My Blog



Key Concept 2.1 The Development &Codification of Religious & Cultural Traditions Answer Underline Concepts and Factual Examples “Facts”How did religions help strengthen political, economic, and cultural ties within societiesHow did religions promote a sense of unity?What are the characteristics and core teachings of Judaism?--of Hinduism?Religions influenced and reinforced political, economic, and occupational stratification. For example, Hinduism contributed to the development of the social and political roles of a caste system. The caste system is a social structure that groups people in four hereditary castes, or varna, with untouchables being outside the system. The highest caste includes scholars and priests called Brahmins. The second highest caste is the warrior or governing caste, the Kshatriyas. The second lowest caste includes traders and farmers called Vaishyas. The lowest caste includes common laborers called Shudras. Upward mobility could only occur within castes. The rules for each caste governed permissible jobs, marriages, and social habits like eating and drinking. Culturally, Hinduism also provided the development of the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma to promote teachings about reincarnation. Reincarnation is a rebirth that goes on until liberation is reached and one enters into the immortal world of Brahman (the power that upholds and supports everything) where one remains liberated forever. Politically, rulers used religion to justify their rule and ensure its continuation. For example, the rulers of the Zhou Dynasty used the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The Mandate of Heaven stated that the gods had granted power to the political ruler and also had the ability to revoke that power. This revocation could be seen through floods, peasant uprisings, and nomadic invasions. The rulers of the Zhou took over the Shang Dynasty by claiming that they had the Mandate of Heaven and that the rulers of the Shang Dynasty had lost it. Also, the Byzantine emperors justified their rule by claiming to be divinely inspired or ordained by God. Lastly, religion helped to bring societies together, provide and ethical code to live by, solidify their political, economic, social, and cultural structures. Codifications and further developments of existing religious traditions provided a bond among the people and an ethical code to live by. For example, Judaism provided an ethical code for its followers that united them. A Jew has a legal obligation to help someone in need and to be a bystander if there’s a Torah violation. A Jew is expected to deal honestly in business. Also, Christianity united the people of the Roman Empire under the bond of a common religion when Theodosius made it the official religion in 380 CE. When Jews were forced to leave their homeland of Israel, Judaism united the inhabitants of Jewish diaspora communities under the common religion of Judaism. Judaism originated in the Middle East. It is the first monotheistic faith. It influenced Christianity and Islam with monotheism. The founder is Abraham. There was a covenant with God. In this covenant, God promises to make the Israelites his treasured possession among all people if they follow God's commandments. Followers follow the laws of Moses in the Torah (the holy book). The association of monotheism with Judaism was further developed with the codification of the Hebrew Scriptures, which also reflected the influence of Mesopotamian cultural and legal traditions. The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Roman empires conquered various Jewish states at different points in time, which contributed to the growth of Jewish diaspora communities around the Mediterranean and Middle East. These empires also destroyed Ancient Israel as a theocracy. The core beliefs outlined in the Sanskrit scriptures formed the basis of the Vedic religions — later known as Hinduism — which contributed to the development of the social and political roles of a caste system and in the importance of multiple manifestations of Brahma to promote teachings about reincarnation. Hinduism originated in India. It is the oldest of the major religions. It began with Aryan invaders combining with Dravidians. The Vedas and the Upanishads are sources of prayers that guide Hindus. The Rig Veda and the Bhagavad Gita are Hindu texts. The Law of Manu is also a Hindu text that presents the norms of domestic, social, and religious life in India around circa 500 BCE under the Brahmin influence. Some of the most important gods include Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Shiva (the Destroyer). Followers believe in reincarnation, which is the cycle of life and death. One’s next life is determined by karma (the sum of a person's actions in this life and previous lives). Moksha is release from reincarnation. The social system is the caste system. The highest caste includes scholars and priests called Brahmins. The second highest caste is the warrior or governing caste, the Kshatriyas. The second lowest caste includes traders and farmers called Vaishyas. The lowest caste includes common laborers called Shudras. Dharma is one’s caste duties. It is a patriarchal religion due to sati (the practice of a widowed woman committing suicide by throwing herself onto her husband’s burning funeral pyre) and the fact that women can’t achieve moksha. Hinduism traveled to Southeast Asia via the Indian Ocean trade, which is evidenced by Angkor Wat in Cambodia. It will always be a continuity in India, especially in the south. JudaismIsraelMonotheismTheocracydiasporaHinduismVedas, Rig VedaCaste (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sudra)Bhagavad GitaLaw of ManuWhat is a “universal religion?” Where did universal religions exist by 600 CE?What are the characteristics and core teachings of Buddhism? How and where did Buddhism spread by 600 CE?What are the characteristics and core teachings of Confucianism?What are the characteristics and core teachings of Daoism?What are the characteristics and core teachings of Christianity? How and where did Christianity spread by 600 CEWhat are the characteristics and core teachings of Greco-Roman philosophy and science?How did religions affect gender roles in their respective societies?What other religious and cultural traditions were common by 600 CEHow did humans reliance on the natural world influence religion?In which regions did ancestor veneration persist in the classical period?New belief systems and cultural traditions emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths. A universal religion is a religion that is easily adapted to other cultures through conversions and missionary works. Basically, anyone can join. The three universal religions examples are Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. By 600 CE, universal religions existed in the Roman Empire, India, China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. The core beliefs about desire, suffering, and the search