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The Nature of ReligionContentLearn about:Learn to:The nature of religionreligion as a worldview that:acknowledges the supernatural dimensionhas a belief in a divine being or powers beyond the human and/or dwelling within the individualdefine the supernatural dimensiondiscuss a transcendent religious worldview which has a belief in a divine power and/or powers beyond the humandiscuss an immanent religious worldview which has a belief in a divine being or powers dwelling within the individualthe characteristics of religion:beliefs and believerssacred texts and writingsethicsrituals and ceremoniesdefine the characteristics of religionexplore the ways in which these characteristics interact to create a dynamic, living religionthe contribution of religionappreciate the contribution of religion to:individualssociety and cultureAustralian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities – the Dreamingthe nature of the Dreamingoutline the nature of the Dreaming in relation to: origins of the universe, sacred sites, stories of the Dreaming, symbolism and artdiscuss the diversity of the Dreaming for Aboriginal peoplesrecognise the importance of the Dreaming for the life of Aboriginal peoplesthe inextricable connection of the Dreaming, the land and identityinvestigate the inextricable connection of the Dreaming, the land and identityThe Nature of ReligionReligion has been an essential part of the way humans have ordered and made sense of the world. Religion has been the means of answering some of the most significant questions that confront humans: first, why does a person exist at all; second, why is there a universe; third, what happens to a person after that person dies; and finally, why is there suffering in the world?The way humans have developed answers to these questions has varied throughout time and place. A system of answers shared by a significant number of people is called a worldview. Over time, as humans spread throughout the earth, these systems of answers were adapted to new experiences and challenges. Every culture that exists today is in fact a different worldview, and it is necessary for humans to appreciate these differing ways of understanding the world and humanity. It is important that each culture is allowed to reveal itself rather than be judged from the perspective of another culture’s ideas and understanding of the truth. From prehistoric times humans have clearly shown a sense that the answers to these questions and their survival depended on powers and forces beyond their direct control. These powers needed to be acknowledged, made happy and worshipped so that the harvest would be plentiful, the hunt would be successful, human fertility would continue, natural disasters would be avoided and the human person would be made happy in the afterlife. These powers or forces were understood to live beyond the realm of nature and indeed they created and maintained the world. These gods and goddesses lived in a supernatural dimension beyond the world, or, if in the world, in the most inaccessible places such as mountains, oceans or clouds.The Lascaux cave paintings in France contain some of the earliest known artwork, dating from around 17 000 years ago. Cave paintings such as these provide evidence of early religious thought.The transcendent religious worldviewReligions that believe there are beings that exist beyond the known universe and that are not subject to the laws of nature are called transcendent religions. For some believers, the very fact that the world is structured by the laws of nature is proof that there must be beings that created the universe and gave it order and purpose. For these believers, humans are able to discover this purpose through both their reasoning and their observation of nature, along with revelation from these transcendent beings. Even though the gods and goddesses are beyond the universe, transcendent religions believe that they are still necessary for the ongoing existence of the universe and play an essential part in its working. There are two principal types of transcendent religion. Some religions believe in many gods andgoddesses. This belief is known as polytheism. Other religions believe that there is only one God. This belief is known as monotheism.Polytheistic religionsFor polytheistic religions, the gods and goddesses may have control of particular happenings innature. In some religions there are gods who rule the oceans and the skies, others who look after the fertility of all animals and humans, others who protect humans from natural disasters and others who are concerned about the health and well-being of humans. Examples of polytheistic religions are Hinduism and the religion of ancient Greece. In many polytheistic religions, there are gods and goddesses who bring evil into the world in the form of natural disasters, disease, and loss of possessions and life itself. These gods require particular attention, for they will only stop harming humans if they are made happy through worship and sacrifice. Humans have a special relationship with these gods and goddesses. Often these gods and goddesses desire that humans fulfil their wishes and offer them worship through prayers and sacrifices. If the human person is obedient to the wishes of the gods, that person will be rewarded with a happy life here on earth and assured of a happy existence after death. Those who do not obey the divine commands will be punished when they die or suffer disease and misfortune while here on earth.Adherents of polytheistic religions may choose to serve one god or goddess while not denying the importance of all the other gods. For example, in Hinduism people may devote their lives to the service of Shiva or Vishnu. They will attend the temples of their particular god, celebrate important festivals that honour the god and his dealings with humanity, and observe special laws and customs.In polytheistic religions there are many ways that gods and goddesses are presented to believers.In some polytheistic religions the gods and goddesses take on animal forms, as in the religionof Ancient Egypt, or human form, as in Mayan religion. Or they may remain without form, as, for example, Brahman in Hinduism.Sculptures of the Greek gods Poseidon, Apollo and the goddess Athena from the Parthenon (Acropolis Museum, Athens)MonotheismSome religions believe that there is only one God. This belief is known as monotheism. Christianity, Islam and Judaism are examples of monotheistic religions. For these religions the universe came into being through the power and design of one God. One of the principal reasons for creating the universe was for humankind to exist and relate with this God. The purpose of the universe is to provide for humans a place in which they form a relationship with God. Nature has been established to provide humans with all that they need to survive on earth. In return, humans are expected to care for God’s creation.Though the work of God can be seen in everything around humans, the most important knowledge about God is revealed directly by him. For many monotheistic religions, the nature of God can never be known since it is beyond human reason. God, however, either directly or through messengers, has shown humans what relationship he has with them and how they are to respond to him.For the major monotheistic religions of the world today (Christianity, Islam and Judaism), God is a being who wishes humans to be happy. He wants them to obey his commands, for this is the way happiness is achieved. The world was created initially as a happy state for all humans, but,through evil and sin, humans destroyed this initial state. God, however, is seen as never abandoning humans and continually offering them close relationship so that they can be happy again.For most monotheistic religions, the ultimate divine reality, God, has neither form nor gender.Although for Christians God became human, and some portrayals of this do take the form of a man in pictures and sculptures, the transcendent God can only be known through attempting to describe him as having characteristics similar to humans, for example, love, mercy and compassion. Humans are ultimately unable to understand fully the reality of God.No image of GodFor Muslims and Jews no image of God is permitted. This is because God is absolutelybeyond representation, and to create any image of God would be to create an idol to worship.God’s creation of humans is represented by Michelangel (Sistine Chapel, Rome).The immanent religious worldviewImmanent