance of the issue by repeating one of your most telling statistics

• Use an attention device mentioned earlier such as a dramatic statement or relevant quote to re-emphasize your purpose

• Urge your audience to take action

• Warn your audience about the importance or timeliness of your issue or topic

• Make a prediction based on the information that your have given

• Use a “clincher” such as an anecdote as a lasting thought

• If appropriate, conduct a question-and-answer period to involve the audience

And finally…

It is always a good idea to proofread and practice your speech before the final presentation to establish a familiarity with the speech contents and boost your confidence as a speaker.

Avoiding Plagiarism

As you are aware, plagiarism is the act of presenting someone else’s ideas as your own.

In preparing a public speech, you are expected to cite your sources as you would in any sort of written work. This includes handing in a properly formatted References section including any written works, pictures, graphs, statistics, etc. that you’ve incorporated into your speech or visual aid.

Incorporating Research

Like a formal research paper, formal speech presentations should include cited research. Properly citing sources is the responsibility of a credible speaker. Parenthetical citations provide a practical way to properly acknowledge source material.

During your speech, a verbal cue or transition can make a source’s stance clear and the quotation valid to your point. Using a verbal cue provides a smooth transition.

Verbal Cues

according to confirms notes

acknowledges contends observes

adds declares points out

admits denies reasons

agrees disputes refutes

argues emphasizes rejects

asserts endorses reports

believes grants responds

claims illustrates suggests

comments implies thinks

compares insists writes

APA Style

APA stands for American Psychological Association, and is the preferred format used in public speeches.

Visuals: Visuals, such as tables and figures, include graphs, charts, drawings, and photographs. Try to keep the visuals as simple as possible. Clearly label each visual (ex: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and include the title of the visual. The label and the title should appear on separate lines above the table, flush left. Below the table, provide the source.

List of References: Create your list of references on its own page after the last page of your manuscript or outline. Center the title References one inch from the top of the page. Double space and Alphabetize the list of references by the last name of the authors. If the work has no author or editor, alphabetize the work by the first word of the title (excluding A, An, or The).

In Text Citations: When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 2004), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

Incorporating Quotations

Short Quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (2004), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).

Jones (2004) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers?

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 2004, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long Quotations

For long quotations the speaker should provide an introduction of the source or expert to the audience.

Jones's (2004) study found the following:

Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Summary or Paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work into your speech, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

According to Jones (2004), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.

APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 2004, p. 199).

In-Text Citations: Author/Authors

APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers.

Citing an Author or Authors

A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use "&" in the parentheses.

Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) showed...

(Wegener & Petty, 1994)

Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks.

A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).

Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.

Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.

According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...

If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations.

First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)

Second citation: (MADD, 2000)

Electronic Sources

If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style.

Kenneth (2000) explained...

Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses.

Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA,").

[pic]Reference List: Basic Rules

Your reference list should appear at the end of your speech or outline. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the speech. Each source you cite in the speech must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your speech.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the speech manuscript or outline; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced.

Basic Rules

• Authors' names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work.

• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.

• If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest.

• When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word.

• Capitalize all major words in journal titles.

• Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals.

• Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.

[pic] Reference List: Electronic Sources

Article From an Online Periodical

Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from

Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006 from

Online Journal Article

Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8(4).Retrieved February 20, 2001, from

Article From a Database

When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database.

Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database.

Nonperiodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report

List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a page like , and somepage.htm doesn't have the information you're looking for, move up the URL to ):

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved month date, year, from address.

[pic]Delivering a Public Speech

Familiarity with the delivery methods and techniques increase a speaker’s confidence, credibility, and impact.

Step 1: Choose a Method of Delivery

Before you write a final draft, rehearse, or present your speech, you must choose a method of delivery. The method of delivery will depend upon your speech content, goals, and presentation criteria (determined by the classroom teacher and individual assignment). There are four common methods of delivery:

• Impromptu

• Extemporaneous

• Manuscript

• Memorized

Impromptu speaking is a method of delivery that occurs when a speech is given without prior preparation or advanced planning. Impromptu speaking requires poise, confidence, and logic. It is important to consider the audience, establish a pattern of organization however brief, choose an interesting opening, and plan a conclusion.

Advantages: Timeliness or impact

Conversational rather than formal

Disadvantages: Limited preparation

Stage fright or nervousness

The Extemporaneous method of speech delivery requires careful preparation and is appropriate for most speaking occasions. An extemporaneous speech delivery is given either by referring to or recalling from brief note cards or formal outline the points, ideas, topics, and specifics of your speech content.

Advantages: Preparedness boosts confidence

Allows for eye contact

Disadvantages: Requires rehearsal

Speaking fluency without word-for-word preparation

The Manuscript method of speech delivery is used when a speech is written out word for word and read from a formal, typed script.

