1
HSC Option: Individuals and Work
Katie G
1. The nature of work
Work is an important component in our lives. All people work; for financial independence, a sense of purpose, personal satisfaction, self-esteem, status, sense of belonging, socialisation, security, contributing to society or other factors. Work can determine where we will live, who our friends are and how we spend our leisure time. Work can also influence the state of our wellbeing, and that of our family members. The concept and culture of work has undergone changes over the centuries. Work can be paid or unpaid or a combination of both.
- Definitions of work
Everyone has a different definition of what it means to ‘work’. Two people performing a similar task may have different opinions about whether or not they are working. For example for an elite swimmer being exercising in the pool sees it as work; another person might see swimming as relaxation that enables them to forget about work. Many people would define work as involving being paid, or having a ‘job’. But this is not necessarily always the case. A more general definition of work is ‘effort directed towards a goal,’ For example uni students want to achieve good results. This is their goal and they must ‘work’ to achieve it.
Concise Oxford dictionary- ‘an expenditure of energy, striving, application, of effort or exertion to a purpose.
Australian Bureau of statistics- ‘person aged 15 and over who, during the reference week:
worked for one hour or more with or without payment (e.g family business or farm), employees who had a job but were not at work (e.g on paid leave), were employers, self-employed persons ect but were not at work.”
- Historical
Work began in the home. Work was necessary to satisfy the basic needs of food, clothing, shelter. Most people were involved with agriculture. Work was not separated into household and non-household tasks and these were considered equally important. Although the tasks may have been divided according to gender and age, all work was considered essential for the survival of all individuals. As communities developed people began to barter/exchange their goods.
- Late 18th century: Industrial revolution (shift from farms to factories) started in UK. Introduced separation of work from home.Farms couldn’t compete with factories therefore to support the family men had to seek employment outside the home. Being a wife and mother was a fulltime occupation for women.
- 19th century: Factories became more prevalent. Workers specialised in one activity. Hours were long and intensive, wages were low and conditions poor.
- 1860s: unions formed. Shorter working ours demanded.
- 1871: annual eight hour day (labour day) initiated in NSW
- 1892: ‘factories and shops Act’ first regulation of working conditions. Restricted the working hours of women and children.
- 1907: basic wage established for males only based on status
- 1916: basic female wage established (54% of male wage). Eight Hours Act. (created standard 48-hr working week for everyone)
- 1926: Eight hours act reduced to a 44 hour week.
- 1944: Annual holidays act 1944 (2 weeks, increased to 4 in 1974)
- 1947: 40 hour working week introduced.
- 1955: Long service leave act 1955 introduced. (13 weeks long-service after 20 years- extended to two months leave after 10 years service in 1985)
- 1973: state equal pay decision
- 1977: Anti-discrimination Act
- 1983: OH & S Act
- 1991: Unfair dismissal laws reformed.
- 1991: Industrial relations Act.
- 2006: Work choices
- Contemporary
Trends occurred over the past decade and those of the future:
Increase in married women in fulltime and labour force, decrease in full time work for men and preference for part time work, average working hours decrease from 39.9 in 1960 to 36.4 in 1995, an increase in casual employment (doubling for men 1984-1995), increase in young people working part time, increased education, increase in service industries, flexibility in employment, more legislations for workers/ parents, emphasis on training in workforce, job switching, decrease union members.
Today work is a source of income, satisfies social and psychological needs, sense of purpose, identity, emotional security, usefulness, contributing. Contemporary work issues- Increase in women in the workforce due to the removal of compulsory resignation upon marriage, equal pay, maternity leave, cost of living, change in societal expectations, flexible work patterns. Specific occupations less engendered. More men taking paternity leave. Growth in demand for high skilled professional occupations and less unskilled blue collar jobs. Increase in people owning/running their own business.
- Paid and unpaid work
- Compare and contrast the needs that are met through paid and unpaid work
Paid
Defined as: ‘the production of goods and services. As such it includes activity for which payment either in money or kind is received’ Source: Women in Australia, Australian bureau of statistics. The person involved in paid work receives money in the form of salary, wages or commission, or through indirect means such as company cars, bonuses, shares in a company, payment of phone bills and so on. Paid work provides resources to satisfy basic needs eg. Food shelter and clothing. As well, it provides security access to education, a form of self and group identification and a place to interact with others and form social groups.
Unpaid
Unpaid work is also a valuable and important contributor to our society. It is defined as ‘ any activity involving the production of goods or services for which someone could be paid but for which has been performed for no money.’ source: Women in Australia, Australian Bureau of statistics. Unpaid usually consists of housework, voluntary work, community work, and education and training. It satisfies psychological, intellectual and social needs and allows people to be independent and learn new skills. Unpaid work is crucial to organisations like life saving, bush fire brigades, hospitals, sporting clubs, museums, churches etc. Women contribute to 65% of unpaid work.
- Explore the gendered nature of paid and unpaid work
Women’s participation in the paid workforce has increased due to general standards of education. However the proportion of females in the workforce is not the same in all industries. Community services, finance, property, business service, recreational and personal service and whole sale and retail trade ( 5 industries) accounted for almost 75% of employed females. There is a clear distinction in paid work between the positions men and women hold. Full-time work is dominated by males especially management positions however the number of women re-entering full-time work after pregnancy is increasing. In business women mainly hold secretarial positions, the men in the managerial positions. Part-time work is dominated by females usually due to their need to balance family and work responsibilities.
While men do half the work involved in home maintenance, car care and gardening women contribute 65% of the total of unpaid work. Most of this is spent on childcare, cooking, washing dishes, cleaning, ironing ect. It has been shown that at all ages the amount of unpaid work completed by women exceeds that done by men. This is particularly true from the ages of thirty to sixty. Overall women spend twice as long as men completing unpaid work. It appears that women do more unpaid household work than men, regardless of income, education, social background, employment or age. However as women’s participation in the workforce increases it has become more common for males to take on duties in the house. There are situations where the father has taken
parental leave or a career break to care for children have been increased. There has been a slight increase in the male contribution to unpaid work in the house (approx 30%)
-Value and status of work.
- Work contributes to improving the standards of living of our society as a whole. By working, earning an income and paying taxes governments can provide services that contribute to our general well being and to our standard of living. In Australia, for example every child from the age of five to fifteen has the right to an education. The guarantee that these services will be available would not be possible if people in our society did not work and pay taxes.
- Work is also of value to the employee. It provides an income to pay for physical items and may also be enough for luxuries such as holidays. Work can also give a sense of satisfaction and usefulness, or even a sense of identity. Some people gain great personal pride from their work; others simply work for the income. Whatever the reason for work, if they gain something from it, it is of value.
- Work can also give value to other people. If the work is of high status, then the person doing that work will have his or her self-esteem enhanced by it because it is highly valued.
- Status of work indicates a person’s social or professional ranking in relation to others. Often the more highly paid or the more years of study, contribute status to an occupation. Within each industry, status can be applied to the type of job you have and the amount of power and prestige you hold.
- Those who are not in paid employment or an acceptable alternative are made to feel and often experience themselves as diminished and stigmatized, and become fringe members of society.
- Often the more highly paid or the more years of study required contribute status to an occupation. Intellectual jobs are often valued more highly than physical labour.
- Explain the significant influences that have impacted upon how people perceive work
- Income
Is a significant influence that impacts upon how people perceive work. The greater the income usually the higher status of the job. For example Doctors due to their high income level and work that they do are highly valued in society. High income provides greater opportunity to meet needs and attain material possessions that are high status indicators in our society.
-Gender
Gender influences how people perceive work. This is often seen through women holding part-time, casual and unpaid working positions whereas men dominating full-time and managerial positions. Many men do not value unpaid work as they believe it does not increase status.