religions hold that gods, goddesses or divine spirits live within nature. These spirits dwell in sacred places like mountains, streams or forests. They can also be felt in the forces they control such as wind, fire or water. Adherents of an immanent religion believe the universe was created by these spirits and is maintained by their power. Human beings are to acknowledge these spirits through worship and, in particular, through respect for places in which the spirits dwell. Often these places have shrines built to house the spirits or to be the sites where devotees can pray for assistance or seek guidance from the spirits.The spirits may take the form of human beings, but they are better understood as the energy or force behind natural phenomena. Humans are obliged to live cooperatively with these forces of nature, for if they neglect them or destroy their habitats, humans will suffer misfortune. In some immanent religions, since all life is explained by the existence of these spirits, human beings are often understood to have within themselves a life-force similar to the spirits of nature. This explains their vitality, their power of reason and delight, and their purpose in life. This spiritual force often requires careful observation. Health and wellbeing are maintained through a balance of forces within the human. This balance is brought about by correct diet, exercise and meditation. Since the human has this spiritual dimension, immanent religions may place an emphasis on communicating with the other spirits of nature and on maintaining a harmonious relationship with them.Certain religions have developed complex forms of movement (for example, t’ai chi) that bring about a unity of the human and the natural spiritual world. One expression of an immanent religion is pantheism. This is the belief that the universe is God. There is no divine power outside of the universe, but everything that makes up the universe – both matter and energy, including humanity – is God. God and the universe are one.T’ai chi is a complex form of movement designed to bring about a unity of the human and the natural spiritual world.ActivitiesDefine the concept ‘transcendent religious worldview’.Explain the differences between polytheism and monotheism.Which religious traditions would be classified as polytheistic and which as monotheistic?Why do the Islamic and Jewish religious traditions oppose images of God?Define the immanent religious worldview.Create five columns with these headings: ‘Transcendent religions’, ‘Immanent religions’,‘Polytheism’, ‘Monotheism’ and ‘Examples’. List the principal teachings of each group of religions and give examples of the religions.The characteristics of religionReligion is defined by its characteristics. For a phenomenon to be called a religion, it must have all of the characteristics that distinguish a religion from other phenomena. Though it is often said that a large gathering of people that is held regularly and that has the same structure and operations each time it meets (for example, a football game or a Wimbledon tennis match) might be called a ‘religion’, if such a gathering does not have all of the characteristics of a religion then it cannot correctly be called a religion.‘… central to all religions is a belief that there is a reality that is greater than all the partsof the universe …’Beliefs and believersThe most important characteristic of religion is the belief system it maintains. Central to all religions is a belief that there is a reality that is greater than all the parts of the universe and, in many cases, exists outside the universe. This belief can be in a transcendent or immanent God or gods.Each religion, however, is made different by what is known as its paradigm. This is the core belief that a person must have if that person can truly be said to belong to that religion. This core belief is the basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that faith tradition. In Buddhism the paradigm is a belief in the Three Refuges – the Lord Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. In Christianity it is the belief that Jesus Christ died and rose from the dead in order to save humankind from sin and death. In Islam it is submission to Allah – if a person acknowledges that submission to the will of Allah is essential for being a human and for understanding his or her place in the universe, then that person is a Muslim. For Judaism, the belief that God has entered history and formed a covenant relationship with his people is absolutely important. For Hinduism, the belief that ultimate union with Brahman is the only real purpose for humans is fundamental. Every religion, however, has other beliefs that flow out of its core paradigm. Some of these other beliefs are most important and must also be accepted. In Buddhism, a belief that there is no such thing as a permanent human person is central. For Judaism, the idea that God revealed himself to Moses and other people throughout history flows from the belief in a God who works for humans within historical reality.There are other beliefs that are held by some within a religious tradition but not by others. Thesebeliefs are not seen to be essential for a person to belong to a particular religious tradition. Forexample, in Christianity there are some who believe that all God’s assistance (grace) comes through Jesus’ mother Mary, while other Christians would regard this belief as wrong. Both sides would still consider themselves Christian.In Buddhism, the belief of some that there are powerful beings called Bodhisattvas that can help a person attain nirvana is not universally acknowledged by other Buddhists. Both sets of believers, however, would consider themselves to be authentically Buddhist. These differing sets of belief—other than a religion’s paradigm—create the various significant divisions within a religious tradition. These schools of thought or denominations have developed over time. Many have either come about through movements to reform the religious tradition by removing customs, laws and ideas that are seen as not essential for the tradition (for example, the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century), or they have arisen after further significant insights and understanding have developed (for example, the rise of Mahayana Buddhism). Others may form because the application of strict observance based on ancient law and customis not thought to be relevant to modern times (for example, the rise of Liberal Judaism). There is also a range of believers within a religious tradition. It is important to acknowledge that, whilethere are some believers who are dedicated to the beliefs and practices—often referred to as devout believers—there are also people who are largely indifferent to the beliefs and practices and use the religion only on important occasions, for example, weddings, a boy’s entry into the Sangha or a teenager’s Bar Mitzvah.There are also differences in gender, age and authority structures. There are often clearly definedroles for both genders, differing expectations of young believers and more mature believers, andpeople possessing more authority to make decisions.There are also historic differences in practice and customs within a given religious tradition. As a religious tradition enters into new countries and experiences, cultural differences develop within that tradition. For example, Buddhism as practised in Nepal and Tibet is different from that practised in Japan. The same is true of other religious traditions. Christianity takes different forms in South America compared with the forms in the United Kingdom.Buddhist ordination ceremony, Sri LankaActivitiesWhat is the central belief of the five major religious traditions?Explain the different sets of beliefs of the major religious traditions.List the reasons why beliefs are different both within a religious tradition and between religious traditions. Give examples.Sacred texts and writingsAnother important characteristic of religions is that they possess sacred texts and writings. These sacred texts may be in written form or may be made into images that aid the less educated to understand the significant beliefs of their religion. Some sacred texts are regarded as particularly important, for they have been given to humans in the form of a revelation from God. The Qur’an in Islam, along with the Bible in Christianity and the Torah in Judaism, are all believed to be revelations from God.The central paradigm of a tradition is often summarised within great epic stories found in the sacred texts. The