Advantage: Limits stress and provides assurance

Disadvantages: Eye contact may be compromised by dependence on

script

Requires careful preparation and revisions

Avoid reading voice

The Memorized method of speech delivery is prepared, written, rehearsed, and delivered from memory.

Advantage: Eye contact can be maintained throughout the speech

Freedom from notes or manuscript

Advanced planning and rehearsal

Disadvantages: Preparation can be lengthy

Delivery can sound mechanical and monotone

Memory needs to be 100% - cause anxiety

Step 2: Guidelines for Effective Delivery

1. Dress to impress - to help, not hinder, your speech

2. Keep note cards or speech manuscripts neat, organized, and one-sided

3. Project enthusiasm and confidence through your tone, attitude, and posture

4. Set your stage – prepare visual aids ahead of time, cue video equipment, set up position or podium

5. Establish and maintain eye contact with all sides of your audience –do not rely too much on your notes or scripts - avoid staring or fixating on one spot in the room

6. Avoid reading directly to the audience – Speak with, not at, the audience

7. Avoid “hitch words” or interjections (Ah, so, ya know, okay, um, like)

8. Use dramatic pauses to emphasize a point or allow the audience time to react or interpret the message

9. Maintain good posture – don’t lean, cross legs, or fidget. Keep your body relaxed not stiff. Be aware of nervous habits

10. Don’t play with note cards, pen, hair, or id. – this may distract the audience

11. Maintain appropriate volume and inflection – speak loudly and clearly enough so the person in the rear of the classroom or auditorium can hear you

12. Use effective facial and body gestures to emphasize your points or suggest emotional meaning

13. Use effective pace – vary your speaking rate but be aware of how fast or slow you may be talking

14. Enunciate clearly – articulate your words clearly and distinctly – avoid mumbling or slurring your words

15. Practice and rehearse your speech – pay attention to time

Rehearsal Suggestions

Rehearsing a speech is an effective and necessary step in building a speaker’s confidence. Here are some tips to follow to get the most out of your rehearsal:

Tip 1: Rehearse aloud – practice by yourself in front of a mirror or use a friend or parent. Either way, it is important to hear the speech and see your delivery style.

Tip 2: Ask for feedback – Ask for advice from classmates, teachers, family, or friends on your content and delivery

Tip 3: Make revisions – Make the necessary changes and improvements

Tip 4: Time your speech – Time the entire speech to make sure it fits the assignment or presentation requirements

Tip 5: Simulate actual presentation conditions – practice using the podium, practice incorporating visual aids or other media, plan and practice your gestures and stage presence

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“According to most studies, people's number one fear is public speaking. Number two is death. Death is number two. Does that sound right? This means to the average person, if you go to a funeral, you're better off in the casket than doing the eulogy.” - Jerry Seinfeld

Public Speaking Anxiety is fear or anxiety associated with actual or anticipated communication as a speaker to an audience. Nearly everyone is nervous about giving a speech. There are several reasons why a speaker may become nervous:

• Lack of experience

• Feeling out of your comfort zone

• Being the center of attention

[pic] Depending on when anxiety strikes, the consequences of public speaking anxiety can include everything from procrastination to poor speech performance. The important thing to remember is that there are strategies for boosting your confidence and overcoming NERVOUSNESS.

Nearly everyone is nervous

Experience reduces nervousness so keep trying

Realize you appear more confident than you feel

Visualize yourself succeeding – keep a positive attitude

Occupy your mind with what you want to say – review your content

Understand that nervousness can be controlled

Settle into a routine for relaxing (deep breathing, stretching, etc.)

Nervousness needs an outlet. Channel your nerves into natural gestures

Enthusiasm and interest in your topic will help combat stage fright

Self-encouragement

Simply prepare, practice, and rehearse

Presentation Aids

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Visual aids help listeners process and retain information, appeal to listeners’ imaginations, organize information clearly and concisely, save time, and reduce speech anxiety.

Quality visual or multimedia aids increase a speaker’s credibility (ethos) and help reinforce the speaker’s message (logos) to the audience. Visual aids also promote audience interest and motivation (pathos).

Types of Presentation Aids

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Models Pictures Graphs

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Charts Diagrams Video

[pic]The most common type of visual aid is the handout – page size items that convey information that is either (1) impractical to give to the audience in another manner, or (2) intended to be kept by audience members after the presentation.

[pic]Multimedia combines several media (voice, video, text, and data) into a single production. The idea behind multimedia is that the more senses you involve, the more memorable the presentation will be. Although multimedia can be visually stimulating, there are some potential pitfalls if you do not plan, organize, and rehearse its use appropriately.