for enlightenment preached by the historic Buddha and recorded by his followers into sutras and other scriptures were, in part, a reaction to the Vedic beliefs and rituals dominant in South Asia. Buddhism changed over time as it spread throughout Asia — first through the support of the Mauryan Emperor Asoka, and then through the efforts of missionaries and merchants, and the establishment of educational institutions to promote its core teachings. It originated in India. It spawned out of Hinduism. Common symbols of Buddhism are an endless knot and a wheel. Siddhartha Gautama or the Buddha is the founder. The Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of the Buddha’s teaching, which is that life is suffering. Followers are expected to follow the Eightfold Path (right conduct, right meditation, etc.). It appealed to the poor because Nirvana (peace/bliss) can be achieved in one lifetime by following the Eight Fold Path and understanding the Four Noble Truths. It offers a monastic life for men and women. It is a universal religion. It has two sects: Theravada and Mahayana. By 600 CE, Asoka spread Buddhism and kept it from dying out. He sent missionaries through India and Sri Lanka. Because of the Silk Road, it spread to China. From China, it spread to Korea and Japan. It spread to Southeast Asia via the Indian Ocean trade, which is evidenced by Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Confucianism’s core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius and were elaborated by key disciples who sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China, including the rulers. It originated in China. It developed during the Warring States Period. Confucius (Kong Fuzi) is the founder. It emphasizes on education, respect, virtue, order, and reciprocity. Filial piety is a characteristic. Filial piety is respect for elders, respect for family, and the five relationships. The five relationships are ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, and friend to friend. It was a religion that was embraced by governments since the idea that the ruler is superior to the ruled was present. It is a patriarchal religion because the husband is seen as superior to the wife. There were Civil Service Exams based on the Analects (Confucian text). Because of these Civil Service Exams, the government bureaucracy was based on merit, and social mobility was a possibility. During the Tang Dynasty, Confucianism combines with Buddhism to form Neo-Confucianism. In the major Daoist writings, the core belief of balance between humans and nature assumed that the Chinese political system would be altered indirectly. Daoism also influenced the development of Chinese culture in the areas of medical theories and practices, poetry, metallurgy, and architecture. It originated in China. It influenced Chinese culture with chemists, botanists, and astronomers. It promoted scientific discovery. The founder is Laozi. Daodejing is the religious text. It teaches to be harmonious with nature and to disengage. Yin/yang is a characteristic. Yin/yang describes how opposite forces are complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. There was also the concept of Wu Wei, action through non – action. Christianity, based on core beliefs about the teachings and divinity of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded by his disciples, drew on Judaism, and initially rejected Roman and Hellenistic influences. Despite initial Roman imperial hostility, Christianity spread through the efforts of missionaries and merchants through many parts of Afro-Eurasia, and eventually gained Roman imperial support by the time of Emperor Constantine. It originated in the Middle East. It is monotheistic. The founder is Jesus, who is thought of as a messiah/savior. It is a universal religion. It is the world’s largest religion. A core teaching is that Jesus was crucified under the Roman Empire. It offers a monastic lifestyle for men and women. It appealed to women and the poor. Peter is recognized in the early Christian church as the leader of the disciples. It will be a continuity in Europe. It spread because of Paul (a missionary) and the Roman roads. It spread through the Mediterranean through war, trade, and migration By 600 CE, it also spread throughout the Mediterranean world because the Byzantine Empire embraced it, and the Roman Empire made it the official religion under Theodosius in 380 CE. When Constantine adopted Christianity it gained imperial support and that helped it spread even wider through the empire.The core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasized logic, empirical observation, and the nature of political power and hierarchy. Instead of using the gods and religion to solve problems, logic and objective questioning was used. The scientific method was developed as a way to investigate the workings of nature. Philosophers developed the concept of atoms as building blocks of matter. The Greco-Roman philosopher, Socrates, encouraged his pupils to question conventional wisdom and urged rational reflection of moral decisions. The Socratic principle of rational inquiry by means of skeptical questioning became a frequent strand in Classical Greek thinking. The Greco-Roman philosopher, Plato, suggested that human reason could approach an understanding of the three perfect forms (the absolutely True, Good, and Beautiful), which he believed characterized nature. He believed that knowledge was based on the consideration of ideal forms outside the material world. He proposed an ideal form of government based on abstract principles where philosophers ruled. He wrote The Republic (an influential political work). The Greco-Roman philosopher, Aristotle, stressed the importance of moderation and balance in human behavior as opposed to the instability of much political life and the excess of the gods. He believed that knowledge was based on observation of phenomena in the material world. He is considered the founder of logic and reasoning. Buddhism and Christianity encouraged monastic life and Confucianism emphasized filial piety. Buddhism and Christianity encouraged a life for both men and women where they would renounce worldly pursuits to devote themselves fully to spiritual work. In Buddhist cultures, women could achieve nirvana and had the opportunity to live in monasteries as nuns. Christianity attracted many women in its early years and proclaimed that men and women were equal before God. Women could go to heaven and join covenants as nuns. Confucianism emphasized a patriarchal society since wives were seen as inferior to their husbands because of filial piety. Hinduism emphasized a patriarchal society also since women could neither read the sacred Vedas nor achieve moksha. Other religious and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified, written belief systems in core civilizations. Filial piety, the practice of respecting one’s family and one’s elders, was common in Confucianism. Ancestor veneration, the practice of living family members worshipping and paying honor and respect to their ancestors, was an aspect of filial piety. It is based on the belief that deceased family members have a continued existence, take an interest in the events of the world, and possess the ability to influence the fortune of the living. The goal of ancestral veneration is to ensure the ancestors' well-being and positive tendency towards the living and sometimes to ask for special favors or assistance. Animism, the belief that physical objects take on spiritual characteristics, was common by 600 CE. Shamanism, a belief system that centers on a shaman who is believed to have a variety of powers like the ability to heal the sick and have direct communication with a spirit world, was common by 600 CE. Animism existed in areas such as Africa and shamanism existed in areas like Japan.Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations because of their daily reliance on the natural world. Shamanism relied on the natural world since the shaman is believed to be able to communicate directly with the spirit world. Animism relied on the natural world since it is a belief that physical objects take on spiritual characteristics. Societies questioned the cause of natural disasters and natural phenomenon, and people looked towards religion to provide the answers. In Ancient Greece, mythology was developed as a way to explain things like the origin of the world and the seasons. Ancient Greeks offered meals to the gods as worship and partook in religious ceremonies and rituals involving the twelve deities. In Christianity, rulers used religion to justify things like wars and conquering territories. For example, the Byzantine emperor used religion to justify his rule by claiming that he was divinely inspired. In Judaism, religion was based off of worldly needs like prosperity and success.Ancestor veneration persisted in many regions. It persisted in Africa, the Mediterranean region, East Asia, and the Andean areas. “universal religion”= anyone can joinSiddhartha GautamaNirvanaAsokaEight Fold PathFour Noble TruthsConfucius (Kong Fuzi)Five relationshipsAnalectsLaoziDaodejingyin/yangWu WeiJesusPeterPaulmessiah/saviorConstantineSocrates, Plato, Aristotlefilial pietyancestor venerationanimismshamanismHow did art and culture develop to 600 CE?What literary works influenced later eras?How did different societies’ architectural styles develop?What examples of syncretism reflect the Classical Era to 600 CE?Artistic expressions, including literature and drama, architecture, and sculpture, show distinctive cultural developments. Ancient Hindu temples were built mainly of wood and brick. Hindu temples have domes and steeples. Hindu art usually showcases deities, and these deities are often portrayed with multiple limbs and heads. Buddhist stupas are rounded structures that contain Buddhist relics and are used by Buddhists as places of worship. Elaborate relief sculptures decorate some stupas. In China, the stupa became the pagoda. Pagodas are eight-sided towers that contain an odd number of stories. Buddhist monasteries originated around 200 BCE. Some were made of stone or wood, while others were forged out of mountains of rock. The interior was designed with an assembly hall and living quarters, including a small stupa at the heart of the monastery. Buddhist art contains detailed reliefs of Buddha and various bodhisattvas. Buddhist art also depicts physical objects associated with Buddhist practice. During the Roman period, Christian churches featured an atrium (a large open space located inside the building with a long sequence of columns surrounding it), a basilica (a central main body of the church and aisles), and a mausoleum (a free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person). During the Byzantine period, Christian churches featured domes, arches, and pendentives (a device that allows the placement of a circular dome over a square room or an oval-shaped dome over a rectangular room). During the Roman Empire, Christian art included fresco-paintings (the method of painting where color pigments are mixed only with water and then applied onto the surface), mosaics (the art of creating pictures and patterns on a surface by setting small colored pieces of glass, marble or other materials in a bed of cement, plaster or adhesive), murals (any piece of artwork painted on a large permanent surface), reliefs of Jesus and other biblical figures, sculptures depicting scenes from the Bible, relief sculptures (any work that projects from but still belongs to the background surface that it’s carved on), and ivory carvings. During the 5th century, the realistic perspective, proportions, color, and light were downgraded in favor of standardized conventions and symbols when portraying Biblical figures and events. During the Byzantine Empire, Christian art included icon paintings (a flat panel painting that depicts Jesus, Mary, saints, and angels), mosaics, mural paintings, and wall paintings. Literature and drama acquired distinctive forms that influenced artistic developments in neighboring regions and in later time periods. Greek tragedies, especially those written by Athenian dramatist Sophocles, influenced later eras. These tragedies showed that the Greeks’ belief in human reason and balance also involved a sense that these virtues were precarious, so a person could easily become trapped in situations of powerful emotion and uncontrollable consequences. Hindu epics, like the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, also influenced later eras. Both of these epics deal with real and mythical battles, and they reflect a more settled agricultural society and better-organized political units. The plays of Kalidasa influenced later eras. His plays were based primarily on the Hindu Puranas (ancient Hindu texts eulogizing various deities). Distinctive architectural styles developed in many regions in this period. Greek temples were built as focal points on the highest ground of every city in Greece and the conquered territories around the Mediterranean. Greek architecture featured Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns and relief sculpture. Greek temples, amphitheaters, and other major public buildings were built with limestone and marble. Blocks of stone were held in place by bronze or iron pins set into molten lead. This architectural style developed because it was a flexible system that could withstand natural disasters. The temples and theaters of ancient Greek architecture had a strong influence on Roman architecture. Arches, domes, and the use of concrete are characteristics of Roman architecture. Indian architecture is characteristically open and symmetry driven. Hinduism caused this architectural style. Mesoamerican architecture is characteristically public, ceremonial and urban monumental buildings and structures. Pyramids and iconography are features of Mesoamerican architecture. The Mesoamerican architectural style developed as a result of cultural exchanges