Exodus of the Jews from slavery in Egypt, the Mahabharata in Hinduism, with its story of the encounter between Arjuna and Krishna, and the death and resurrection of Jesus in Christianity all help believers come to an understanding of the essential teaching of their respective religious traditions.Sacred texts perform a number of important functions. For many religious traditions, the lifeand words of the Founder can be found in them, presenting believers with the most important role model on which they can base their lives. Sacred texts also contain rules and directions on how to live life, along with prayers and rituals that have become central to the religious tradition. These sacred texts and writings are used by believers to find out what they must do in new ethical situations. They may also assist priests and ministers in carrying out their duties and obligations—for example, the Penitentiaries of the Middle Ages helped the clergy to advise penitents as to what they needed to do in order to regain a sound relationship with God.Sacred texts are, therefore, given special reverence and have significant authority for the religious traditions. Such texts are often placed in special places within mosques, synagogues,churches and temples and are often elaborately decorated. Great care is taken in handling them,and some of the texts may even be worn by believers during prayer (for example, the Jewishphylactery) or fixed to the doorpost of the home.Muslims believe that the Qur’an is the revelation from God.ActivitiesWhy are sacred texts important to a religious tradition?What functions do sacred texts perform?Describe some of the common features of sacred texts.Ethics‘… religious traditions teach that humans have certain obligations and expectations towards other humans as well as towards the environment …’Ethics is the practical application of belief. If believers hold the beliefs of their religious tradition as the most important means of understanding the universe and their place in it, their behaviour will reflect this fact. In other words, ethics puts into practice the beliefs of an adherent.Many of the ethical teachings of a religious tradition can be found within its sacred texts and writings. Most significantly, the central ethical paradigm of the religious tradition is found within the most important and central sacred texts and writings. For example, the Torah in Judaism sets out in detail what a Jew must do; the Tripitaka in Buddhism also presents the Five Precepts that all lay Buddhists must observe. The Teachings of Manu does likewise for Hindus, as does the Qur’an for Muslims.Religious traditions teach that humans have certain obligations and expectations towards other humans as well as towards the environment. For most religious traditions, how people live out their ethical lives will determine for those individuals what happens to them after death. Since most religious traditions believe that God or gods expect the human person to be good, they also believe that humans will be judged according to how they have lived in this life.Religious ethical teaching gives directions to how humans should act sexually, politically, economically, professionally and environmentally. There are also teachings in regard to a person’s body and health, in particular, laws that govern decisions in bioethics. As with beliefs, there are some ethical directions that are more important than others. Failing to fulfil these most significant ethical demands has serious consequences for the believer, particularly in regard to what happens after death. For example, the commandment of love in Christianity and the teaching of ahimsa (the necessity of avoiding harm to any sentient life form) in Buddhism are examples of essential ethical teachings.For most religious traditions, the interpretation of what is ethical and proper rests within a hierarchical structure, that is, a system with one or more prominent authorities governing a series of lesser decision makers. An example of this is the structure of the Roman Catholic Church, which has the Pope governing the Church along with the bishops, who themselves are responsible for their priests. At the lowest end of this structure is the majority of Roman Catholics, the laity, who have traditionally had very little say in determining the ethical teachings of their church.For many religious traditions, the modern age has called into question parts of their ethical teaching and reasoning. There are new ethical challenges that the religious traditions have not had to address in the past and that were not even thought possible. Such critical ethical issues as global warming, biological cloning and nuclear weapon systems are a challenge to traditional ethical teachings. Some also argue that these ethical teachings arose before modern science and medicine, and therefore are no longer relevant for people in the twenty-first century since they are based on errors and misunderstandings about the body and nature. It is further argued by some that these teachings demonstrate a bias towards manhood, for most of these ethical decisions have been made by men and may have been used to maintain structures that oppress women.ActivitiesWhat is ethics?Where do these religious ethics come from?Give some examples of religious ethics that tell a person how to live their life.How has technology influenced religious ethics?Prepare and deliver an oral presentation on how ethics is the practical application of beliefs. Use examples in your presentation.Rituals and ceremoniesAs ethics is the practical application of belief within a religious tradition, rituals and ceremonies are ways to celebrate and reinforce the central belief system and structures for that tradition.There are two types of ritual—public and private. A public ritual is a formal activity with clearly defined structures, timing and content. Though believers are free to express their religious beliefs in a private ritual in whatever manner they find comfortable, public rituals are designed for public display and are a means by which the community of believers expresses its common beliefs. Public rituals are often based on rituals found within sacred texts (for example, the communion service in Christianity). They may reflect the actions and words of an important event or person in history (for example, the rituals surrounding the Jewish festival of Passover).Public rituals and ceremonies have set structures, which may include readings from sacred texts, instructions by presiding officials or ministers, set formulae of prayers and petitions, or rites of purification. The ritual may be created for special occasions that celebrate a person’s growth. There are initiation rites for the newly born or for adults who have shown a wish to become a member of a faith tradition (for example, Brit Milah [circumcision] in Judaism and the Sacred Thread ceremony in Hinduism).There are also rites of passage that assist a person in moving from one state of life into another(for example, the marriage ceremony, entry into the Sangha in Buddhism, or ordination into thepriesthood in Christianity). Certain ceremonies are created for the benefit of the community thatmay be experiencing sadness or need (for example, funeral ceremonies and harvest rituals).Most religious traditions have a religious calendar that celebrates the passing seasons, and often the principal beliefs of the traditions have been fixed to certain seasons or dates (for example, Wesak in Buddhism and Divali in Hinduism). Festivals that have their own special rituals help members of the community remember their beliefs and reinforce the link between present faith and the historical tradition. Rituals may also determine the pattern of the day (for example, meditation and chants by Buddhist monks, the Divine Office in Christianity (Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic), and the five times for daily prayer in Islam).Muslim daily prayersIn Buddhism, puja (important daily rituals) are expressions of honour, reverence and devotional attention.Ritual may also have many different cultural art forms, such as music, dance, performance and art. Ritual is a way the religious tradition can demonstrate the richness of human endeavour and skill. Rituals also often clearly indicate the separate roles of the genders. In most religious traditions, men have been the ones in charge of determining what is a suitable and appropriate ritual and have led the congregation in the ritual. Rituals are often celebrated in sacred places where there may be areas where the ordinary person