- Education/ years spent studying/ Qualifications
Those of more years of study required contribute to status to an occupation. Intellectual jobs are often valued more highly than physical labour
- Position held
The position held often influences how people perceive their work. Status can be applied to the type of job you have and the amount of power and prestige you hold. For example it may not be perceived as a good occupation to be working at discount store. However if you are the business owner you are perceived at a higher status.
- How much they contribute to society
Their contribution to society often also influences how people perceives that kind of work. For example some may place greater value and status on a surgeon due to their position and importance.
- Quality of life/ working conditions/ hours worked/ balance between work and leisure
- Individual and group needs met through work
An obvious reason to why people work is for money. However in 1980 almost a thousand Queensland Telecom workers were asked whether they would give up their job if they had sufficient money. Over 70 percent said they would continue to work.
|Need |How individual needs are met through work |How group needs are met through work |
|Self-esteem |- Self-esteem needs are higher order needs and can only be satisfied once basic |- the approval of colleagues and the support of other people |
| |needs are met. |on a task or as part of a team can enhance the self-esteem |
| | |of the group and also the individual. |
| |- The emotional needs met through work include the need to be respected, admired | |
| |and esteemed. This can happen by or through the way they are treated by their | |
| |workmates, their status, by gaining self satisfaction through their job and | |
| |mastering new skills, by working as part of a team in a workplace. | |
| | | |
| |- when paid or unpaid work is undertaken that contributes a feeling of | |
| |satisfaction, self esteem is enhanced | |
| | | |
| |- individuals are able to be acknowledged for using their skills and abilities to | |
| |achieve success the need to belong and to be accepted can be satisfied | |
|Financial |- Payment received from tasks completed provides for needs and wants. |- This can include a bonus for reaching a goal, or completing|
| | |a task on time, a pay rise, a weekend away for families or |
| |- It provides their basic physical needs. The needs vary throughout the lifespan |other benefits. |
| |and so the amount of income required to satisfy basic needs of food, shelter and | |
| |clothing will differ. As the family expands so to does the amount of income |-Increased productivity, reduced sick leave and an increase |
| |required increase. As the family life cycle moves into the contracting so to does |in the group’s feeling of self worth and importance in the |
| |the income required decrease. The most costly need to satisfy is shelter regardless|hierarchy of the workplace may result |
| |if it is a mortgage payment or rent. | |
| | | |
| |- It contributes towards financial independence, a feeling of security and of self | |
| |– worth | |
|Social |- Individuals form new friendships through work and these friends often transfer |- Support networks and friendship groups, develop, which can |
| |into their private lives. |improve moral, leading to higher productivity and a reduction|
| | |in sick leave |
| |- Employment gives people a chance to mix with a wide variety of people they | |
| |otherwise may not have come in contact with. | |
| | | |
| |- Support networks are often found through fellow workmates. Individuals and | |
| |families moving into a new area will often find friends in the workplace as a | |
| |source for the development of social friendships. | |
| | | |
| |- Young parents find employment full or part-time important for the social | |
| |stimulation as well as the money. Some retired people who return to the workforce | |
| |on a part-time basis do so for the social contact, especially if they have lost a | |
| |spouse. This helps the person to recover from the loss and grief associated with | |
| |losing a spouse. | |
|Educational |- The workplace can offer intellectual stimulation that is missing in one’s |- Individuals who receive additional training can bring back |
| |personal or social life. Many women spend time at home caring for children and |the skills they have learnt to the rest of the group, which |
| |running a home find by returning to work their intellectual needs are satisfied. |will often encourage others to learn these new skills |
| | | |
| |- The workplace can provide an opportunity for an individual to update their |- Individuals who train as a group share learning experiences|
| |knowledge and skills. |which can assist in cementing collegial groups |
| |- Employers as well as TAFE and university may provide courses. | |
| | | |
| |- Individual workers can feel more productive, skilled and up-to-date, taking on | |
| |additional responsibilities as a result of the training, thus increasing their | |
| |self- confidence. | |
|Status |- The type of job, power wielded and money earned can all contribute to ‘status’ |- The need for status within a group can be provided by a |
| |and self esteem. |work-space, car, privileges, promotion and so on |
| | | |
| |- These can assist in a person’s feeling of self – worth and self-esteem | |
|Lifestyle |- The money earned or the type of job and benefits provide a lifestyle suited to or|- This type of work undertaken by a group can suit their |
| |wanted by the individual |lifestyle eg. Self determined or flexible hours, outdoors, |
| | |high flyers, laid back and so on |
|Career |- A job may be one way of earning money to provide for needs, eg. Work weekends to |- Networking, sharing knowledge, skills and experiences can |
| |pay for tuition fees. |support the career development of colleagues as well as |
| | |provide personal satisfaction to the individual |
| |- A job may be part of a career path or be the ideal career | |
|Social conscience |- By working, an individual us able to feel they are making a contribution to their|- Workplaces can volunteer time, skills or finances to assist|
| |local, regional and national community |in those in need |
| |- Individuals meet people with other ideas, beliefs etc. that can provide them with|- By committing to a policy, eg, recycling, individuals in a |
| |a view, not jus of their local area, but of the wider community |workplace can feel they are contributing to the betterment of|
| | |their community |
|Cultural |- Through work people can learn to accept other people’s ideas and learn the |- Provision for holidays or celebration, dress, food storage |
| |importance of others needs. |and/or cooking and so on must be made by the company to |
| | |accommodates the beliefs of employees and clients of |
| |- A workplace provides an environment where individuals from a variety of cultural |different cultures |
| |backgrounds can exchange and develop an appreciation of the habits, beliefs and | |
| |understandings of other cultures | |
- Patterns of work
|Pattern of work |Description |Suitability for different |Analyse ABS statistics to determine trends in |
| | |individuals |Australian workforce. |
|Full-time |Advantages |- people in the beginning |- Most common work practice performed, with 60% of |
| |Worker receives monetary compensation |stage of family life |total employment involved. |
| |Usually works for 35 hours/ week |cycle, male members of |- Increase of participation of women in full-time |
| |Receives entitlements of 4 weeks paid leave, sick leave, long |family, people in |work from 26.5% in 1978 to 28.5% in 1995 |
| |service, maternity/paternity leave, and superannuation. |contracting stage of |- The number of men in full-time work has decreased |
| | |family cycle. |from 71% in 1978 to 60% in 1995. |
| |Disadvantages | |- Between 1986-1994 the number of managers and |
| |Time spent with family is limited, cost of childcare. | |administrators in full-time employment increased by |
| | | |13% |
|Part-time |Means reducing their working hours to less than 35 hours per |- People who require less |- Part-time work has increased in recent years for |
| |week. |than full time work, |both women and men however it accounts for only 11.8%|
| | |parents caring for |of total employment. |
| |Advantages |children, students, | |
| |More family time while status and socialisation is maintained. |retired workers looking |- The main growth in part-time work has been with |
| |Can be used to “top up” family income and allow for holidays |for extra income. |females and in retail and service industry; such as |
| |and luxuries, enable parents to have a break from the constant | |cafes and accommodation. |
| |demands of small children, have entitlements on a pro rata | | |
| |basis e.g proportion of holiday or sick pay. | |- Young men and women more likely then 10 years ago. |
| | | | |
| |-Permanent part-time workers have job security, good for | |-Increase in wives part-time employed from 25% in the|
| |organisation due to set working hours. They can return to their| |early 1980s to 35% in 2000. |
| |original full-time status. | | |
| | | | |
| |- Maintain status not only as a worker but as a carer. | | |
| |Disadvantage | | |
| |Reduced income | | |
|Casual |Casual employment involves employees that work on an hourly or |Students, people between |Used most frequently in retail and food industries |
| |daily basis. They are paid an extra loading on top of normal |jobs, mothers or fathers |(lower skilled). 23% in the 15-19 age bracket and |
| |rate to compensate for lack of usual benefits, such as sick |with a breadwinner |most were attending school or tertiary institution |
| |leave and holiday entitlements. |partner. Not suitable for |full time. |
| | |people who are at the | |
| |Advantages |stage of life which |Casual employment was a high growth area with a 69% |