between the different cultures of the Mesoamerican culture area through thousands of years. Gupta architecture strayed from human depictions and leaned towards geometric designs. The convergence of Greco-Roman culture and Buddhist beliefs affected the development of unique sculptural developments. Greco-Buddhist art is an example. This artistic style is exemplified in the Gandharan Buddha, which showcases a syncretism of Hellenistic veneration for the body with traditional Buddhist symbolism. An example of this artistic style is a statue of the Buddha wearing a toga. all students should be able to recognize temples, art as Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, etc.Greek tragedies (Sophocles)Hindu epics (Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana)Plays of KalidasaKey characteristics of Greek, Roman, Mesoamerican, and Indian buildingsGandharan BuddhaHellenismKey Concept 2.2 The Development of States and Empires Answer Underline Concepts and Factual Examples “Facts”What is an “empire,” and what were the common characteristics of empires during the Classical Era?How did the number and size of Classical empires compare to the Pre-classical era?What were the most influential empires of the classical era and in what (AP) world region was each located?As the early states and empires grew in number, size, and population, they frequently competed for resources and came into conflict with one another. In quest of land, wealth, and security, some empires expanded dramatically. In doing so, they built powerful military machines and administrative institutions that were capable of organizing human activities over long distances, and they created new groups of military and political elites to manage their affairs. As these empires expanded their boundaries, they also faced the need to develop policies and procedures to govern their relationships with ethnically and culturally diverse populations: sometimes to integrate them within an imperial society and sometimes to exclude them. In some cases, these empires became victims of their own successes. By expanding their boundaries too far, they created political, cultural, and administrative difficulties that they could not manage. They also experienced environmental, social, and economic problems when they overexploited their lands and subjects and permitted excessive wealth to be concentrated in the hands of privileged classes. An empire is a political construct where one state dominates over another state, or a series of states. This form of government centralized power in the hands of one leader, typically called an emperor. In an empire, a large collection of people across a broad geographic range all live under a common rule. There were common characteristics of empires during the Classical Era. They usually spanned large geographical distances and controlled great quantities of wealth and resources. They had long trade routes across land and coastline. They levied taxes on subjected peoples. They enforced religion. They were threatened from attacking barbarians. They maintained a system of central and local governments to maintain order. They had powerful armies to defend borders and maintain peace.The number and size of key states and empires grew dramatically by imposing political unity on areas where previously there had been competing states. For example, the Gupta Empire united many of India’s regional kingdoms under one leader, who controlled most of the Indian subcontinent, and the Qin Dynasty reunited China and ended the Era of Warring States. The states in nearby areas gradually consolidated, by their own choice or by force, to form these large empires. Therefore, the Classical empires were also much greater in size. The populations could reach tens of millions. The empires stretched across large tracts of land, while civilizations in the Pre-classical era, like the River Valley Civilization, were limited to areas surrounding rivers and riverbanks. The Classical Roman Empire stretched across Europe to the Middle East.The most influential empire of the Classical era in Southwest Asia was the Persian Empire. In East Asia, it was the Qin Empire and the Han Empire. In South Asia, it was the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Empire. In the Mediterranean region, it was the Hellenistic Empire and the Roman Empire. The Persian Empire was influential because at the dawn of the Classical Era, it was the most dominant empire on earth. As a percent of earth's population, the Persian Empire is the largest empire in history. The Qin Empire was influential since it was the first empire to unify the region. The Han Empire was influential because under the emperor Wu Di, roads and canals were built, a Confucian imperial university was established, and civil service exams were introduced. The Mauryan Empire was influential because the emperor Asoka contributed to the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia. The Gupta Empire was influential since it united India. The Hellenistic Empire was influential because the conquests of Alexander widened the horizons of the Greek world. The Roman Empire was influential since the Twelve Tables (the Roman law system) later influenced many other law systems. What techniques did Classical empires create to administer their territories?What new political methods were created in order to rule the larger empires in the Classical era?How did imperial governments let their population know that the government was “in charge?”What role did trade play in creating and maintaining empires?Empires and states developed new techniques of imperial administration based, in part, on the success of earlier political forms. In order to organize their subjects, the rulers created administrative institutions in many regions. In China, a technique included an elaborate bureaucracy. It was based on meritocracy, and candidates were selected using civil service exams. In Persia, there was a centralized government with a satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap was the vassal king that administered the region. A 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap and the central government. In Rome, there was an elaborate legal system with the Twelve Tables being the law code. The Twelve Tables contained specific provisions designed to change the then-existing customary law. Even though the provisions related to all of the areas of the law, the largest part is dedicated to private law and civil procedure. In South Asia, the Mauryan Empire used centralized government as a technique. The empire was divided into four provinces, each under a prince or a governor. Once every five years, the emperor sent officers to audit the provincial administrations. Some categories of officers in the rural areas combined judicial functions with assessment duties. Provinces were subdivided into districts, and these were divided into smaller units.Imperial governments projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques. The