may not enter or sit (for example, the raised platform within a Buddhist temple for members of the Sangha or the sanctuary in Christian churches). There may also be areas assigned for women if a religious tradition believes they must be separated from men.Ceremonies may take place outside of a formal ritual. These may celebrate local festivals and may include processions, re-enactments of important religious events (for example, the Way of the Cross for Christians) and local gatherings to honour particular holy men and women. Other ceremonies may be held to bless the harvest, listen to festive music and readings (for example, a Service of Nine Lessons and Carols for Christians during Advent) or bestow blessings on particular groups (for example, a Catholic priest blessing the safety of a fishing fleet). There may also be ceremonies that are performed at home (for example, the Sabbath meal in Judaism or prayer in front of a home-shrine that includes offerings to gods and goddesses in Hinduism). In these cases, some of these ceremonies are based on laws and customs found within sacred texts and writings while others may vary from house to house.ActivitiesWhy are rituals and celebrations important to religious traditions?Give examples of private and public rituals in one religious tradition.What is an initiation rite?Give examples of initiation rites within the five religious traditions.Create a mind map showing the interconnection of beliefs to sacred text, ethics and rituals.The contribution of religionContribution to individualsReligion offers an individual answers to life’s profound questions. It explains the creation ofthe universe, human nature and life’s purpose. It also gives the individual an identity as a believer within a religious tradition. This identity gives the individual a keen sense of belonging. This helps the person understand what it is to be human and what are the rightful relationships expected of him or her with others and with nature.Religion also offers an individual a system of ethics that will guide the person in behaving appropriately. It advises individuals on how they are to treat themselves, others and the environment. It helps individuals address current and challenging ethical issues that may be too complex and difficult for them to decide.Religion also gives to individuals ways by which they can celebrate significant events and times in their lives. These rituals proclaim to the community of believers that a person has grown and developed in his or her faith and can now accept greater duties and responsibilities within the community. Most importantly, religion offers individuals a way of perfection, that is, it instructs them on what is required to become more true to themselves as people of faith and to move closer to achieving the goal of their religious tradition. Religious traditions present role models, guidance and direction for individuals to develop their understanding of their faith and how to become better people. Religion also presents to individuals ways of achieving inner peace through prayer, reflection and meditation. Religion also places individuals in a long tradition of belief and practice. This heritage gives reassuranceto them of the validity of the tradition since it has been an appropriate means of living for thousands of years. It also places individuals within a specific cultural context of that religious tradition, which defines the particular customs and practices that they will observe throughout their lives.Religion may also help individuals define their attitudes and ideas. It may reinforce stereotypesof race, gender and sexuality. It may determine a person’s response to other religious traditionsor different sects and churches within a religious tradition. It may make individuals resistant towards modern developments of science and technology.ActivityCreate two columns headed ‘Contribution to individual’ and ‘Examples’. In the first column list in dot point form the contribution made by religions to the individual, and in the second column give examples.Contribution to society and cultureHumans have survived and developed because of their capacity to make sense of the world around them and to use various materials to improve their life. They have used their reason to create meaning and order. Religion has been one such system by which humans have made sense of their place within the universe and what it is they need to do in order to survive both here and after death. Though there are aspects of religion that have not been an accurate understanding of the workings of the material world, it is undeniable that religion has contributed greatly to the survival and development of humankind.Human society rests on the essential basis of maintaining order and well-being for most members of that society. It also depends on the safety and security of its members, the ability to feed and house people, and the ability to hand on the knowledge and skills of one generation to the next. In other words, society needs peace in order to survive. Religion has played a significant role in maintaining this peace. Through its principal teachings that acknowledge the ultimate responsibility of individuals towards a divine being and their minimal obligations and duties towards their neighbour, religion has instructed generations on the means of preserving peace and harmony. Without doubt, religions have at times created hostilities and wars, but the underlying motivation of authentic religions is to recognise the fundamental goodness of a common humanity and a common destiny.In many cases a society’s laws are based on the ethical systems of a religious tradition (for example, the Westminster system of law and government, or the laws and government of Islamic nations). Furthermore, social welfare (helping those less fortunate than others) is a basic yet constant practice within religious traditions. Throughout most of history it has been religious institutes that have developed hospitals, orphanages and care for the stranger.Religions have seen the importance of education for their young and the need to develop higher forms of learning for the educated (for example, the great universities throughout Europe, the Islamic world, India and in Buddhist Asia). It is through these institutes that the sciences and medical knowledge have been either preserved or developed. They have encouraged the higher skills of philosophy, cosmology and theology, and developed the precision of logical argument and clarity of thought. The roles and positions of people within a society have also been largely the result of religious teaching. The place of women, the definitions of childhood and the separation of officials and laity have all been determined by religious traditions. Humans, however, have not simply created sustainable societies. They have created cultures that display the creative and artistic dimensions of the human.Religious traditions have been great patrons of the arts. They have been responsible for most of the world’s wonders of architecture and grandeur such as Angkor Wat, the Taj Mahal, Chartres Cathedral and Borobudur.The practice of taking an oath on the Bible in court reflects the Christian traditions that inform many Western legal systems.Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is a Hindu temple complex famous for its beautiful architecture.Religions have also dictated the appropriate diet and dress for people. They have defined the weekly and yearly calendar. Religious institutes have also sponsored artists to decorate their sacred spaces, to compose music of the highest quality, and to decorate the interiors of churches, mosques, synagogues and temples with graceful design and ornament. These have been recognised as masterpieces by both religious and non-religious peoples.Since religious traditions wish to preserve what they believe to be the truth, religions have on occasion prevented the advancement of knowledge and understanding, particularly in science and medicine (for example, the rejection of the Copernican revolution by some within the Christian tradition and more recently the rejection of the theory of evolution). The past misunderstandings and errors of religions came about through a lack of access to modern technology and science. They cannot be condemned on this basis, for they were only using what was available to them at that time. Rather, religions have been an essential part of society and culture. What cannot be dismissed is the fact that religions have given comfort, hope and joy to humans throughout history. They have taught that humans are more than what is understood and explained by science. They have insisted that humans are beings capable of great acts of goodness and creativity. They have consistently taught that humans are created by the divine as beings with free will and reason who are destined for happiness.ActivitiesGive examples of how religion has played an important role in: architecture, law, art, meaning and order in human life.Divide into two groups. Debate the following statement: ‘Human society is possible only with the contribution from religion.’Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality – the DreamingIn Australia there are literally hundreds of distinct Aboriginal languages, as well as many different dialects. It is impossible, therefore, to use one common ‘Aboriginal’ language, for there is no such thing. Certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and spirituality—including elements of belief and knowledge relating to Aboriginal Law, culture, language and traditions—are secret-sacred, meaning that they are reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons. Unfortunately, that which is also retained is the most secret. For this reason most points in the following text will not be illustrated with specific examples. The Indigenous people of Australia are best described categorically and distinctively as ‘Aboriginals’ (as opposed to the inappropriate and often offensive ‘aborigines’). This text will use the word ‘Aboriginal’ as both a proper noun and an adjective, and ‘Aboriginals’ as the plural noun. In addition, many different names are commonly used to refer to the Aboriginal peoples of Australia, each one specific to particular geographical areas. In New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, for example, the term used is ‘Koori’; in Queensland it is ‘Murri’; in the Northern Territory, ‘Yolngu’; in South Australia, ‘Nunga’; in Western Australia, ‘Nyungah’. In an effort to simplify this complicated linguistic scenario, this chapter will use the word ‘Aboriginal’ to refer to all Aboriginal peoples. Likewise, there are differences in views on origins of the universe, stories of the Dreaming and how people lived and still live their lives. There is no more one Aboriginal Australian than there is one Australian.The nature of the DreamingThe Dreaming (also referred to as ‘Dreamtime’ or ‘Dream Time’) holds the essence of truth of Aboriginal religious beliefs. The Dreaming does not refer to a dream that one would have during the night. Rather, the Dreaming holds the Aboriginal view of creation: it is the beginning of everything—the beginning of time, the creation of life, the birth of humanity and the ordering of all things. It is the remote past of the Spirit Ancestors or Spirit Beings or Ancestral Beings; it is the period, long ago, when Spirit Beings interacted with Aboriginal people. This past lives on in ceremonies and rituals that have been passed down by word of mouth from generation to generation for over 140 000 years—the time that Aboriginal people have lived on this land called ‘Australia’.For Aboriginal people, the Dreaming explains the origin of the universe, the workings of nature, the nature of humanity, and the cycle of life and death. It shapes and structures Aboriginal life by regulating kinship, ceremonial life and the relationship between male and female, with a network of obligations involving people, land and spirits. It even affects the rights of Aboriginal people to land through sacred sites.The Dreaming is often a key aspect of Aboriginal art as, for example, in this Dreaming painting of the Warlpiri tribe.ActivitiesDefine ‘the Dreaming’.What role do ‘Spirit Beings’ play in the Dreaming?The importance of traditional beliefs and the DreamingWithin the Dreaming, the Creator, through the Spirit Beings, shaped the land, making its mountains, valleys, hills, gullies, rivers, streams, flora and fauna. These are formed as a result of the action and interaction of Spirit Beings. As a result, the whole creation is of spiritual significance.Sacred sites are places associated with Ancestral Beings. Aboriginals see themselves as part of,and inextricably bound to, the rest of creation. Galarrwuy Yunupingu, traditional elder and leader of the Gumatj people of north-eastern Arnhem Land, puts it this way: The whole story goes right back to the time when the Ancestral Heroes made Laws, Ceremonies and languages, gave names to things including land, rivers, mountains, animals and so on; when everything that we find here now was still in the process of creation. (Galarrwuy Yunupingu, 1992)In order to understand the worldview of Aboriginal people and the importance of the Dreaming for Aboriginal life, people need to immerse themselves in this worldview. Such a task is not easy, for Aboriginal people’s perception of themselves and their world—whether it be the physical, intellectual or spiritual world—is not fragmented. For Aboriginals, all elements within the world coexist; they are connected, linked together. The importance of this connection between the things of creation is expressed through totemism. The ritual performances associated with this are believed to influence and ensure the reproduction of both the natural and the human sphere, as well as the natural cycle of seasons.During the course of many thousands of years Aboriginal people have developed an intimate relationship between themselves and their environment. They see themselves as spiritually interconnected with the natural world. They do not see themselves as separate from it but as inextricably bound to it. Their very survival is a direct result of this close relationship with their natural environment. Moreover, their relationship with this environment is not one of domination or manipulation. Aboriginals are not compulsive builders; they do not erect huge cathedrals, churches or synagogues in order to draw attention to the significance of a sacred area. Rather, their sacred sites are natural land formations, places where Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation and in so doing based Aboriginal ownership on their spiritual identification and association with their land.Through the bestowal of land by their Ancestors, Aboriginal people share in the preservation of their interconnection with the natural environment. This is done through shared responsibilities and obligations, through totemic relationships, through custodial maintenance of particular sacred sites, and through rituals and ceremonies that are performed at particular times every year. These rituals and ceremonies cannot be done by just anyone; they are the responsibility of the custodians of particular sacred sites. However, representatives of more than one language group may be involved. Those who share in these obligations may be custodians of a particular section of a ritual on account of their totemic association with a site, and by virtue of their shared ownership of sacred knowledge.Karlu Karlu, also known as the Devil’s Marbles, is a sacred site for the traditional owners—the Warumungu, Kaytetye, Warlpiri and Alyawarra peoples.Cooperation or sharing—not only between genders but also between language groups—is an important factor in any Aboriginal society. The division of labour is shared among the members of the community. Responsibilities and obligations concerning sacred rituals and ceremonies are shared between language groups, as more than one language group may have ownership of a certain section of a particular ritual.ActivitiesWhy is the Dreaming so important for Aboriginal people?Describe the relationship between Aboriginals and their environment. Why is this relationship very important to Aboriginals?Discuss as a group how Aboriginal life has developed in order to keep this interrelationship with the natural environment.Discuss why you think that it was important for different groups to know sections of a ritual and not the whole ritual.Stories of the DreamingFor Aboriginal people, Aboriginal mythology is the embodiment of truth. Aboriginal mythological narrative details the beginning of creation and of the life of all living things. It is the basis of Aboriginals’ association with land of the Ancestral Spirits’ action in, and interaction with, creation—rock formations, trees, rivers, mountains and so on. The knowledge of the birth of humanity and the essence of Aboriginal religious beliefs, laws, ceremonies and rituals are all derived from Aboriginal mythology. The narratives belonging to Aboriginals’ mythology have been passed on from time