[pic] An overhead transparency is an image on a transparent background that can be projected onto a screen or wall.

Once you have selected the type of presentation / visual aid you will use, you can begin design and construction.

Using Presentation Aids

Selecting the appropriate kind of aid and properly preparing it are extremely important to its overall effectiveness. Even more critical is how you actually integrate the aid into your speech. Even a well-designed visual aid can fail if it is not used effectively within your speech presentation.

1. Placement involves making certain that the audience can see and hear your aids, and that you can access them easily without interrupting the flow of your speech.

a. Place visual aid in full view of the audience

b. Provide easy access to all equipment

c. Cover or turn off equipment to avoid distraction

2. Interpretation involves the speaker’s ability to interpret, include, and explain the visual to the audience.

a. Display and point to the visual aid

b. Pause briefly to let the audience examine it

c. Always relate it to the message and purpose of your speech

3. Timing and Sequence involves knowing exactly at what point in the presentation you will be discussing your visual aids.

a. Introduce your visual aids using logical transitions and verbal cues

4. Anticipate the unexpected by having a back-up strategy in the event that equipment fails or malfunctions.

a. Avoid pitfalls by rehearsing

b. Test technology prior to beginning your speech presentation

5. Moderation is key. Presentation aids can truly enhance a speech presentation, yet there can be too much.

a. A speech presentation should focus on communicating with words

b. Having too many visual aids can be distracting to an audience

[pic] Creating Effective Visual Aids

Purpose:

Visual aids can add a tremendous amount to any presentation that you give. However, a poorly constructed visual aid or poster, one that is unreadable, cluttered, or messy, can hinder a presentation as well. Therefore, the following is an explanation of four simple design principles that can help you in designing posters and visual aids that are pleasing to the eye and enhance rather than hinder your presentation.

While constructing your visual aid, keep the acronym CRAP in mind (Contrast, Repetition, Alignment, Proximity).

C is for CONTRAST

Purpose:

The basic purposes of contrast are to create interest on the page and to aid in the organization of information.

The idea behind CONTRAST is to avoid elements on the page that are too similar. If the elements on the page (font, point size, color, line thickness, shape, space, etc) are not the same, make them very different. CONTRAST on a page draws the eye to it; our eyes like contrast.

Creating CONTRAST:

You can create CONTRAST in many ways. To make a heading stand out, you can use a very different font, increase the point size, make the words bold, or use a different color. Whatever choice you make, do it boldly. Avoid contrasting brown with black for example, because the color tones are not different enough.

R is for REPETITION

Purpose:

The purpose of repetition is to unify and add visual interest. Think of REPETITION as being consistent. A REPETITION of visual elements throughout the design unifies and strengthens a piece by tying together otherwise separate parts.

Creating REPETITION:

REPEAT visual elements throughout the poster. You can repeat color, font, line thickness, shape, and white space to enhance the information that is included on the poster. For example, keep the color border the same width and direction throughout the paper. Use the same font for headings and a different on for the typed portions. Look for the natural and existing repetitions and enhance them. You can actually design the poster with repetitions in mind to clarify the information for the viewer.

A is for ALIGNMENT

Purpose:

To align something means to line it up. The basic purpose of alignment is to unify and organize the page.

Creating ALIGNMENT:

Nothing should be placed on the page randomly. Every element on the page should have some visual connection with another element on the page. Even if the separate elements are not close to one another on the page, they can appear connected, related, and unified with the other information simply by their placement.

Often, it is ALIGNMENT that creates the look that you want to achieve: sophisticated, formal, fun, serious. Avoid the centering alignment on a poster unless you want a formal look.

P is for PROXIMITY

Purpose:

Proximity means nearness to other things. The basic purpose of PROXIMITY is to organize. If information is organized on a poster, it is more likely to be read and more likely to be remembered.

Creating PROXIMITY:

Items relating to each other should be grouped close together. Several items in close PROXIMITY become one visual unit rather than several separate units. Choose where you group information and use contrast so that the reader sees the most important information first and then moves in a logical fashion though the rest of the information. This is especially important when giving an oral presentation; you will need to think about what you will talk about first and place that information in such PROXIMITY that it leads the viewer.

HINTS ABOUT CRAFTSMANSHIP AND READABILITY

►It is very important that you pay attention to the craftsmanship of the poster or visual aid that you are creating. Poorly cut graphics, uneven lines, and sloppy lettering all contribute to a weak and ineffective final product. So take care to prepare the materials for your poster neatly.

►Readability is very important because it can help the viewer process the information more quickly and easily.

►Generally, it is faster to read words that are in lower case letters.