| |Paid a higher hourly rate than permanent employees, flexibility|requires heavy financial |increase in casual employment between1988-1998. |
| |in hours worked. Casual work however allows workers to gain |commitment. |Predominantly in the number of casually employed |
| |experience in a number of occupations and can be used to gain a| |males. |
| |variety of skills and income whilst completing further study. | | |
| |It also allows older people to gain social contact and | |Within this decade male casuals increased by 115% |
| |opportunity to supplement their retirement income without the | |whilst female casuals increased by 43% |
| |long-term commitment issues | | |
| |Disadvantages | |Industries with high proportion of casual workers |
| |Less income/week | |include: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing, |
| |Person in this position may only know a week in advance exactly| |Accommodation, Cafes and Restaurants, Cultural and |
| |what hours they will be working, and they may vary. | |Recreational Services, Retail Trade. |
| |There is no guarantee of a full weeks work and it is not deemed| | |
| |to have continuity of service with an employee. This may | | |
| |prevent relationships and friendships forming as little time | | |
| |can be spent in company. | | |
| |Job satisfaction may not develop as tasks may not be completed | | |
| |in the time the worker is employed. Lastly, there is little | | |
| |opportunity for career development and additional training. | | |
|Permanent | A permanent worker is one who will still be in that position |Can be full time, part | |
| |next year, and for as long as they continue to perform well. |time or casual. | |
| | |Best for parents as it’s a| |
| |Advantages |secure full time or part | |
| |Gives security for a worker. It allows them to develop a career|time job. They may return | |
| |pathway in a company and provide status amongst their |to their original status. | |
| |colleagues. | | |
|Contract |A contractor is a type of owner-operator. They are |People with skills who | |
| |self-employed and hire out their services to companies for a |work for themselves | |
| |period of time and/or to complete a particular job. They are | | |
| |only employed for a certain period of time | | |
| |Examples include trades people, IT specialists. | | |
| | | | |
| |Advantages | | |
| |Work for themselves, freedom to move on to another job once one| | |
| |is completed and work with new people. This type of work is | | |
| |advantageous as it focuses or develops a person’s skills and | | |
| |allows them to build their own company based on individual | | |
| |skills and abilities. They have the opportunity to change | | |
| |workplace regularly. | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |Limited income, no job security, work and income can be | | |
| |unstable. For example, some banks will not give loans to people| | |
| |working on ‘contracts’ because their employment cannot be | | |
| |guaranteed. | | |
|Shiftwork |A shift worker is a person who works at different times of the |Best for single people or |In November 2004, 14% of employees had worked |
| |day depending on when they are needed. Common in mining, health|families with older |shiftwork in the previous four weeks. A higher |
| |and community services, accommodation and cafes and |children. |proportion of part-time employees worked shiftwork |
| |restaurants. | |compared to full-time employees. |
| | | | |
| |Advantages | |- Male employees are more likely to work shiftwork |
| |Allows parents one parent to always remain at home if the 2 | |than are female employees. |
| |parents stagger their shifts. Days off during the week and | | |
| |penalty rates are advantages. | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |It can be very tiring and disruptive, especially developing | | |
| |sleep patterns. It could also have a negative impact on | | |
| |parental relationships due to lack of time together. The | | |
| |individual may also feel isolated and worry about safety to and| | |
| |from work. Services such as education, recreation and transport| | |
| |may be difficult to access as services are generally geared for| | |
| |normal work hours (8 am- 6 pm Mon – Fri) | | |
|Voluntary |A volunteer worker is a person who donates their time to an |This is best for anyone |- People of all ages volunteer, however 57% of all |
| |organisation. They do not expect any form of payment in return.|who wants to be rewarded |volunteers are female. |
| |Our society relies heavily on volunteer workers to contribute |in assisting people and | |
| |their time, skills, energy and expertise in areas such as meals|who have spare time. |- 1994-1995 19% of Australians aged 15 and over |
| |on wheels, hospitals, schools and sporting clubs. | |undertook some voluntary work through a group or |
| | | |organisation. |
| |Advantages | | |
| |They can give something back to their community, enhances their| |- Those aged 25-44 years represented 28% of all |
| |social conscience, they gain experience in that area that may | |volunteers. |
| |otherwise have been difficult to learn about. It can provide | | |
| |people with skills needed to re-enter the paid workforce. | |-Over 45000 people donated their time this way to the|
| |Allows people to socialise, develop new skills and build on | |Sydney Olympic Games in 2000. |
| |existing ones. | |- in 1992 both men and women contributed about 20 |
| | | |minutes per day to voluntary work. |
|Self-employed |Self Employed people are those who operates their own business.|People who wish to be | |
| | |their own boss, people | |
| | |with skills and money to | |
| |Advantages |invest | |
| |Control their own work patterns | | |
| |Flexible working hours |Usually best for people | |
| |Have total responsibility for the business |with older children or | |
| |Freedom to work unrestricted hours |none. As is known | |
| |High degree of control over their lives |sometimes their can be no | |
| |Opportunity to earn more than their skills may earn in a |jobs and that means no | |
| |traditional setting. |money. | |
| |Self-employment can lead to a sense of wellbeing with the | | |
| |challenge to be self-reliant and a feeling of satisfaction may | | |
| |be gained as their own ideas are put into practice. | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |Often work longer hours | | |
| |No guaranteed income | | |
| |No entitlements | | |
| |Isolation from other people if business is small therefore | | |
| |reduced social interaction | | |
|Job-share |Involves two workers voluntarily sharing one full time job. |People with young | |
| | |children. Couples in the | |
| |Advantages |same occupation who both | |
| |Greater flexibility in work |wish to spend time with | |
| |Allows people to continue with their careers while also taking |the family. Popular among | |
| |care of family commitments, study leisure or community |parents who want to work | |
| |commitments |around child care | |
| |Allows work to be arranged around family |arrangements. Women | |
| |provides opportunities for mutual support and encouragement |returning to work with | |
| |Work load is divided |young children. Older | |
| | |workers who want to | |
| |Disadvantages |gradually phase into | |
| |Less income per week. |retirement. People with | |
| | |disabilities. Workers | |
| | |wishing to undertake | |
| | |studies while continuing | |
| | |in employment. | |
| | | | |
|Telecommuting |Telecommuting is an offsite work arrangement that permits |Parents with young | |
| |employees to work in or near their homes for all or part of the|children, semi-retired | |
| |working week. The individual commutes by telephone, email etc |people, people with family| |
| |rather than by car or other transport. |commitments | |
| | | | |
| |Advantages | | |
| |Work from home so saving time and costs of travel, allows | | |
| |parent to be near children, flexible hours | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |Isolation from other workers unless a combination of home and | | |
| |workplace is used. Work may intrude on family life as the | | |
| |employee is available at all times via technology. An increased| | |
| |workload, combination of work and family and the elimination of| | |
| |socialisation may exacerbate stress levels and cause lack of | | |
| |concentration | | |
|Seasonal |Seasonal work involves people that are employed for a specific |Students | |
| |period of time, dependant on when work is available. Examples |Backpackers | |
| |include fruit picking and ski instructors. Individuals are |Retirees | |
| |usually paid piece rates based on quantity produced but it may |Holiday makers | |
| |also be on the hours worked. |Unemployed | |
| | |Disabled | |
| |Advantages |Migrants | |
| |Seasonal work does give a degree of independence and provide | | |
| |opportunities to travel and meet people from different places. | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |Seasonal work can often be intensive and physically demanding | | |
| |and there is little opportunity for career development. workers| | |
| |must provide own transport and accommodation and due to | | |
| |itinerant nature – socialising occurs mainly with people in | | |
| |same position. | | |
|Working from home |Self employed people have worked from home for many years, and |Ideal for people who do |- The number of people working from home has |
| |with the advent of telecommunications other workers are also |not like the regular |increased by 11% between 1992-1995 |
| |using the home as an alternate office. Examples of people who |routine of office hours, | |
| |may work from home include Writers, journalists and |or who find it preferable |- Approx. 4% of all employees are home workers or |
| |photographers. |to work on their own. Best|telecommuters, and of these 60% are women. |
| | |for people with a family | |