immemorial and are the eternal link between the Ancestral Spirits and the past, present and future generations. Aboriginal mythology is truth; its authenticity is never questioned. Aboriginal mythology is not written in a book; the environment contains the markings and narratives of the Ancestral Beings found in the Dreaming. The Australian Museum has many examples of stories of the Dreaming for you to listen to and read.The story of Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha (The Dreamtime Spirit cooking of the damper)Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha woman from the Flinders Rangers in South Australia. This story is located at a place called Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha north of Copleyjust near Nepabunna Mission, South Australia.There was a woman who had two children. They went searching for food. They kept walking and walking and, at the end of the day, they knew they had to make camp. The mother sent the two children off to find food while she stayed and made camp for them. The children split up and went in different directions. After a while, the mother realised her children had been gone a long time and the sun was starting to go down. She became worried. She knew her children would be hungry, so she decided to make a giant damper in a ground oven. She hoped that the smell of the damper cooking might bring her children home. But the smell of the damper didn’tbring the children home. The mother thought that if she was up higher she would be able to see a lot further. She made some steps in the side of the hill so that she could get a better vantage point. But when she got to the top of the hill, she couldn’t see her children anywhere. After she had exhausted her own human abilities, a bellbird came. The bellbird sang to her:Wayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandhaWayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandhaUnder the shadows of wayanhaThe bellbird is whistling.The song of the bellbird led her to her children. The girl was found up at Lake Lettie near Maree and the boy was found near Mount Wyana (Mount McKinlay). The mother was able to bring her two children home. When you go to the little hill north of Copely, the mound is symbolic of the damper that the mother cooked. When you look at the landscape it looks like ithas had a fire there with ashes still around. The land looks like grey and white compared to the rest of the land.I always tell this story to people to teach them about a parent’s responsibility to their children. I also tell the story to teach the children about the dangers of wandering away from home. There are many things that draw our children away from home, even today. This story is an opportunity to talk about what these things are.Wilpena Pound, South AustraliaThe story of Ikara (Wilpena Pound)Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha woman from the Flinders Rangers in South Australia.This is the story of the journey of Yurla the kingfisher man. The journey begins somewhere near Leigh Creek.Yuras had gathered together at Ikara (Wilpena Pound). It was ceremony time. They were waiting for Yurla the kingfisher man to come down to begin the ceremonies. While they were waiting, they became impatient and wondered if someone else should begin the ceremonies. Yurla the kingfisher man knew that they were impatient. So he lit a big fire and the smoke from the fire sent up a signal to let the yuras know that he was on his way. The place where he lit this fire was known as Yurlas—fire burning underground. (The udnyus later discovered this place had brown coal and mined it). He started his journey down to Ikara. At the same time, two giant Akurra (Dreamtime serpents), who knew that there were yuras at Ikara, made their journey down to where the yuras were waiting. On their way down, their big bodies dragging along the ground carved out the gorges and deep valleys. When the Akurra got to Ikara, they coiled their bodies into a circle around where the yuras had camped.The yuras, seeing the evening stars twinkling on the horizon, thought that it was time for the ceremonies to begin. They didn’t know that the stars were the eyes of the Akurra watching them. When Yurla the kingfi sher man arrived at Ikara, all but two of the yuras had disappeared, devoured by the Akurra. The yuras believed that the bodies of the giant Akurra form the raised sides of Ikara.Ikara (Wilpena Pound) has a special sacred significance to the Adnyamathanha people. It was their meeting place, a special place where boys stepped up to become men and a place where laws were made and passed and punishment was carried out.ActivityResearch the areas where the two Dreaming stories are set. Create a visual presentation of the area.Use the web to find other Dreaming stories being told by Aboriginal people. Try to find one from your local region.Aboriginal symbolism and artSacred literature within Aboriginal society is identified as sacred objects, sacred paintings and sacred sites. Songs and dances tell the stories of the significance of the Spirit Beings’ interaction with people and their bestowal of land upon particular language groups. Songs and dances function as both art and narrative; they actually ‘paint’ or illustrate a language group’s relationship to its land or Spirit Being. Aboriginal art and ritual objects play an important role in the telling of stories and in preserving the sacred laws handed down from the past.Aboriginal symbolism and art tell stories that have many layers of meaning, some of which are secret sacred. The first layer is the surface layer, which is the most obvious—open and accessible to all. It consists of such elements as colour, texture, movement, sound and so on. It is the surface layer that is first noticed. Second and further layers are not obvious and usually require some degree of experience of, or relationship with, Aboriginal people or culture in order to understand them. Sometimes this means visiting a particular area of land; other times it meansbeing in a relationship with a particular Aboriginal person or community. The deepest layers are secret sacred and are accessible only to initiated Aboriginal persons (elders). These are the layers that give the full story, with all details, meanings and significance.Aboriginal symbolism and art have many different expressions, ranging from oral, musical and dance traditions to the visual arts. Aboriginal people have a very strong oral tradition. From the beginning of time they have expressed everything through words, music and dance. These art forms not only recorded their Dreamings, rituals and ceremonies but also reminded them of theactivities and events of their Ancestral Spirits. These traditions were maintained and handed down through every generation, each language group having its own unique type of expression. Oral arts included narratives and song cycles, which performed an important function in the telling of Aboriginal mythology. Musical arts incorporated voice, clap sticks, drums and other instruments. Dance was done by individuals or groups, and was performed both within ceremonies and for social purposes. The visual arts performed a religious function in that they, together with the other art forms, gave visual expression to spiritual reality. Aboriginal visual artists are expert in a vast spectrum of styles, using a great variety of media. Examples of media include the human body (painted for ceremonies such as initiations); rocks (engravings and petroglyphs); rock walls, caves and shelters (X-ray fi gures and Mimis, or spirit fi gures, found throughout Australia); wood and sheets of bark (the distinctive Arnhem Land rrark, cross hatching); poles and sticks (message sticks with general or sacred designs); ground and sand (traditional central desert ground art, which developed into the renowned ‘dot’ paintings); clay and hardened beeswax; feathered string; shells and pearls; baskets.Much traditional art was ‘temporary’, made out of ochres, charcoal or feathers, and lasted only for the duration of particular ceremonies such as funerals. In more recent times some artists have used ‘permanent’ media such as wood, canvas and paper, as well as pencils, crayons, oils, acrylics and synthetic polymers. Other contemporary styles include photography, cinema, television and video. Some Aboriginals have experimented with state-of-the-art satellite and multimedia technologies. Many volumes have been written about Aboriginal symbolism and art—the particular types and styles, the media, the significance, the aesthetic or