►Spaces between lines of print are called leading. If lines are spaced too closely together, It is easy to reread the line. If lines are too far apart, it takes more time to find the next line.

►Choose your font carefully. Some fonts are difficult to read. They may be too fancy or too unfamiliar.

This font is too fancy.

This font is unfamiliar.

►Point size is crucial on a poster. You need to use at least 36 or 48 for all headings. Larger is often even better. For any kind of repeated information, you should use at least 24.

►The angle of letters can also affect readability. Italics are tilted and harder to read.

Using these elements can greatly enhance the visual aid that you are using as well as the presentation that you are making.

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PowerPoint Pointers

Tips for Effective Presentations

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1. Simplify and limit the number of words on each slide or

transparency. Use key phrases and include only essential information.

2. Face the audience. There is nothing more annoying than

a presenter who spends his or her time talking to the

visual aid(s) rather than the audience.

3. Avoid writing words in all capital letters. Make sure the

letters are spaced evenly. Empty space on the slide will

enhance readability.

4. Use contrasting colors for text & background. Dark text

on a light background works best.

5. Avoid patterned backgrounds. They reduce readability.

6. Avoid special effects such as animation & sound. While

you may think these will add interest to your

presentation, they can be distracting or annoying to the

audience.

7. Limit the number of slides or transparencies you use.

There should be no more than one per minute.

Constantly changing transparencies is likely to confuse

the audience.

8. Audiences often ask to have another look at parts of the

presentation, so get familiar with each slide and its

order.

9. Be sure you have an alternate plan in case you

experience technical difficulties. You might provide a

handout or have a backup.

10. Rehearse in front of someone who has never seen your

presentation. Ask for honest feedback about all aspects

of the speech, with an emphasis on the visual.

[pic] The Informative Speech

Informative speeches present or describe information. Informative speakers share what they know with the audience. Their main goal is to explain something clearly and logically.

Planning Your Informative Speech

1. Evaluate the Speech Context (Time and Occasion)

Time – Find out how long your speech is to be. If you’re part of a series of speakers, find out at what point your speech will be.

Occasion – Fit your message to the occasion whether it’s serious, happy, sad, formal, or informal.

Audience – Learn about the members of your audience – their ages, genders, occupations, levels of education, and knowledge of your topic.

2. Choose a Topic

Once you have evaluated the speech context, choose your topic. It should be appropriate to your time limit, the occasion, and audience. Brainstorming will help you choose a topic. You may also try doing some preliminary library or Internet research to get ideas about, to help clarify or narrow a topic. It is usually best to speak on a topic you personally know or find interesting.

3. Research the Topic

Research will help broaden your knowledge on a topic. It will also be useful in strengthening your points. While you are gathering basic information, look for:

(Appropriate quotations

(Statistics

(Examples

(Anecdotes

(Visual aids

Writing an Informative Speech

An informative speech has three parts – an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

1. Introduction

The first few minutes of an informative speech are crucial. If you don’t catch your listeners’ interest, they may not pay attention, therefore, you want to catch your audience’s attention at the very beginning by getting the audience’s attention, building interest in the topic, previewing the topic, applying the message to the audience, and establishing your credibility as a speaker.

2. The Body

The body of an informative speech must convey your message to the audience. In order to effectively communicate your message you will organize information, follow principles of informing, and polish the speech.

(Organize Information

(See Methods of Organization found of pages ___-___ of this booklet.

(Principles of Informing

(Fulfill a need to know

(Connect information to feelings

(Limit your main points

(Repeat information

(Polish the Speech

(Use effective transitions

(Avoid technical talk

(Personalize the information

3. Conclusion

Conducting a Question-and-Answer Period

When a speech is over, it is often helpful for audience members to participate in a question and answer period. The best way to assure a good question-and-answer period is to give a stimulating and informative speech. This helps the listeners get involved and gives them a basis for interesting questions.

If you are well informed about your topic, you will be ready to answer most questions they ask. If someone stumps you, you can answer, “That’s an excellent question – so good that I don’t know the answer. I will find out and get back to you.”

Prepare for a question-and-answer period in advance by writing a list of possible questions and answers.

Suggested Topics for Informative Speeches

(Surviving if stranded in the wilderness

(The value and benefits of yoga

(Choosing the perfect pet

(The effects of global warming

(The Stock Market Crash

[pic] The Demonstration Speech

The Demonstration Speech is a specialized type of informative speech. The purpose of a demonstration speech is to show the members of your audience how to make, do, or use something. In a demonstration speech you will teach your listeners something meaningful, interesting, or useful.

Planning Your Demonstration Speech

1. Evaluate the Speech Context (Time and Occasion)

Time – Find out how long your speech is to be. If you’re part of a series of speakers, find out at what point your speech will be.