Roman Empire used the method of diplomacy to rule. As the Roman Empire expanded, it often negotiated with representatives of conquered areas to grant partial self-government by way of a treaty. Armies of the Classical age created supply lines of animals and wheeled carts. Fortifications, defensive walls, and roads were built by the Qin Dynasty, like the Great Wall of China with fortifications at points along it. The Han Empire and the Roman Empire drew new groups of military officers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples. The Han army was primarily made up of soldiers conscripted from the civilian population into military service. The Roman Empire’s main demand of all defeated enemies was that they provide men for the Roman army every year.Many imperial governments asserted their power by claiming to have divine connections. For example, the Byzantine emperors claimed to be divinely inspired. In most empires, one common religion was enforced. For example, in 392 CE, in the Roman Empire, Emperor Theodosius I decreed that Christianity was the only legal religion of the Roman Empire and forbade pagan practices by law. While governments allowed citizens to keep their respective religion, minorities were often taxed and vulnerable to religious persecution. For example, early Christians were persecuted under the Roman Empire. They also taxed citizens and their conquered territories, reminding them that they were the subjects of the government. For example, the Mauryan Empire taxed its conquered territories. Much of the success of the empires rested on their promotion of trade and economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies. For example, the Roman Empire’s Roman roads were vital to the development of the empire and facilitating trade across the empire. Roman currency (gold, silver, bronze, and copper coinage) was vital to the success of the empire. Trade enabled states to gather wealth and increase in size and influence. States that produced products that were high in demand, like silk, could trade them and become wealthy. Empires, like the Persian Empire, which controlled major trade routes, could also profit by taxing goods that passed through their territory. Amassing money was important for empires to stay in control. Wealth was needed to build armies. It was in the best interest of Classical governments to make trade more accessible. Higher profits brought in more tax revenue to the government. When the Qin emperor centralized China after the Period of Warring States, he created an infrastructure of roads and bridges to increase trade and gather taxes from formerly isolated areas. As Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade brought wealth to Gupta India, emperors commissioned the production of coins to make transactions easier and comparing the value of goods easier. All Classical governments made policies to facilitate commercial activities.What unique social and economic characteristics existed in empires?What were the multiple functions of imperial cities—political, economic, cultural?What social classes & occupations were common in empires?What labor systems provided the workers for Classical empires?Describe the gender and family structures of Classical empires.Unique social and economic dimensions developed in imperial societies in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. Empires contained a wide variety of social and economic levels. In the Roman Empire, members of the senate had a higher social position than average citizens, and there were varied levels of citizenship. There were also slaves. In China, classes ranged from upper class nobles and scholars to farmers and artisans and to merchants. In the Persian Empire, classes included kings and nobles of various regions, high class military leaders and the clergy, then artisans, tradesmen, and peasants.Cities served as centers of trade, public performance of religious rituals, and political administration for states and empires. Politically, Persepolis conveyed the power and awe of the Persian Empire. Economically, it was a center for trade. Culturally, religious rituals were publicly performed there. Economically, Chang’an was an important trade center, situated on the eastern end of the Silk Road. Culturally, it was a cultural center for China. Politically, it was the imperial capital of China. Politically, Pataliputra was the capital city of the Mauryan Empire. Economically, it was a great center of trade and commerce, and it attracted merchants from all over India. Culturally, it attracted intellectuals from all over India. Culturally, Athens conducted a variety of cultural functions for its citizens. Economically, it provided the marketplace for the surrounding district. Politically, it was the leading city of Ancient Greece and the center of political administration for Ancient Greece. Economically, Carthage, founded by Phoenician traders, became a significant economic power at the center of a large Mediterranean trading empire. Politically, it battled against the city of Rome during the three Punic Wars. Culturally, it served as a center of the public performance of religious rituals. Economically, Rome served as a center of trade. Politically, it conveyed the power and awe of the Roman Empire. Culturally, it served as a center of public performance of religious rituals. Politically, Alexandria was a center of government during Egypt’s Hellenistic Period. Culturally, it became renowned as a center for learning and was home to the ancient world’s largest library. Economically, it was a center of commerce. Politically, Constantinople was the capital and the center of government for the Eastern Roman Empire and, later, the Byzantine Empire. Culturally, it was the capital of culture. Economically, it was the center of commerce. Culturally, Teotihuacan housed pyramids filled with religiously sacrificed remains. Politically, it served as the center of the Teotihuacan society. Economically, it served as a center of trade. The social structures of empires displayed hierarchies that included cultivators, laborers, slaves, artisans, merchants, elites, or caste groups. Social hierarchies and stratifications that formed in foundational civilizations became more complex in large empires. In Classical India, the caste system evolved to accommodate the complex Gupta society. Castes were divided into sub castes, or jati, which soon became the backbone of Indian society. Jati formed their own courts that regulated Indian society when a strong central government was absent. Therefore, Indian families tended to associate closely with other families involved in the same occupations as themselves. Although there was some variation, most Classical societies could be represented in the following way: peasants on the bottom of the social hierarchy, peasant farmers and herdsmen just above them, artisans and craftsmen above them, commercial families following above them, the military aristocracy or the priestly aristocracy above them, and