financial value. Yet virtually all of this primarily Western interpretation of Aboriginal art misses the most basic element: the religious functions.Aboriginal symbolism and art are inextricably linked to Aboriginal religion and spirituality. Paintings and symbols give expression to religious traditions, customs and practices. They communicate the Dreaming, the time of the Ancestral Spirits, the Law and all the values, traditions, customs, ceremonies and obligations of Aboriginal people. They tell the stories that have been handed down from the past, and in so doing convey them to future generations.Aboriginal symbolism and art enable the passage of knowledge both within Aboriginal society and, in limited ways, to the outside world. Paintings and symbols express something of the Aboriginal worldview. More recently they have also expressed something of the capacity of Aboriginal artists to blend motifs derived from traditional religion with imported Western Christian concepts.Aboriginal symbolism and art express intimate religious and social relationships with the Ancestral Beings and with creation. They assist in the maintenance of custodial obligations pertaining to particular areas of land, and they express totemic relationships and personal relationships, such as those between elders and initiates or between men and women.Aboriginal symbolism and art are unique forms of communication. They can be religious, political, geographic, social and even humorous in nature. They can relate something of the time of the Ancestors; make very specific and explicit claims to areas of land; describe the features of a river or mountain range or the flight of a bird; recall times of peace or acts of slaughter and dispossession perpetrated by Westerners. At times they can even be used to call people together—thus the bullroarer, a flat piece of wood or stone that is swung around on a long piece of thin hide or card, is used on some occasions to call people for ceremonies or to imitate the voice of an Ancestral Being.Aboriginal painting of fish and animals to be hunted gives visual expression to a spiritual reality.ActivitiesWhat is meant by ‘oral tradition’?Why is art so important to an oral tradition?What is the link between art and Aboriginal spirituality? Give examples.Prepare a visual presentation of different types of Aboriginal art and describe what the artwork symbolises.Women and the DreamingIn some Aboriginal societies the creation of the world and life came from a matriarchal beginning, and laws, sacred rituals and objects were owned by women until they were stolen by men, who perceived these rituals and objects as having ‘power’. This important factor cannot and should not be overlooked or dismissed as irrelevant; it has an impact on today’s society. Despite the men’s act of theft, the social and ceremonial roles of women remain very important.In most cases the sacred symbolism associated with certain rituals relates equally to women and men. As most of the rituals and ceremonies concern the rejuvenation and reproduction of the life cycle of flora, fauna and humanity, the fertility of life is of great importance. In different partsof Australia, the Dreaming often refers to the female Ancestors and their power and authority with reverence and great respect.Women’s Business holds a very important and respected place within traditional Aboriginal society. The role of women is considered to be critical to the maintenance, continuity and survival of the entire social structure. Aboriginal society depends greatly on the equal participation of women. Today the status and position of Aboriginal women within communities differs depending on the impact and absorption of white patriarchal values. Such values have done much to undermine the status and role of Aboriginal women in Aboriginal communities throughout the land. There is no single, defined female role to be found in any of these communities. The function of women varies from a submissive, subservient role to one of egalitarian leadership and great ceremonial and social authority.One practice that is common to all Aboriginal tribes is the setting aside of sacred areas relating to Women’s Business, ceremonies, rituals, songs, dances and sacred sites. In some tribes, Aboriginal authority is ranked according to birth. So if, for example, the eldest child is a female,she will have ultimate power and responsibility in making decisions affecting her group.The independence of women is an important element in Aboriginal society. It is well documented that woman are the main food suppliers for their communities—at least 85 per cent of the food consumed in Aboriginal society is hunted and gathered by women. It could be saidthat men are more dependent on women than on other men for their food sources. In addition, women have their own sacred sites, rituals and ceremonies, which men are not allowed to enter or participate in. It is quite often stated by Aboriginal men that women are the ‘backbone’ of Aboriginal society. This is a fact not often recognised or taken into consideration by Euro-Australians.ActivitiesWhat was the role of women in creating Aboriginal laws, sacred rituals and objects?Research the role of women in traditional Aboriginal societies today.Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identityThe Dreaming, the land and an individual or group of people are inexorably linked. The link between human beings and creation is made through what Europeans have called ‘totemism’. A totem can be any object, such as a bird, a plant or even a particular landmark, through which a person is linked to the creative spiritual force responsible for his or her existence. The person,through the totem, becomes linked to the land and to the Spirit governing that territory. Each totem has its own sacred sites and sites of significance associated with the mythology of that totem. This means that ultimately the land, through its totemic links, owns the people.Totemism is a system of belief that gives rise to the existence of that special link, and also gives effect to people’s relationship with the Ancestral Beings through participation in ceremonial events. Such events enable communication with the Ancestral Spirit(s) and participation in the rejuvenation of that life force that ensures the stability of human experience. Aboriginals may have a combination of individual and group totems to make sure that the whole range of human expression is covered.Totemism is formalised through ceremonialism. It is through dance, song and symbolism thataspects of creation are linked with the creative life force. Thus the balance and integrity of all creation is sustained and the stability of life preserved. While totemism itself is not a religion, it contains religious elements because of the link that it makes between creation and the Ancestral Beings.ActivitiesWhat is totemism?Why is totemism important to Aboriginal people?Aboriginal ceremonies allow communication with Ancestral Beings. Why is this important to the people?Do you see any similarities between these ceremonies and elements of other religions? Explain.The Dreaming is the eternal link between Ancestral Spirits and Aboriginal humanity. It explains the creation of life and the sustaining of life; it reveals the totemic connection to land and the sacred sites given by the Ancestral Beings; it brings out the relevance of the nexus between the there-and-then and the here-and-now. Tribal land is not so much a defined area as a constellation of ancestral narratives particular to special places that were sacred to a number of different groups—places such as Uluru.Thus the Dreaming affects rights to land. The Dreaming is not only a memory of the past but also the reality of the present and the creator of the future. The Dreaming is the Law that the Ancestral Spirits created and passed on through the rituals and ceremonies that are carried out even to this day. Aboriginal people view their Dreaming as who and what they are. Western academics have written about the so-called ‘migration’ of Aboriginal people to the land now called Australia. It is also important to note that this theory of migration is just that—a theory. No concrete evidence in support of it has ever been found.Aboriginal people are in profound disagreement with any such notion. Gularrwuy Yunupingu, the Gumatj leader, shares a story from another tradition leader, Burrumarra, from Elcho Island, that challenges such theories. Burrumarra demanded to know where, in what museums, were the rafts in which Aboriginal people had arrived. As Yunupingu