Occasion – Choose your setting based on the context and content of your demonstration (you should try to incorporate the appropriate setting for the skills or process being demonstrated).

Audience – Learn about the members of your audience – their ages, genders, occupations, levels of education, and knowledge of your topic.

2. Choose a Topic

In choosing a topic for a demonstration speech you must keep in mind the needs and interest of your audience. Choose a topic that is not too complicated or complex. Instead choose a topic with manageable steps and attainable results.

It is imperative that the speaker knows the process or skill well before trying to explain it. In order to establish credibility YOU must be the expert on the topic.

3. Research the Topic

Think about the procedure steps and materials necessary to complete the demonstration. You must choose a logical format to facilitate audience understanding. This might require step by step procedures or graphics to illustrate your points.

While you are planning your demonstration, think about:

(Your listener’s level of understanding or experience

(New or unfamiliar terminology or tools

(Gathering materials and equipment

(Visual aids to enhance demonstration

Writing a Demonstration Speech

A demonstration speech has three parts – an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

4. Introduction

The first few minutes of a demonstration speech are crucial. If you don’t catch your listeners’ interest, they may not pay attention, therefore, you want to catch your audience’s attention at the very beginning by getting the audience’s attention, introducing the topic skill or process, indicating the usefulness or importance of the topic, previewing the steps, procedures, and/or materials, and establishing your credibility as a speaker.

5. The Body

The body of a demonstration speech must show or demonstrate how something works, how to make something, or how to do something. The body of the speech is the step-by-step instructions. Put your steps in sequence in the logical order of doing them. This may require a written script of the procedures.

(Polish the Speech

(Use effective transitions to facilitate ordered steps (first, next, last)

(Avoid technical talk

(Personalize the information

6. Conclusion

Summarize your main points, highlight the final product or end result, and offer a final thought. Your final thought should reestablish your expertise on the topic.

Suggested Topics for Demonstration Speeches

(How to open a coconut

(How to change a tire

(How to appeal a traffic ticket

(How to make lasagna

(How to execute three self defense moves

[pic]

[pic]The Persuasive Speech

Whenever you try to change how someone thinks, feels, or behaves, you are using persuasion. You may also use persuasion to strengthen a view, attitude, or pattern of behavior that already exists.

Planning Your Persuasive Speech

4. Evaluate the Speech Context (Time and Occasion)

Time – Find out how long your speech is to be. If you’re part of a series of speakers, find out at what point your speech will be.

Occasion – Fit your message to the occasion whether it’s serious, happy, sad, formal, or informal.

Audience – Persuasive speakers can use emotional appeals along with facts and logic to move audiences to a goal. To do this well, they need to know how to address different types of audiences and how to identify appropriate listener needs.

|Type of Audience |What it is |Strategies |

| |(A positive audience shares and supports |(State your speech’s purpose |

|Positive |your position so you don’t need to spend |(Create warmth and a sense of community |

| |time arguing your basic views. Instead, |(Stress common beliefs, ideas, and |

| |use your speech to reinforce your |experiences |

| |listeners’ common bonds, to deepen their |(Use strong emotional appeals |

| |commitment to the cause, and to stir them |(Bring listeners to specific action |

| |to new positive action. |(Show you appreciate their support |

| |(A neutral audience might either be |(Engage the audience with a powerful |

|Neutral or Apathetic |ignorant of or undecided about your topic. |opening |

| |This audience may not be motivated to |(Identify history, values, and goals that |

| |listen to you. You’ll need to spend extra |you share |

| |effort to get and keep its attention. |(Relate the argument to their needs |

| |(An apathetic audience has no interest in |(Use strong evidence |

| |your topic. They see no connection between|(Establish your credentials |

| |your topic and their lives. |(Hold their attention with high interest |

| | |material |

| |(An opposed audience is not in agreement |(Show you know and respect the listeners’ |

|Opposed |with you. |positions. |

| | |(Establish common ground before introducing|

| | |your argument |

| | |(Gain their respect by sharing your |

| | |qualifications, experience, background, and|

| | |values. |

| | |(Build your argument carefully, taking into|

| | |account possible objections. |

| | |(Use evidence they can’t contradict. |

| | |(When appropriate, defuse tension by using |

| | |humor. |

2. Choose a Topic

Once you have evaluated the speech context, choose your topic. It should be appropriate to your time limit, the occasion, and audience. You’ll need to think carefully about the way you word your topic. Your topic must be a specific proposal that offers a questionable solution to a controversial problem.