the king or emperor or high priest on top of the social pyramid. An exception would be Han society since its scholar-bureaucrats were at the top, peasants, laborers, and artisans were next, and artists and unskilled workers were at the bottom.Imperial societies relied on a range of methods to maintain the production of food and provide rewards for the loyalty of the elites. Because the production of large surpluses of agriculture was necessary for the specialization of labor and large armies, empires developed methods to withdraw maximum productivity from the land. Some slavery was practiced in all Classical civilizations, but the Mediterranean world practiced it the most. Slaves may have made up one third of the Roman Empire. Another common form of labor sponsored by empires was the Corvée System. In this system, governments required subjects, usually peasants, to provide labor as a payment of tax. A specified number of labor days had to be offered to the state as an obligatory taxation. Many large imperial projects were completed using this system. The Qin dynasty built their defensive wall using this. The Han Empire also built a canal that moved grain to the capital city more successfully using this. Rents and tributes were often imposed by landowners and governments. Groups of peasants sometimes banded together for economic and security-based reasons. They formed peasant communities, or village-like communities, that were often tight-knit and bound by family ties. Families often produced goods from a farm or garden and from any animals that they owned. This was called family and household production. Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period. Despite changes that occurred in class, caste, and labor during the Classical age, all empires continued to practice patriarchy. A patriarchal society is a society or government where the father or eldest male is head of the family and descent is traced through the male line. In some societies, it was very harsh, but in other societies, women were able to advance and engage in business. Political, social, and economic life remained dominated by males. Belief systems shaped how it was practiced in every society. Under the Han dynasty, family structures were based on Confucianism. Fathers were at the top of the family, their sons were second, mothers were third, and the son’s wives were the lowest in the family. Under the Han dynasty, loyalty to the family was considered to be very important. Under the Persian Empire and the Roman Empire, gender played a greater role than family structure. Men performed jobs and left the home to earn wages, while women stayed home and took care of their family and chores. Women also married at a young age.Each student should be able to specifically discuss the multiple functions of a few of the following imperial cities—Persepolis, Chang’an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria,Constantinople, TeotihuacanpatriarchalWhat caused Classical empires to decline, collapse, or transform into something else? Political, social, economic, culturalWhat were the environmental factors that created problems for Classical empires?What specific external threats contributed to the end of each of the major Classical empires?The Roman, Han, Persian, Mauryan, and Gupta empires created political, cultural, and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline, collapse, and transformation into successor empires or states. The politics of all Classical empires became corrupt and gave over to factions and divisions. Bribery and favoritism were widespread. Provinces came under the control of local leaders, and empires decentralized. Droughts in central Asia forced a nomadic group called the Huns to migrate south and west during this time period. This brought them in contact with the settled Classical civilizations. They placed pressure on the Han dynasty and the Gupta Empire by attacking their frontiers and raiding their lands. As they pushed westward, they forced Germanic peoples to put pressure on the Roman Empire. All empires found that their borders had grown so large that their military had trouble guarding them. The Han dynasty could not effectively man the Great Wall with soldiers to keep out the Huns. The Roman Empire grew so large that they could not raise any armies to protect its frontiers. The trade routes that connected civilizations and allowed them to prosper also spread diseases. The Han dynasty and the Roman Empire lost thousands of people to disease, which depleted their tax base just when they needed funds to protect their borders.Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage and generated social tensions and economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of elites. The mobilization of resources required by Classical empires had environmental consequences. The materials required by settled people and the need for surpluses of agriculture led to the deforestation of large tracks of land. In the Mediterranean civilizations, like the Roman Empire, entire forests were cut down to provide timbers for building, burning fuel, and to extend farming areas. Desertification was another factor. As trees and foliage fade, regions can become like deserts, and they can become inhospitable to life. Periods of drought can contribute to this and so can soil erosion. Soil erosion occurs when the topsoil layer is destroyed or reduced by wind, water, or other natural disasters. This can be devastating to agricultural productiveness since it leaves soil barren and dusty. Silted rivers occurred because of soil erosion and damaged shores. The societies that lived next to rivers relied on them for their survival. When the shores were cleared, they lost all of the plants that kept pebbles and sand intact on the shore. When the rocks and sand would enter the stream, they would help kick up more rocks and sand. This would keep progressing until the water was murky with sand and dirt and became unusable as a water source. People could no longer drink from it or bathe in it.External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions. All Classical civilizations dealt with migrations and invasions of nomadic people. The Han dynasty struggled against the Xiongnu. The White Huns invaded the Gupta Empire and exposed the inability of its decentralized system to coordinate a unified defense. As the Huns migrated west, they pressed Germanic tribes of central and eastern Europe against the frontiers of the Roman Empire. When resources were too scared to sustain their defenses, the Romans found these Germanic tribes at the gates of their capital city.deforestationdesertificationsoil erosionsilted riversspecific threats to Han China, Rome, Gupta IndiaKey Concept 2.3 Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication and Exchange Answer Concepts and Relevant Factual Examples in underline “Facts”How did Classical era trade networks compare to Pre-classical networks? What forces contributed to the changes between the two periods? What