| |Advantages |or injury, sick and people|- Not all home workers are employees- over half (52%)|
| |The benefits to the employee are flexible work practices, less |who like independence. |are self-employed or unpaid family workers. |
| |time spent travelling, saving in travelling costs, greater | | |
| |control over schedule, work is often more productive and task | | |
| |completed quickly, domestic obligations can be balanced, people| | |
| |who have disabilities are able to be more independent. | | |
| | | | |
| |Disadvantages | | |
| |It can lead to lower security, as the business can only benefit| | |
| |as much as the person is willing to work. Eg professionals such| | |
| |as architects, accountants and lawyers. It can have its | | |
| |downfalls as it can intrude in the family time, it can mean | | |
| |work is not sperate from home so the feeling of relax isn’t | | |
| |distinct. | | |
|Others |Flexitime- A flexible arrangement where workers can work more or fewer hours in any one day, as long as the total hours worked in a scheduled |
| |period add up to the minimum requirement. Requires employees to be available for set hours and then offer the option of when to complete the |
| |remaining required number of hours. Gives autonomy to the individual, allowing them to balance work and family commitments. |
| | |
| |Career Break- Career break schemes allow an employee to negotiate a fixed period of time away from the workplace to undertake study or tend to |
| |private commitments, while returning to the job at the end of the period. Allows employers to retain skilled staff who might otherwise have been|
| |forced to leave their place of employment. |
| | |
| |Variable year employment- Requires an employee to take a reduced salary for four years. The money put aside by the employer from the salary loss|
| |is then used to fund one year of leave. Used by employees wishing to study, it is also popular with older workers who do not wish to sacrifice |
| |some of their long service leave. |
- Social factors leading to changing work patterns
|Social factors |Their influence on work patterns |Analyse the relationship between patterns of |
| | |work and the various social factors and |
| | |hypothesise about possible future trends |
|Education/ training|The choices people make at school have a direct impact on the activities they undertake |- most students will have access to work ready |
| |immediately after school. Some university courses require students to complete particular |courses |
| |subjects before they can apply. The level of education people attain seems to directly affect|- Employees will be expected to continue their |
| |their ability to find paid work. For instance the unemployment rate for people who completed|education through courses to combine work and |
| |a university degree in 1995 was 1.9% the unemployment rate for people who left school before |education. |
| |the age of 16 was 14.4%. |- Harder to get into university |
| | |- Fewer people in the primary industry and a |
| |A person’s education directly affects the way in which they work. For instance a changed |continuing decline in people leaving school in |
| |patterns of work may be required to complete 12 yrs of schooling or university, most students|year 10. |
| |involved in casual or part time work. |- Due to increased education in Australia |
| | |increased difficulty in finding people to do |
| |The decision to continue learning also affects work patterns For example a manager who |domestic occupations such as cleaning. |
| |decides to return to university to earn a degree may need to work flexible hours to fulfil |- Businesses and industries increase their |
| |the requirements of their contract. |level of entry requirements as a result |
| | |increase in post-school education. |
| |Over the last 20 years within schools, an increase in the number of students studying |- Increases in unemployment in past 20 years |
| |vocational subjects and undertaking part time traineeships has led students to achieving |has lead to a more competitive labour market. |
| |industry-recognised qualifications as well as education. | |
| | | |
| |Emphasis has been placed on students to remain in formal education: Mandatory school | |
| |certificate, increase in students staying through to year 12 and further studies, women | |
| |staying in school. | |
|Technology |Mankind’s desire to increase efficiency has led to the development of machinery. Technology |Possible future trends include: |
|- Computers |has affected the way in which people work, and therefore there are fewer positions available |- Increase in telecommuting and working from |
|-Automation |for untrained and unskilled individuals. Many older people are being retrenched as they are |home. |
|/robotics |unskilled and have not completed any training since they left school. |- Increase in IT specialists. |
|- Research and | |- Requirements of computer skills in more |
|development |Today, most workers are now responsible for their own data entry and retrieval and employees |occupations. |
| |are expected to get up-to-date with skills and knowledge that will help the company maintain |- Less jobs in the primary industry. |
| |its position in the global market. |- Creation of new jobs. |
| | |- More skills and jobs will be made redundant. |
| |Computers |- Employees will constantly need to retrain to |
| |Computers are able to perform a lot of work previously performed by people. In some cases |gain information on latest technology. |
| |using a computer means that only one person is required where previously several are needed. |- Easier to perform tasks around the house e.g |
| |This can be seen in the banking industry for example, which has resulted in a large increase |dryer, dishwasher, vacuum. |
| |in shift work for technicians to maintain computer systems 24 hours a day. |- Workers may find de-skilling due to |
| | |technology difficult to see value in and gain |
| |Computerization has affected nature of work in most industries as most businesses now have a |satisfaction from work. |
| |computer, fax, photocopier and access to internet. Other technology includes desktop video |- Telecommuting has allowed people to work from|
| |conferencing, desktop application sharing, workflow software, and nomadic computing & |hope and gives disabled people more |
| |telecommunication. Also believed to reduce hours. |opportunity. |
| | |- It is quite possible that before to long a |
| |Automation/ robotics |robot may be checking you out at the |
| |There is also an increasing use of robots. Many industries have become highly automated for |supermarket, driving your taxi or doing your |
| |example modern vehicle assembly lines and ATMs replacing many bank tellers. Machines do not |tax return. |
| |take breaks or get paid and did not take days off. The machines often work much more quickly.| |
| | | |
| |Research and development | |
| |Research and development into these areas will decide which of these tasks are safe to | |
| |perform by robots and as they become more reliable they become more relied on. | |
| | | |
| |Many companies have spent time and money in R&D on new technologies, processes, products and | |
| |materials which are expensive to develop to remain competitive in a global market. | |
|Employment/ |In today’s society you need to be trained, skilled or educated in an area to be successfully |To increase jobs, people have reduced hours and|
|unemployment |employed. Generally, people already in employment will more likely receive an offer for a |have gone from a full time job to a part time |
| |position over an unemployed person as: they have greater confidence in going to an interview,|or casual (which enables more people to work). |
| |knows techniques for succeeding in interview (done it before) and they already possesses |There has been an increase in casual jobs and a|
| |workplace skills. Full-time employees are more likely to have post-school qualifications than|decrease in full time workers. More people are |
| |those working part-time. This is due to industries with lower educational requirements such |using flexible work patterns. Employers like |
| |as service and retail offering more PT work. |flexible workers as it is cheaper to employ |
| | |casuals. |
| |Because of this the phrase ‘Long-term unemployment has entered the language. In Australia a |- More people may be made redundant |
| |growing percentage of unemployed people have been in that situation for over twelve months. |-More furthering their education (leading to |
| |This can affect their confidence and therefore their ability to perform in job interviews. |increased casual/part time workers) |
| | |- An increase in self employment and |
| |Most unemployed have not completed secondary education or post-compulsory qualifications, |telecommuting. |
| |service industries provide a large proportion of part-time jobs, & many government initiative| |
| |aims to skill unemployed. | |
|Perceptions of |The traditional views of the male as the breadwinner and the female as the homemaker have now|- Changing perceptions of women will result in |
|gender |become part of Australia’s history. However, in some industries the number of women employed |higher participation in workforce, new |
| |is still well-below what would have been expected in the sample of the population. Some |legislations will assist women to combine work |
| |occupations are seen to be more suited to women (most nurses and teachers are female). |and family & women continue to be seen as |
| | |primary carer in family. |
| |Many female partners work outside home, women have high participation in part-time |- Increase number of women in part-time and |
| |employment, & government assistance has encouraged more women to join the workforce. Increase|volunteer work. |