3. Research the Topic

Research will help broaden your knowledge on a topic. It will also be useful in strengthening your points. While you are gathering basic information, look for:

(Appropriate quotations

(Statistics

(Examples

(Anecdotes

(Visual aids

Writing a Persuasive Speech

To achieve a convincing effect, you need to organize your speech carefully. Here are a few methods of organization:

1. Present a history of the problem.

(Discuss the events leading up to the present time that make the topic important.

2. Discuss the present day effects of the problem.

(Use examples, illustrations, facts, and statements from the authorities to clearly demonstrate the situation.

3. Discuss the causes of the effects listed in point two.

(Show how the causes are bringing about the effects.

4. List possible solutions to the problem.

(Discuss briefly the various alternatives that could be followed, but illustrate that they are not effective enough to solve the problem.

5. Give your solution to the problem.

(Show why your solution is the best answer to the problem. This must not be simply your opinion. It must be logical reasoning backed up by evidence.

6. Show how your proposal will benefit the audience.

(Your listeners must see vividly that your proposal will benefit them.

7. Call them to action.

(Inform the audience of the actions you want it to take, inviting listeners to be a part of the solution.

If the preceding speech structure doesn’t work well for your topic, try the following:

1. State your proposition in the introduction.

2. Present a history of the problem that led to the proposal you are asking your audience to adopt.

3. Show that your proposal is necessary. Offer evidence that establishes a need.

4. Show that your proposal is practical. Show that it will solve the problem.

5. Show that your proposition is desirable. Provide information that will be beneficial rather than neutral or harmful.

6. Conclude with a final statement in support of your proposal.

7.

On the other hand, if you are opposed to a certain proposal, you can establish your point of view by offering arguments that show any one of the following:

1. The proposal is not needed.

a. Give evidence

2. The proposal is not practical.

a. Give evidence

3. The proposition is not desirable.

a. Give evidence

Suggested Topics for Persuasive Speeches

(Gun Control

(Immigration Debate

(The Assassination of John F. Kennedy

(The Greatest Artist/Author of All Time

(Prayer in Schools [pic]

The Impromptu Speech

“It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech.”

- Mark Twain

An impromptu speech is an unpracticed, unplanned, spontaneous speech. Familiarity with impromptu speaking in class will help prepare you for the many unrehearsed speaking situations most of us face in real life situations in business, industry, academics, and other professions.

Planning Your Impromptu Speech

1. Evaluate the Speech Context (Time and Occasion)

Have an awareness of when an impromptu speaking situation may arise. Be prepared to rise to the challenge.

Time – Usually, impromptu speeches are extremely brief, yet complete at the same time (Introduction, Discussion, Conclusion).

Occasion – Fit your message to the occasion whether it’s serious, happy, sad, formal, or informal.

Audience – Briefly scan the members of your audience – their ages, genders, occupations, levels of education, and knowledge of your topic.

2. Topic

It is important to narrow down the topic enough so that you feel comfortable with the subject matter of your speech. Work to narrow down your topic to something that can be discussed fully in a short amount of time.

For example:

Topic – Sports

(

Narrow down – Football

(

Further simplify – New football field at NHS

New Football Field at NHS becomes your impromptu speech topic because it’s focused, specific, and manageable.

3. Determining the Content / Structuring the Message

16 Introduction

i. Attention-getter

ii. Thesis statement or topic statement

iii. Transition

a. Discussion

i. Main points

ii. Support with evidence and logic

iii. Use some type of speech structure or organizational cues discussed previously in this booklet.

b. Conclusion

i. Review

ii. Final thought

*Do not apologize, ramble, or get off the subject.

*Use good delivery techniques including sincerity, gestures,

clarity, eye contact, etc.

Suggested Topics for Impromptu Speeches

(The Internet

(High School Life

(Pets

(Travel

(War and Terrorism

Topic – Travel

(

Narrow down – Adventure Travel

(

Further simplify – Whitewater Rafting on the Colorado River

[pic]

[pic] The Special Occasion Speech

In life you may be called upon to speak at a special occasion. At such a time, it will be up to you as a speaker to deliver a speech that captures the essence of a moment. A special occasion speech is one that is prepared for a specific occasion and determined by that occasion.

Planning Your Impromptu Speech

1. Evaluate the Speech Context (Time and Occasion)

Have an awareness of when a special occasion speaking situation may arise. Be prepared to rise to the challenge.

Time – The time of a special occasion speech is determined by the type of speech that it is.

Occasion – Fit your message to the occasion whether it’s serious, happy, sad, formal, or informal.

Audience – It’s good to gather as much information about your audience as you can, including their ages, genders, occupations, levels of education, and knowledge of your topic.