was commonly traded along each trade network and by whom?What technologies enabled long-distance overland and maritime trade? Besides physical goods, what else traveled along trade networks? Provide examples—crops, diseases, religions, technologiesWith the organization of large-scale empires, the volume of long-distance trade increased dramatically. Much of this trade resulted from the demand for raw materials and luxury goods. Land and water routes linked many regions of the Eastern Hemisphere. The exchange of people, technology, religious and cultural beliefs, food crops, domesticated animals, and disease pathogens developed alongside the trade in goods across far-flung networks of communication and exchange. In the Americas and Oceania localized networks developed. Land and water routes became the basis for transregional trade, communication, and exchange networks in the Eastern Hemisphere. Many factors, including the climate and location of the routes, the typical trade goods, and the ethnicity of people involved, shaped the distinctive features of a variety of trade routes. The Eurasian Silk Road was made up of an indirect chain of separate transactions through which goods crossed Eurasia. Merchants rarely traveled the whole length of these routes. Merchants engaged in "relay trade.” Since it was more expensive and dangerous to move goods, trade focused on luxury items that would bring a profit, which made the risks worthwhile. It began because Chinese emperors needed the superior horses that pastoral nomads bred on the steppes, and nomads wanted things only agricultural societies could produce, like grain, alcohol, and silk. Soldiers sent to guard the Great Wall were paid in bolts of silk that they traded with the nomads. Silk eventually became a currency of exchange in Central Asia. Merchants became agents of cultural diffusion. The oasis towns that connected segments of trade became centers of cultural exchange. Mahayana Buddhism spread rapidly. The process was facilitated by these towns that often built Buddhist temples to attract Buddhist merchants abroad. Nestorian Christianity spread across the Silk Roads to China. Merchants also carried disease. The disease epidemics that devastated the Classical civilizations were spread across large zones via the Silk Road. The volume of trade increased dramatically as the Classical empires formed. The Roman Empire, the Gupta Empire, and the Han dynasty were centers of production and markets for goods. The laws and legal systems of these empires provided security for merchants, which encouraged them to take more risks. Primarily, luxury goods were traded. Nomads continued to play an important role since their movements served as important connections between segments of trade. Some nomads settled down and made their living off of trade. All in all, the volume of trade on the Silk Road was an effect of the strength of the Classical empires. When these empires declined, so did the trade volume. Merchants carried goods across the Trans-Saharan caravan routes using camels. Slaves, gold, and ivory were traded. An important good that merchants carried to sub-Saharan Africa from North Africa was salt. Pepper, cotton textiles, and dye became important goods on the Indian Ocean sea lanes. This network depended on the weather. Each monsoon season brought predictable patterns of winds that reversed six months later. Merchants were forced to keep these cycles of winds in mind when timing their departure. The Mediterranean sea lanes were better suited for heavy and bulky items. Wine, olive oil, and grain were primary goods. Other items of trade were timber, marble, glassware, perfumes, silver, spices, and silk. In its early stage, the merchants trading on these sea lanes were mostly from the city-states of Phoenicia and the Greek peninsula. The Phoenicians were sea-faring people that traded widely across the Mediterranean area. They established a network of colonies across the region, the most famous being Carthage. After Phoenicia was defeated by the Persian Empire, Carthage created its own empire and eventually clashed with the Roman Empire in the Punic Wars. Importantly, the Phoenicians created the first phonetic alphabet. As the Phoenician presence declined, the Greeks became more involved. In order to feed their people, Greek cities created a network of colonies throughout the Mediterranean. Grain poured into the city-states of Greece from the colonies, for which they then traded olive oil and wine. An effect of this trade was the diffusion of Greek culture across the Mediterranean region. Trade reached a peak when the Mediterranean region was united under the Roman Empire. When Carthage fell to the Roman Empire, the rim of the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman government. Roman laws were enforced across the region, providing a consistent legal system. The widespread use of Latin facilitated trade. Piracy on the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman navy. The Romans depended on grain imports to feed their urban centers. Silk was imported to satisfy the upper class. The Romans exported copper, tin, glass, wine, and olive oil. In the American trade routes, llamas were used in the Andean mountains. Trade took place between North and South America, and Mesoamerica connected them. Canoes were used to travel across rivers. Textiles, precious stones, jades, stones, and ceramics were traded. Long-distance trade was limited. There was a diffusion of corn. There was vertical trade (people in the higher elevations of the mountains trading with people in the lower elevations of the mountains for objects that could be found more often in each other’s location) in the Andes Mountains. New technologies facilitated long-distance communication and exchange. New technologies permitted the use of domesticated pack animals to transport goods across longer routes. Innovations in maritime technologies, as well as advanced knowledge of the monsoon winds, stimulated exchanges along maritime routes from East Africa to East Asia. The camel was domesticated in the Middle East for its use in the incense trade. Camels extended the range and volume of trade in the arid Arabian climate. They carried military supplies for the Assyrian armies. The use of the camel was made possible by the development of a saddle that allowed the camel to be loaded with more cargo. Camels could carry more cargo than other pack animals, they could go longer without water, and they lived longer. In Central Asia, nomads domesticated the horse and became expert trainers. The Han dynasty traded silk with them for their horses. The invention of the stirrup, a small ring or strap that holds the feet of rider, allowed for greater control of the animal. Oxen were used as domesticated pack animals to transport goods, and oxen yokes (a crosspiece that is fastened over the necks of animals and attached to the object that they are to pull) were designed with specific agricultural and transportation tasks in