has said: ‘They knew that the Spirit Beings had bestowed the land on Yolngu people in the distant past, and that all Aboriginalswould affirm, “This country was always ours.” ’When Aboriginal people express the term ‘always’, they are signifying the importance of their relationship with the land. They are saying that the land is theirs because the Ancestral Beings bestowed it on them from the beginning of time, and that there has been no change in this relationship. Aboriginal relationships to motherland are as critically important as those to fatherland. Both the mother’s and the father’s line are linked to people who themselves are bound to land. While there are clearly distinct roles and areas of responsibility, these complex interrelationships between males and females work towards harmony. Aboriginal people have saturated their family relationships with symbolism, especially symbolism relating to land.The Aboriginal understanding of land covers the whole of Australia. Through Ancestral Beings this land was given to different Aboriginal tribes. The Spirit Beings travelled from one tribal boundary to another throughout the land, sea, rivers and along the coast, giving names as well as Spirits to the Aboriginal Ancestors, thereby signifying their relationship to a particular land. The Spirit Beings forged links between certain Aboriginal groups, creating kinship bonds and relationships through their association with and bestowal of land.ActivitiesHow is tribal land linked to the Dreaming?What is the importance of this link to Aboriginal people and how does it influence their behaviour?Explain the link between Spirit Beings and the land.Through Aboriginal ceremonial dance, aspects of creation are linked with the creative life force.Land boundaries and namesWithin the Dreaming, the use of particular names and terms in Aboriginal languages indicates the significant relationships that exist between social groups and the bestowal of their land. The boundaries are established by the Spirit Beings’ travels through one territory to another, and by the transformations of the Spirit Beings, which are marked by the distribution of languages or dialects. The place where such a transformation takes place makes the boundary of a related, yet separate, land-owning group, and the Spirit Being continues to make and name sacred areas as it travels through the land.For various Aboriginal peoples, a Spirit Being has given names in their own language or dialect to land, animals, rituals and ceremonies. In most cases areas named by the Spirit Being have more than one name, but some of these names are never used for non-ceremonial purposes; they are only used during ritual singing. Names are ranked according to their sacredness—a division exists between ‘inside’ (sacred names) and ‘outside’ (public names).An Aboriginal person attaches great importance to his or her own name because of the person (in most cases a relative) who gave them their name, and because the name signifies their relationship to the land as well as their ownership of land. It is not unusual for an Aboriginal person to have more than one name, for it is by name that they identify their position within a language group.Uluru in the Northern Territory is sacred to the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area.Aboriginal namesNames operate at several levels in Aboriginal society. They are important in identifying a person’s:relationship to the landstatus or position within a communitysocial roles within a communityobligations concerning ceremony, land and community.ActivitiesHow are Aboriginal land areas defined by Aboriginal people and how were they developed?Why are names very important to Aboriginal people?Land and economicsOn the whole, Aboriginals view their relationship to land not only as a religious one but also an economic one. The Ancestral bestowal of land on Aboriginal people gave them ownership, which includes control of all of the land’s resources as well as the maintenance of its territorial integrity. Aboriginal economies are based on the land, which is rich in both spiritual and material resources. Throughout Australia, Aboriginals have always had their needs met by the tremendous variety of the land’s natural resources.The Aboriginal diet varies from season to season. Whether one looks at coastal areas or wetlands, at inland river systems or Central Australia’s arid deserts, a food supply is present. Native flora and fauna provide foods that include mammals (kangaroos and wallabies), reptiles (goannas, lizards, snakes), birds (emus, mutton birds, ducks, magpie geese, brolgas), marine life (turtles, fish, crustaceans, sharks, stingrays, dugongs), insects (witchetty grubs, honey bees, honey ants) and plants (yams, berries, native fruits). This short list identifies just some of the wide range of natural resources used and maintained even today by Aboriginal people. It could even be said that Aboriginals are the true conservationists since they waste nothing and use the environment so as not to exhaust any species. For example, when women gather yams, they do so in such a way that a portion of the plant is left to regenerate itself. Conservation is a general practice of Aboriginal hunting and gathering techniques.Knowledge of how to find natural resources comes from the Aboriginal people’s caretaker relationship with the land. Aboriginal people have never manipulated the environment to suit themselves but rather have adapted to the land, of which they themselves are a part. Land has never been seen as a commodity or as capital to be bought, sold or traded. Rather, Aboriginals have always believed that the land is an extension of life. They often refer to it as ‘theLand, our Mother’.ActivitiesDescribe the connection between the Dreaming, the land and Aboriginal people’s identity.Discuss the implications that you think this might have on issues such as Aboriginal land rights.ReviewExplain the ways in which the characteristics of religion describe a religious tradition as a whole.Explain the difference between the terms transcendent and immanent. Use examples to support your explanation.What are the major characteristics of most religions?Explain the contribution of religion both to individuals and to societies and their cultures.Aboriginal spirituality is a religion based on oral traditions. What does this mean? Discuss whether this is different to the early years of Christianity or another major religious tradition.Explain the Aboriginal concept of the Dreaming.Explain the connections between land, identity and the Dreaming to Aboriginal people.Discuss the diversity of Aboriginal Dreaming.Use the Internet to research Aboriginal art associated with the Dreaming. Look at meanings associated with particular elements, then apply that knowledge to interpret the artwork previously shown. Remember that your response will only be your interpretation based on your research, not necessarily the precise meaning intended by the artist.In groups, debate the following statement: ‘Rites and religious rituals are a means of controlling the behaviour of adherents.’Multiple choiceThe paradigm belief of Buddhism is:there is One Godthe Three Refugesthe Eightfold PathBodhisattvas, which can help attain Nirvana.Christianity is practised the same way in:Latin America and EuropeAfrica and the United StatesAustralia and the United KingdomSouth America and the United Kingdom. The Mahabharata is an example of an epic story in the sacred writings of:IslamMahayana BuddhismJudaismHinduism.Global warming, cloning and nuclear weapon systems are all examples of:scientific humanismcurrent ethical issuesissues found in traditional ethical teachingsrational humanism.An example of a rite of passage for Christians is:the Way of the Crossthe Feast of the Passoverordination to the priesthoodBrit Milah.The separation of officials and laity has been determined by:the laity themselvesthe governmentchurch officialsreligious traditions.‘Rrark’ is an example of:European artistic painting styleAboriginal spiritual figuresnatural rock formationsAboriginal artistic style.‘Murri’ is the Aboriginal term for an Aboriginal person who comes from:South AustraliaNorthern TerritoryQueenslandNew South Wales.A sacred site for Aboriginals is:a natural land formationa churcha cathedralland set aside as a national park.For Aboriginal women, authority is a result of:being an outstanding hunter and gathererbeing born eldest in a familybeing the tallest woman in the communityhaving the best education. ................
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