[pic]

|Type |Definition |Strategies |

| |(Opens an event or conference, the topic |(Warmly greet and thank the person who introduced you.|

|Keynote Speech |usually connects to the subject or theme |(Engage audience interest or attention. |

| |of the event. |(Focus on the topic of the conference and explain its |

| | |value to the audience. |

| | |(Give an overview of the conference, inspiring the |

| | |audience to take advantage of the events or meetings |

| | |to follow. |

| |(Honors graduates and celebrates their |(Thank the person and/or institution that invited you |

|Commencement Speech |accomplishments |to speak |

| | |(Offer congratulations to the graduates. |

| | |(Define the moment in terms of its relevance and |

| | |importance. |

| | |(Offer an inspirational message, quotation or thought.|

| | |(Avoid clichés and familiar expressions. |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| |(Delivered as part of a formal ceremony |(Welcome your audience and remind them of the |

|Dedication Speech |that unveils a public monument, opens a |importance of the event |

| |new building, city park, or community |(Honor all persons involved in the process |

| |center. |(Explain the significance and history of the occasion |

| | |(Describe how the center or structure will be used and|

| | |its importance to the community – remember to consider|

| | |the symbolic meaning |

| |(This is supposed to be a light-hearted |(Select a topic that is appropriate for the event and |

|After Dinner Speech |and entertaining speech that invites |the audience |

| |listeners to relax and enjoy themselves. |(Avoid language and topics that could offend or |

| | |embarrass your listeners |

| | |(Maintain a cheerful tone |

| | |(Include anecdotes and stories that naturally fit the |

| | |occasion |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

| |(Prepare the audience to hear a speaker |(Welcome the audience |

|Speeches of Introduction |and motivate them to listen. |(Define the occasion and its importance |

| | |(Spotlight the speaker’s background qualifications and|

| | |special knowledge |

| | |(Conclude by asking the audience to welcome the |

| | |speaker |

| |(Honors an individual or group for special|(Welcome the audience |

|Speeches of Presentation |accomplishments and presents an award or |(Convey the meaning of the award |

| |honor. |(Speak about the recipient of the award |

| | |(Congratulate the recipient |

| | |(Present the award |

| |(Formally express your gratitude for |(Communicate your great respect for this honor |

|Speeches of Acceptance |receiving an honor or award. |(Express sincerity and humility |

| | |(Recognize and honor those who helped you achieve this|

| | |award |

| | |(Thank those giving the award |

| |(Acknowledges and honors living |(Welcome your listeners and appeal to their emotions |

|Testimonials |individuals or groups for their |(Pay tribute to the achievements and special qualities|

| |outstanding accomplishments. |of the person or group |

| | |(Incorporate personal anecdotes and personal qualities|

| | |of the person or group |

| | |(Explain why this person/group is deserving of a |

| | |tribute |

| | |(Close with a personal statement to the honoree |

| | |offering your congratulations |

| | | |

| |(Tribute to a deceased person. |(Express your personal grief and deep sense of loss |

|Eulogy | |(Offer sympathy to family and friends |

| | |(Share memories about the person’s life |

| | |(Describe the person’s legacy |

| | |(Close with a meaningful quotation, poem, or thought |

| | |that conveys the sorrow of the occasion |

| |(A succulent meat dish OR |(Celebrates a person and his or her achievements |

|Roast |(A humorous tribute to a person in which a|(Be positive and brief |

| |series of speakers will jokingly poke fun | |

| |at him or her. | |

| |(Excellent with jam OR |(Celebrates a person and his or her achievements |

|Toast |(A brief tribute to a person or event |(Be positive and brief |

| |being celebrated | |

Public Speaking Glossary

The following is a glossary of terms commonly used in relation to public speaking.

Acceptance speech - A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.

Active listening – Giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker’s point of view.

After-dinner speech – A brief, often humorous, ceremonial speech, presented after a meal that offers a message without asking for radical changes in attitude or action.

Audience demographics – Observable characteristics of listeners, including age, gender, educational level, group affiliations, and socio-cultural backgrounds that the speaker considers when adapting to an audience.

Begging the question – Assuming that an argument has been proved without actually presenting the evidence.

Body – The middle of the speech, used to develop main ideas.

Body language – Communication achieved using facial expressions, eye contact, movements, and gestures.

Burden of proof – The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.

Ceremonial speaking – Speaking that celebrates special occasions. Common forms are speeches of tribute, inspiration, eulogies, toasts, introduction, making and accepting awards, and the after-dinner speech. Their deeper function is to share identities and reinforce values that unite people into communities.

Channel- The means by which a message is communicated.

Chronological order – A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern.

Commemorative speech – A speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.

Contrast/Juxtaposition – When two opposite viewpoints, ideas, or concepts are placed close to each other for effect.