| |is also due to increase in independence and education. Women are moving into technical jobs |- More paternity leave being taken |
| |and men have moved into traditional female occupations. Women are taking on the role of |- Movement out of the stereotypical gender |
| |management. However women are still expected to take time off for children. 65% of people |jobs. |
| |working from home are women. | |
| | | |
| |The most obvious field with gender inequality is politics. Politicians are elected by the | |
| |people but they are not representative of the population as a whole. In reality, only a very | |
| |small proportion of politicians are females. | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
|Family |Circumstances within the family can cause changed practices. For instance if a mother decides|- More flexible work practices provide |
|circumstances |to change work patterns to manage family responsibilities while maintaining work currency or |assistance, & some may choose early retirement |
|including |by leaving work till their child reaches school age. |& work on part-time basis. |
|structural change | |- Children staying home longer may mean they |
| |Or a sole parent may find they can only work-part time, because young children require them |don’t retire as early. |
| |to be at home. |- Reduced number of children in families |
| | |leading to shorter absence for women in the |
| |Other changing circumstances, such as separation, divorce or death can have an enormous |workforce. |
| |psychological impact on people that affects their ability to work. |- Less people are having children so more |
| | |opportunity to work. |
| |Also, today parents may have to stay in the workplace longer, as children stay at home for an|- More single parents therefore more people |
| |extended period of time due to living expenses being higher than they can afford on a |looking for part-time work. |
| |casual/PT job basis. Also, parents may have to take on financial burden of elderly relatives |- Casual and job-share become more common |
| |care. | |
|Government policy |Legislation assists women in workplace incl. Enterprise bargaining, Equal opportunity, |- Legislation to keep up with current trends |
| |Childcare cash rebate |- More support for parents with children in |
| | |care will continue to be an issue. |
| |New legislation has been introduced to support workers especially females. This has Included | |
| |equal pay for equal work, EEO and Maternity Leave. Paternity Leave and prohibiting | |
| |discrimination against workers on the basis of family responsibilities have promoted the | |
| |sharing of domestic responsibilities between men and women | |
| | | |
| |Changes to industrial practices such as flexible work practices e.g. job sharing, PT work, | |
| |flexitime and telecommuting has helped families manage their work and family commitments. | |
| | | |
| |Enterprise Agreements have allowed for negotiation of work roles and responsibilities, hours,| |
| |bonuses and work patterns. | |
|Economics |The state of the economy and the move towards globalization (competition between Australia |Australia has to compete with other products |
| |and overseas companies) have influence on employment relationships.Globalization of economy |and services from other countries & will cause |
| |has led to more demands on employees to be multi skilled, flexible, & efficient. |government initiatives to be developed to |
| | |support businesses. |
| |Wanting a house, car, putting children through private education cannot be achieved by one |-Decrease in small business with globalisation |
| |income. Men as the breadwinners are a thing of the past, it is impossible for men in the |increasing |
| |family to be the only one working (unless the job pays really well). There is an increase in |- flexible conditions being available by the |
| |the unemployment rate with a downturn in the economy. An increase in second jobs due to |state of the economy. |
| |inflation. Many may be on temporary or contract work in an unstable economy. | |
3. Managing workplace and family roles
Although the definition of the family has changed over time, the physical, social, cultural, spiritual and emotional needs of the family members are still the same. To fulfil these needs money is usually requires, and in most cases this means that at least one member of the family needs to be in paid work.
- Changing circumstances for parents
At any time the number of children in the family could change, either through childbirth, adoption or even multiple births or through children leaving home.
- Number of children (age differences, multiple births, sex)
Age
- May be more difficult to manage roles if children are close together in age. The mother can feel overwhelmed by the many roles she has to play e.g. mother, wife, entertainer and food-provider.
- Having children further apart can have different changes to families. For example, the first child may have started school and thus the mother may have returned to work and her and her partner are enjoying more time together. A new baby makes them adjust again which may cause resentment. This time mother may expect the father to become the primary carer whilst she continues her career. The first child could be expected to take on additional duties around the home.
- Parents role changes as child gets older – less primary care needed. However financial and emotional support may increase.
- If an older child decides to continue their stay at home the parents may have to continue full-time work for longer to provide for them.
Multiple births
- If there are already older children in the family, the father may be expected to take on extra responsibilities in relation to their care, schooling and activities
- Both partner and children would be expected to take on additional house hold tasks.
- Resources are available for the support of parents with multiple births such as the Multiple Births Association and financial assistance from the government.
Sex of the Child
- For example, if the arrival of a boy after a number of girl children can cause bedrooms, clothing etc to be reconsidered. Also, the father may play a larger role in their upbringing and activities.
- Children starting school
- More freedom for both parents
- At home parent may wish to take on duties within the school e.g. Canteen, P&C, reading, clothing pool.
- Mother may decide to begin a TAFE course or do volunteer work
- If both parents begin work may need to hire outside assistance with household duties to help complete roles.
- This can also allow additional time for parents to spend together and with children improving the wellbeing of the family as a whole.
- If a child decides to do schooling at university level the parents may have to continue their full-time work ect. To financially support their child. If their child remains at home during this time this will extend the time they have to support their child which may lead to extended retirement date.
- Parents changing employment
- Returning to work – family members will be expected to take on additional responsibilities – has to be negotiated with family members involved.
- May affect working hours, wages or leave conditions – roles may have to be adjusted to accommodate different hours. - Roles would have to be adjusted to accommodate the different hours for which the partner would be at home and the duties the partner would be expected to perform.
- Additional childcare may be required, a second care or less financial resources may be available.
- Parents may switch between different work patterns and different roles in terms of the amount of money or time that they supply to the family unit.
- Negotiating and sharing roles within families
- Traditionally men were the ‘breadwinners’ and females were the ‘homemakers’ who cared for the child and completed most of the household duties, However today with an increasing number of females in employment – there has been a need for negotiation and sharing of roles.
- Must be fair to all concerned and not based on gender or traditions. Instead of being based on gender it is now more based on working hours. For example, the male partner may begin work early and finish earlier and therefore could pick children up from school, and cook dinner. The female’s partners working times could allow her to put the washing out, take the children to school and clean up after dinner. Neither may wish to clean the house so this may be outsourced to a tradesperson.
- Roles must be based on age and ability – easier roles allocated to younger members. Builds up responsibilities and independence, eg making own bed, bring out washing, clean up dinner
- Another change is that young people do not leave home until their mid to late twenties, and perform household tasks and may even contribute to the budget.
- Another reality of the early
- Managing resources to meet multiple role expectations
The desire to fulfil all roles placed upon us as a result of the growing number of commitments that parents are associated with: family, work, leisure, sport, church, community groups. Resources are an important component of effectively managing change and multiple roles. They are used to satisfy needs and wants of individual family members, and the family as a whole. They can be interchanged and substituted
- Time e.g delegation, division of labour
- The resource that people feel they don’t get enough of, the satisfying use of time can influence the wellbeing of individuals and families, when time is not used effectively it can cause dissatisfaction
- Time can be substituted for money
- Tasks can be delegated to allow more time for other activities
- Time can be interchanged with money, e.g purchase of childcare in order to have dinner with friends.
- Tasks can be delegated to allow more time for other activities
- For example from a young age many Australian children are expected to help out with the simplier tasks around the home.