mind. Llamas were also used as domesticated pack animals to transport goods. With new technologies, pack animals allowed humans to increase their ability to trade, travel, and communicate. On the Indian Ocean, merchants recognized the seasonal patterns of monsoon winds and began adapting their voyages around these winds. The dhow ship, a long slender boat with a lateen sail, became a common vessel for Indian Ocean trade. The Chinese, Arabs, and Indians were involved in its creation and/or modification. The dhow was used for heavy items that were not fit for land-based trade. The lateen sail allowed sailors to veer against the wind. The dhow and the lateen sail helped people widen networks of trade and communication, which increased the diffusion of goods, ideas, and culture.Alongside the trade in goods, the exchange of people, technology, religious and cultural beliefs, food crops, domesticated animals, and disease pathogens developed across far-flung networks of communication and exchange. The spread of crops, including rice and cotton from South Asia to the Middle East, encouraged changes in farming and irrigation techniques. The spread of disease pathogens diminished urban populations and contributed to the decline of some empires. Religious and cultural traditions were transformed as they spread. Cotton is indigenous to South Asia, and it has a history of cultivation in India. As transregional networks of exchange expanded, cotton spread out of India into the Middle East, where it placed strains on the agricultural systems there. For example, in the Persian Empire, because cotton is a summer crop and must be planted in April and harvested in the Fall, and because most of the Persian Empire was too hot and dry to accommodate this crop, a new irrigation system called the qanat system was introduced. This system used hydraulic and gravitational force to extract water from the ground without the use of energy. Water was drawn from the aquifer and released to the agricultural fields at a lower level by linking vertical shafts and gently sloping horizontal passages. This system doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use in the Persian Empire. This system spread throughout the Middle East to China. Rice was first cultivated on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. It spread from China across the caravan routes of the central Asian steppes. It spread since Buddhist monks carried it with them on their journeys across the steppes. Sugarcane was first grown in India, and it spread through the Khyber pass into Afghanistan and then diffused across the central Asian caravan routes. When Roman troops moved into Mesopotamia, a major epidemic of smallpox broke out among the soldiers stationed in Parthia. By 166 BCE, it spread across much of the Roman Empire, reaching the city of Rome. Lasting for fifteen years, about ten percent of the population of the Roman Empire (about five million people) died from disease. Merchant ships on maritime trade routes and pack animals on caravan routes brought epidemics to the Roman Empire also. Horses often carried diseases to humans. These epidemics are a key factor in the later fall of the Roman Empire. Smallpox first arrived in China with the Huns around 250 BCE. Contact with the Romans along the Silk Roads reintroduced China to smallpox. In the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the disease destroyed half of the population of northern China. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, bubonic plague spread from Constantinople to China, and Buddhist monks spread it to Japan. Each epidemic weakened the foundations of civilization. They meant fewer men to be called upon for military service, which decreased security. With fewer people to work in agriculture, food surpluses dropped, which in turn decreased the basis for a complex society. A drop in the population also deprived the government of taxpaying peasants, thus making it difficult to fund the basic functions of the state. As major world religions spread from area to area, they adapted to local conditions and preexisting traditions. Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism spread across trade routes far away from where they originated, and they were all modified in the process. In Buddhism, the doctrine of Bodhisattvas (people who reached nirvana but chose to stay in this world as a kind of Saint) arose. These Bodhisattvas would then serve as an example to others and aid them in prayers. Buddhism changed from its focus on ethics to a devotional, emotional cult that stressed popular salvation, and Bodhisattvas were crucial in guiding people towards this salvation. The East Asian form of Buddhism that emerged was Mahayana Buddhism. In Mahayana Buddhism, more people could reach salvation, and the Buddha was seen as divine. In China, they changed Buddhist phrases from “Husband supports wife” to “Husband Controls wife.” This was an example of syncretism. In Hinduism, the new devotional focus was led by Hymnodists, who composed music and taught in the local vernacular language. There was an addition of personal, devotional gods or Bhakti, who were now highly charged with emotion with a special focus on the relationship between the worshipper and the divinity. Through missionaries and merchants, the bhakti faith spread to Southeast Asia. This religion blended with Buddhism there so greatly that believers didn’t distinguish between them. Hindu temples and Buddhist stupas and monasteries blended the symbols and practices of Hinduism and Buddhism. As it traveled the Silk Road, Christianity adopted local practices and blended with local beliefs. For example, Turks in Central Asia converted to Christianity because the practices of the Nestorian priests were very similar to those of their shamans. The Christian cross was used as a charm to bring good weather and ward off evil spirits and disease. Christianity merged in China too. A Christian monument in the Chinese capital of Xi'an showcased Daoist symbols of yin and yang with the Buddhist lotus flower. Nestorian Christians in China preached the "Eight Cardinal Virtues," which were a restatement of the Buddhist Eightfold Path. Jesus’s message became “The Way,” and saints were referred to as Buddhas. Through maritime routes, Christianity travelled to Egypt and Axum, where it formed the Coptic Church. A kingdom in northern Ethiopia converted and maintained a unique form of Christianity distinguishable from Catholic and Eastern Orthodox forms. Across the English channel, monks spread Christianity to the British Isles, where it was susceptible to Celtic influences. Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity spread inside the borders of the Roman Empire, while Nestorian and Coptic versions spread outside them. Christianity absorbed influences from its host culture everywhere. Eurasian Silk RoadTrans-Saharan caravan routesIndian Ocean sea lanesMediterranean sea lanesAmerican trade routes ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download