Credibility – The audience’s perception of whether the speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

Debate – The clash of opposing ideas, evaluations and policy proposals on a subject of concern.

Deductive reasoning – A form of thinking that begins with a generally accepted truth, connects an issue with the truth, and draws a conclusion based on the connection.

Demographic audience analysis – Audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religious orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background.

Encoding process – The process by which the speaker combines words, tones, and gestures to convey thought and feelings to the audience.

Ethos – The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

Eulogy – A speech of tribute presented upon a person’s death.

Exaggeration – Trying to impress or influence by overstating a viewpoint, statement, or idea.

Expert testimony – Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields.

Eye contact – Direct visual contact with the eyes of another person.

Facts and statistics – Items of information that can be used to illustrate and prove points made by the speaker. When expressed numerically, such information appears in statistics.

Fallacy – An error in reasoning.

Feedback – The audience’s immediate response to a speaker.

Graphics – Visual representations of information.

Hasty generalizations – An error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

Impromptu speech – A speech delivered with little or no immediate preparation.

Informative speech – A speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding.

Interference – Anything that impedes the communication of a message. Interferences can be external or internal to listeners.

Introduction – The first part of a speech, intended to gain the audience’s attention and to prepare them for the rest of the presentation.

Kinesics – The study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication.

Listener – The person who receives the speaker’s message.

Logos – The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

Manuscript speech – A speech that is written out word for word and read to the audience.

Memorized presentations – Speeches that are committed to memory and delivered word for word.

Model – An object, usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail.

Monotone – A constant pitch or tone of voice.

Multimedia presentation – A speech that uses computer software to combine several kinds of visual and/or audio aids in the same talk.

Nonverbal communication – Communication based on a person’s use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words.

Panel discussion – A structured conversation on a given topic among several people in front of an audience.

Pathos – The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

Persuasion – The art of convincing others to give favorable attention to our point of view.

Persuasive speech – A speech designed to change of reinforce the audience’s attitudes, beliefs, or actions.

Problem-cause-solution order – A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.

Problem-solution design – A persuasive speech pattern in which listeners are first persuaded that they have a problem and then are shown how to solve it.

Proxemics – The study of how human beings use space during communication.

Question of fact – A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion.

Question of policy – A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.

Question of value – A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.

Quotations from well-known sources – Quotes from the Bible, television, movies, proverbs, and clichés: to link with our audience and our common experiences.

Reasoning – The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

Rhetorical question – Questions that have a self-evident answer, or that provoke curiosity that the speech then proceeds to satisfy.

Sequential design – A pattern for an informative speech that presents the steps involved in the process of being demonstrated.

Spatial design – A pattern for the informative speech that orders the main points as they occur in physical space.

Spatial order – A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern.

Speaker – The person who is presenting an oral message to a listener.

Speech of acceptance – A ceremonial speech expressing gratitude for an honor and acknowledging those who made the accomplishment possible.

Speech of demonstration – An informative speech aimed at showing the audience how to do something or how something works.

Speech of description – An informative speech that creates word pictures to help the audience understand a subject.

Speech of explanation – A speech that is intended to inform the audience about abstract and complex subjects, such concepts or programs.

Speech of inspiration – A ceremonial speech directed at awakening or reawakening an audience to a goal, purpose, or set of values.

Speech of introduction – A ceremonial in which a featured speaker is introduced to the audience.

Speech of presentation – A speech that presents someone a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.

Speech of tribute – A ceremonial speech that recognizes the achievements of individuals or groups or commemorates special events.

Supporting materials – The materials used to support a speaker’s ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.

Testimony – Citing the observations, opinions, or conclusions or other people or institutions to clarify, support, and strengthen a presentation.

Toast – A short speech of tribute, usually offered at celebration dinners or meetings.

Understatement – Trying to impress or influence by understating a viewpoint for effect.

Values – Underlying principles of standards of desirable or ideal behavior that should justify our beliefs and attitudes.

Vocalized pause/vocal distractions – Filler words or pauses that occur when a speaker fills the silence between words with vocalizations such as “um,” “uh,” and “er.”

Volume – The loudness or softness of the speaker’s voice.

References

Carlile, C., & Hensley, D. (2005). 38 basic speech experiences. Logan, Iowa: Perfection Learning Corporation

Fletcher, L. (2001). How to design and deliver speeches. New York, NY: Longman.

Franklin, S., & Clark, D. (2001). Essestials of speech communication. Evanston, Illinois: McDougal Littell.

O'Hair, D., & Stewart, R. (1999). Public speaking challenges and choices. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's.

Tuman, J., & Fraleigh, D. (2003). The St. Martin's guide to public speaking. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's.

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