- Technology e.g labour saving devices, fast food
- Families also make use of new technology with the computer storing information. Other household devices exist around the house like the microwave, dishwasher, washing machine, as well as fast food outlets.
- Labour Saving Devices such as dishwasher, microwave have assisted in completing chores that a person would have traditionally had to complete thereby providing more time for other activities.
- Advent of takeaway food, pre-prepared meals and frozen meals require little time needed for preparations and clean up.
- Has allowed time and energy to be used more effectively
- For example a family may have a budget that is kept on the home computer. The same computer may bed used to store information about upcoming holidays, insurance, policies or study timetables. These are all ways in which people use technology to save time.
- Support networks (formal and informal)
- Support networks are an essential component of assisting individuals and families In managing their role expectations.
- Formal support networks such as pre-schools, allow parents to go to work, knowing that their child is being cared for in an accredited institution or alternatively that their child is receiving skills and abilities that make their transition into school easier.
- Informal support networks such as neighbours and friends are a valuable resource because of the help and support they can give to the family. For the parents neighbours may be available to baby-sit the children so they can attend a function.
- Devise strategies to effectively manage multiple role expectations caused by changing circumstances.
- Establish Goals
- Planning finding different options e.g full-time work, negotiate flexible hours, type of childcare available
- Organising e.g discuss with employer possibility of working flexible hours, negotiate with family regarding allocation of chores, review household budget
- Implementing e.g arrangements made through day care, household chores established, organise someone to pay to do ironing and washing
- Evaluating- the partners would have to evaluate the process after three months and change some of the strategies if necessary. Further evaluation would be needed after six months and then twelve months. Questions such as was the goal achieved and to what extent? Are all members willing to take on new roles and responsibilities? Were all resources used effectively? Is the child happy in care? Is the decision financially viable? Etc.
- Workplace supports for individuals and family members
- Workers with family responsibilities face a range of difficulties, such as:
- Problems finding child care
- Taking time of for sick children
- Constraints on working time
- As a result of the many pressures on people today, governments, unions and workplaces have put in various supports in place to better enable individuals to manage their multiple roles and overcome these difficulties
- Flexibility in the workplace, changes to workplace culture and a range of regulations and entitlements assist individuals in managing their roles as members of the workplace and of a family.
-Flexible work patterns and practice
These are patterns of work which assist individuals in effectively managing their work and family expectations. Flexible work practices include:
- Flexible working hours
- Part time work
- Job share
- Work from home
- Career break schemes
- Part year employment
- Family leave.
- Telecommuting
- Seasonal work
- Casual work
- Contract work
- Both females and makes are entitled to flexible work practices, it is traditionally females who decide on the work changes due to family circumstances eg caring for child or relative.
- Benefits of flexible work patterns and practices is reduced levels of absenteeism, lateness and stress. Increased productivity, skill levels, motivation and commitment.
- Allows for more women to engage themselves in the workforce.
- Flexible work practices allow more time for people with families to meet their responsibilities within the home.
- The availability of flexible work practices allows the maintaining of a standard of living.
- When an employer allows workers to work as they choose it is called ‘flexi-time’. For example. A person may choose to work nine hours a day for four days, and then have a three day weekend. If they prefer shorter days they may choose to work six hour days and only have one day for the weekend
- These work options allow people the flexibility they need to more adequately balance their working lives with their private lives.
- Workplace culture including provision of childcare
The differing attitudes and standards with a company based on what they value as a work environment. Workplace culture can be influenced by many factors such as management styles, employee wellbeing, personality traits and job demands. The very nature of the workplace can affect an individuals well being. A supportive workplace culture can encourage a positive wellbeing amongst all workers, often resulting in a more productive organisation. A workplace that does not have a supportive culture, however can cause dissatisfaction amongst workers, an increased number of sick days taken by employees and a lack of productivity.
Changes in workplace culture have allowed for support and services beyond that expected in the past. Child care is one service which many large employers now include for instance by sponsoring places in existing childcare centres. This has allowed more women to enter the workforce. Employer supported childcare measures should reflect the different stresses and needs associated with the various stages of employment. Half of the women who go on maternity leave do not return, there needs to be more maternity leave provisions. A shortage of under two care. With good provision of childcare women can stay in the workforce and manage their responsibilities better. This is only one example of a large shift in workplace culture. The overall trend is towards allowing as many people as possible to be in the workforce, including those who may previously have been excluded.
Most businesses are now open to the idea of employing people with disabilities. May not be able to perform some tasks, they are still able to perform others and these skills can be utilised. Eg. May be housebound – work from home or telecommute.
- Regulations and entitlements
Workers in Australia are able to secure leave in a number of situations.
|Regulation and entitlement | |
|Carers |Carers leave is to take care for a family member/relation who is sick. It is paid leave |
| |This leave is available to all employees covered by NSW awards. There are few exceptions and some awards have slightly |
| |different entitlements. Many enterprise agreements also provide for these types of leave. An employer can require an employee |
| |to establish that a family member is sick and needs care. A medical certificate can do this. |
|Parental leave |Full-time, part-time and casual employees who have worked continuously with one employer for 12 months are able to take unpaid |
|Maternity |leave of 52 weeks. This must be completed before the child’s 1st birthday or anniversary of adoption. |
|Paternity | |
|Adoption | |
|NSW Industrial Relations Act 1966| |
|Long service |Full-time, Part-time and casual workers in NSW are entitled to be paid long-service leave after working for an unbroken period |
|NSW Long service leave Act 1955 |of ten years with an employer. |
| |A minimum of two months paid leave after 10 years of service with one employer. Paid at an ordinary rate. Can be paid out on |
| |termination. This payment during the break helps manage family expectations. |
|Sick leave |A minimum of five days sick leave each year which can be used when the employee is too ill to work or when it is necessary to |
|Industrial relations Act 1996 |look after ill family members. |
|(Cth) | |
|Annual leave |All full time and part time employees get a minimum of 4 weeks paid leave. Leave falls due on the anniversary of when employment|
|NSW Annual Holidays Act 1944 |originally commenced. Casuals are paid an additional 1/12 of their rate in place of the annual leave entitlement. Allows parents|
| |to take time off and still be getting paid- especially during school holidays. |
|Personal carer’s leave or family |Entitlements are included in individual awards. Enables employees to take time off to care for and support an immediate relative|
|leave |or household member who is sick. Can access three types of leave: sick leave, leave without pay, annual leave entitlements. |
|Workplace relations Act 1996 | |
|(Cth) | |
- Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmation Action
EEO- Everyone should have fair and equitable access to jobs, employment conditions, training and promotional opportunities. The workplace must have rules, policies, practices and behaviours that are fair and do not disadvantage people because they belong to particular groups. It does not assume that everyone has the same abilities but they should have the same opportunity to demonstrate their abilities. Through EEO both parents have the opportunity to support the family and to promotion.
Relevant laws include: NSW Anti-discrimination Act 1977, Commonwealth Racial discrimination Act 1975, Sex Discrimination Act 1984, Disability Discrimination Act 1992, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986.
AA- The positive steps taken by an employer to create a situation that promotes and assists elements of equal opportunity. It is used as a means of redressing discrimination based on gender, sexual preference, disability etc. An affirmative action program must be established in an organisation with 100+ employees. The equal opportunity for women in the workplace Act 1999 provides provisions for women which allows them to manage work and family better. Programs have been implemented in Australia to improve the position of women in the workforce. They aim to ensure that, over a period of time, workplaces are restructured so that women and men have equality.
- Enterprise Agreements and Bargaining (also known as workplace bargaining, collective bargaining, over-award bargaining, company bargaining)
Prior to 1988, a central authority set pay and working conditions. Unions often fought for the rights of the workers and negotiated between employer and employee. When enterprise bargaining was introduced, the government saw it as the basis of its policy of restructuring the workplace. The Workplace Relations Act 1996 was introduced to assist employees to combine their work and family responsibilities effectively through the development of enterprise agreements with employers.
Enterprise bargaining is a negotiation of a set of rules and conditions for their workplace which results in the enterprise agreement. The Agreement is a negotiated deal about the conditions under which employees are employed within a business. The Australian Industrial relations commission checks enterprise agreements to ensure basic minimums are upheld. Enterprise bargaining is intended to achieve - genuine long-term productivity of lasting benefit for workers, employers and the community.
The agreement is intended to create a situation where both parties are satisfied. Some of the matters being covered in workplace agreements now being reached include: -
- Reorganising work practices – redesigning and broadening jobs eg. Moving workers btw areas using work teams, multi-skilling, using quality assurance and best practice programs, use of consultative mechanisms.
- Flexible conditions of employment eg. Managers have staff available for tasks when demand is there and not when it isn’t.
- Improving work environment
- Training and skills acquisition
- Better use of equipment and machinery
- Examine extent to which workplace factors:
- Provide equal access to work entitlements for females and males
There are many workplace factors both legislative and non-legislative that provide equal access to work entitlements for males and females.
Workplace culture is one factor which will determine if there is equal access to work entitlements for females and males. The differing attitudes and standards with a company based on what they value as a work environment. Workplace culture can be influenced by many factors such as management styles, employee wellbeing, personality traits and job demands. The very nature of the workplace can affect an individuals well being. A supportive workplace culture can encourage a positive wellbeing amongst all workers, often resulting in a more productive organisation. Changes in workplace culture have allowed for support, services and equal access beyond that expected in the past.
A positive workplace culture will provide equal access to work entitlements for males and females. To do this many workplaces include the provision of childcare. This entitlement is one service many large employers now include for instance by sponsoring places in existing childcare centres. This has provided more equal access to work entitlements as it has allowed more women to enter and remain in the workforce. This is only one example of a large shift in workplace culture. The overall trend is towards allowing as many people as possible to be in the workforce, including those who may previously have been excluded.
Equal Employment Opportunity Action ensures equal access to entitlements such as employment conditions, training and promotional opportunities. It ensures the workplace has rules, policies, practices and behaviours that are fair and do not disadvantage people because they belong to particular groups. It does not assume that everyone has the same abilities but they should have the same opportunity to demonstrate their abilities. Through Equal Employment both parents have an equal opportunity to support the family and to a promotion. For example if a woman applies for an occupation or promotion as a pregnant women Acts such as the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 prevent discrimination and lack of access to these entitlements
Affirmation Action also ensures equal opportunity to work entitlements for males and females. It is the positive steps taken by an employer to create a situation that promotes and assists elements of equal opportunity. It is used as a means of redressing discrimination based on gender, sexual preference, disability etc. An affirmative action program must be established in an organisation with 100+ employees. The equal opportunity for women in the workplace Act 1999 provides provisions for women which allows them to manage work and family better. Programs have been implemented in Australia to improve the position of women in the workforce such as the ability to advertise for women only if it is a male dominated workforce. They aim to ensure that, over a period of time, workplaces are restructured so that women and men have equality.
Enterprise agreements and bargaining is a work entitlement available to both males and females. It enables both males and females to better manage their multiple roles by allowing them to negotiate the working conditions that suit them best. For example a mother may negotiate the right to 15 minute breaks every 2 hours to feed her baby and inturn work an extra hour at the end of the day. The Workplace Relations Act 1996 was introduced to assist employees to combine their work and family responsibilities effectively through the development of enterprise agreements with employers.
Workplace factors previously discussed provided the access to entitlements such as Carers, maternity, paternity, long service, sick and annual leave and flexible work patterns and practices.
Both females and males are entitled to flexible work practices. However it is traditionally females who decide on the work changes due to family circumstances such as caring for a child or relative. Flexible work patterns and practices allow more time for people with families to meet their responsibilities within the home. These patterns of work assist individuals in effectively managing their work and family expectations. It may include
Flexible working hours, Part time work, Job share, Work from home, Career break schemes, Part year employment, Telecommuting etc.
Workers in Australia are able to secure leave in a number of situations.
|Carers |Carers leave is to take care for a family member/relation who is sick. It is paid leave |
| |This leave is available to all employees covered by NSW awards. There are few exceptions and some awards have slightly |
| |different entitlements. Many enterprise agreements also provide for these types of leave. An employer can require an employee |
| |to establish that a family member is sick and needs care. A medical certificate can do this. |
|Parental leave |Full-time, part-time and casual employees who have worked continuously with one employer for 12 months are able to take unpaid |
|Maternity |leave of 52 weeks. This must be completed before the child’s 1st birthday or anniversary of adoption. |
|Paternity | |
|Adoption | |
|NSW Industrial Relations Act 1966| |
|Long service |Full-time, Part-time and casual workers in NSW are entitled to be paid long-service leave after working for an unbroken period |
|NSW Long service leave Act 1955 |of ten years with an employer. |
| |A minimum of two months paid leave after 10 years of service with one employer. Paid at an ordinary rate. Can be paid out on |
| |termination. This payment during the break helps manage family expectations. |
|Sick leave |A minimum of five days sick leave each year which can be used when the employee is too ill to work or when it is necessary to |
|Industrial relations Act 1996 |look after ill family members. |
|(Cth) | |
|Annual leave |All full time and part time employees get a minimum of 4 weeks paid leave. Leave falls due on the anniversary of when employment|
|NSW Annual Holidays Act 1944 |originally commenced. Casuals are paid an additional 1/12 of their rate in place of the annual leave entitlement. Allows parents|
| |to take time off and still be getting paid- especially during school holidays. |
|Personal carer’s leave or family |Entitlements are included in individual awards. Enables employees to take time off to care for and support an immediate relative|
|leave |or household member who is sick. Can access three types of leave: sick leave, leave without pay, annual leave entitlements. |
|Workplace relations Act 1996 | |
|(Cth) | |
-Assist individuals in managing both their family and work expectations
4. Recognising individuals in their workplace
- Rights and responsibilities in the workplace
Employers and employees have certain obligations or duties to each other under common law. These obligations are regarded as legal standards of behaviour in the employment relationship. The employer- employee relationship is a reciprocal one; it is a contractual agreement under which the employer agrees to pay the employee a set wage in return for the employee to work. The wellbeing of the employee at work becomes in part the responsibility of the employer. The employee and employer have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other.
- Employees
Rights
Employees have certain rights in their workplaces and most of these are enshrined in government legislation. These rights have been legislated to protect workers from exploitation and discrimination.
- Right to feel safe at work
- The rate of pay must be clear, fair and equal for all.
- To feel safe at work, knowing employers have met legislative requirements
- Access safety equipment
- The rate of pay must be clear, fair and equal for all
- Leave entitlements clear
- To training and in-services necessary to complete jobs properly
- Freedom of association- free to join a union if they choose
- If more than 20 employees, the right to access a workplace Safety Committee
- The right to appeal what they consider wrongful dismissal by applying to the state industrial tribunal
- the right to award wages and working conditions
- The right not to be sexually harassed
Responsibilities
- Duty to obey the employer’s lawful, reasonable and safe commands.
- Duty of work with skill and competence and care
- Duty of good faith and confidentiality
- Duty to disclose information relevant to take the employer
- Follow all health and safety instructions
- Report any breaches of regulations and complete set tasks to the best of their ability.
- To be punctual in their arrival at work
- To work the required number of hours
- To do their work with the required level of diligence and expertise
- To obey the instructions of superiors in the workplace
- To be loyal to the company they are working for.
- Employers
Rights
-Right to expect employees will follow all safety instructions, complete their set tasks and maintain working integrity.
- Does not have right to terminate a worker’s employment without just cause or fair notice.
- Dismiss any worker on the spot in particular situation. These situation usually involve employee misconduct or where the employee has failed to: Obey lawful instruction, Perform duties over a period of time, Perform duties with necessary safety, Meet conditions of the employment contract.
- Negotiate terms and conditions with an employee under a AWA
- Receive information about money obtained in course of employment
- Be provided with any process or product invented by the employee during course of employment
- Have trade processes remain confidential
Responsibilities
- To ensure all the basic rights of the employees are met.
- They have a duty of care to:
- To provide for the health, safety and welfare of their employees and to visitors to their place of business
The obligation (duty) of the employer is to take reasonable care for the safety of their employees by:
- Providing safe equipment
- Providing a safe system of work (procedures)
- Ensuring all employees are trained to work safely
- Warning employees of usual or unexpected risks
- Providing safe access to the work place.
- To have a knowledge of:
- Awards relating to their industries
- EBA
- Minimum workplace conditions
- Part time work agreements
- Discrimination and harassment
- Pay slips and employment records
- Freedom of association
- Workplace safety
- Leave Conditions
- Managing performance of personnel
- Procedures for dismissing an employee.
Duty to pay the agreed remuneration
- Employers must pay the correct amount of income set down in the award agreement or contract
- Employers must reimburse the employee if they spend money on behalf of the employer or company
- Explain the evolution of rights and responsibilities in the workplace
There has been much evolution in rights and responsibilities in the workplace. Previously there was very little legislative matter that detailed the duties, obligations and rights of employers and employees in the workplace. In the past the employer took sole responsibility for looking after their well-being. However it is now in part a responsibility of the employer and they are now more clearly stated. The employee and employer have certain rights and responsibilities towards each other. Employees have certain rights in their workplaces and most of these are enshrined in government legislation. These rights have been legislated to protect workers from exploitation and discrimination.
Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 is one government policy which has contributed to the evolution of rights and responsibilities in the workplace. This act was put in place to develop safe work environments and has changed the rights of employees, employers and their responsibilities. It ensures that the employer meets their responsibilities towards the safety rights of the employee. Employers have a responsibility to put in place information, instructions, training and supervision as may be necessary to ensure the employees’ health and safety at work. However employees have a responsibility to follow these instructions as well as the instructions of superiors in the workplace. They have the responsibility to obey the employer’s lawful, reasonable and safe commands. And similarly the employer has the right to expect employees will follow all safety instructions, complete their set tasks and maintain work integrity.
It is government policy to create and amend awards. These outline the minium conditions of employment which clearly outline the rights and responsibilities of employees and employers. Employees have the right to award wages and working conditions and employers have a responsibility to uphold these. The negotiation of these conditions was initiated through the Workplace Relation Act 1996. The contract became more flexible to focus’ on the social, safety and esteem needs of the employee. Job security and fair conduct are ensured through the Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) who follow up breaches of awards.
Anti-discrimination policies meet the rights of both employers and employees. They deem it unlawful to discriminate on the basis of characteristics such as sex and disability. They meet social, esteem and safety rights by ensuring equality, respect and a sense of belonging in the workplace. The Anti-discrimination Act 1977 prohibits intolerance, prejudice and discrimination. This has led to the evolution of rights and responsibilities of many individuals in the workplace and has ensured their right not to be harassed. For example anti-discrimination policies have led to a more active involvement of women in the workforce and more equality in rights and responsibilities.
Etc about grievance procedures( gov. policy to have an arbitration court, right to appeal what they consider wrongful dismissal, complain about discrimination), trade unions( prevent unlawful dismissal, unlawful striking, right to associate with any union they choose) and employer organisations, workers compensation/ work cover.
- Discussed both positive and negative impacts of government policy on individuals. E.g OH&S legislation closed many small businesses due to high costs included in educating, implementing ohs and training.
- Supportive workplace structures
It is important to have knowledge of Australian workplace structures. These ensure that needs are met and individuals can deal with situations when rights have been infringed. Such structures include OH&S, awards, antidiscrimination policies, grievance procedures, trade unions, employer organisations, workers compensation and work cover,.
- Safe work environment
- Occupational health and safety
It is a responsibility of both employers and employees to maintain a safe work environment. To assist them the Australian federal government put in place the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 (last amended 2001). This Act focuses on prevention, rehabilitation and compensation. OH&S ensures that injured employees are not deprived of financial support necessary for physical needs. Safe environments boost the employee and their family’s esteem, sense of security and confidence.
This includes:
- Ensuring that any premises controlled by the employer where the employees work are safe without risks to health.
- Ensuring that any plant or substance provided for use by the employees at work is safe and without risks to health when properly used.
- Ensuring that systems of work and the working environment of the employees are safe and without risk to health.
- Providing such information, instructions, training and supervision as may be necessary to ensure the employees’ health and safety at work.
- Providing adequate facilities for the welfare of the employees at work.
Supports the OH&S act as it sets out the requirements for workplaces and assists in implementing systems to identify, assess, control and or eliminate health and safety risks.
Some of these systems include:
• Identification of all work hazards
• Assessment of risks arising from those hazards
• Measures to control risks
• Provision of training
• Requirements of certification of operators of equipment
• Notification to Work Cover
- Work conditions
- Awards
In 1983 the Hawke Labor government promised to create awards to oversee working conditions. These awards outlined minimum conditions of employment. The negotiation of these conditions was initiated through the Workplace Relation Act 1996. The contract became more flexible to focus’ on the social, safety and esteem needs of the employee. Job security and fair conduct are ensured through the Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) who follow up breaches of awards.
- The terms and conditions in an award are enforceable by law and generally include:
• Your minimum wage or salary
• The number or spread of working hours you can work
• The amount of sick leave and annual leave you can have
• Your superannuation entitlements
• The public holidays you can take off work
• How much notice you must give if you wish to leave
- Anti-discrimination
Anti-discrimination policies deem it unlawful for workplaces to discriminate on the basis of characteristics such as sex and disability. They meet social, esteem and safety needs by ensuring equality, respect and a sense of belonging in the workplace. The Anti-discrimination Act 1977 prohibits intolerance, prejudice and discrimination.
- Grievance procedures
Complaints of discrimination are first resolved within the workplace. When issues cannot be resolved grievance procedures are followed. These procedures detail a step-by-step process for dealing with and resolving problems or issues at the workplace. Employees and employers can approach government institutions such as the NSW Anti-Discrimination Board. These procedures assist socially by resolving conflict and enhancing communication. They foster team work and social interaction between staff to ensure a problem free environment.
- Trade unions and employer organisations
All employees and employers in Australia have the right to form and be a member of a union or employer organisations. While unions are responsible for many achievements there has been a decrease in union membership (a drop of around 40% in February 1999 ABS). This suggests that unions are not valued as highly in meeting the needs of employees. Despite this Unions and employer organisations aim to meet the esteem, social and safety needs of their members.
- Unions have been responsible for annual leave, paid sick leave, maternity leave, equal pay for women and workers compensation
- There has been a 20% drop in membership to unions in the past 20 years.
- Protecting wages and working conditions of most Australian workers
- Trying to defend workers against redundancy and retrenchment
- Obtaining social justice (equality) through improved wages and conditions for workers and families
- Insuring that worker receive entitlements
- Ensuring a safe and healthy workplace and taking further action if needed.
- Workers compensation/ WorkCover
Workers’ compensation and WorkCover ensure protection for those suffering from workplace illness or injury. The workers compensation laws of 2002 mean that help is almost immediate. Assistance may be through payments, counselling, repositioning of the employee to a more appropriate role and adjustment of working conditions. WorkCover can prosecute individuals or companies that fail to meet their workplace responsibilities or defraud the system. Once again this meets worker security and psychological needs.
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